L15

U
CT Saturation
ECE525
Lecture 15
Type T class CTs performance must be determined
from test curves of primary to secondary current at

standard burdens.
Factors influencing the threshold of saturation under
steady state are Zb and Is.
Transformer operation is given by:
substitute e = AB max
Es = 4.44 fNAB max
e = Es / 4.44 fN
where
Es = Is( Zb + Rs)
Decrease Zb or Is (through the turns ratio) will limit

Es and thus e.
Instrument Transformers
U
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CT Saturation
Fall 2004
ECE525
Lecture 15
Steady State Analysis

Saturation by the AC component is avoided by
selecting the proper turns ratio, decreasing the
burden, or choosing the proper CT accuracy class.
Criteria: The product of Is and Zb does not exceed
the saturation or knee point voltage of the CT.
Fall 2004
U
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Procedure
ECE525
Lecture 15
X Determine the secondary current(Ip/n) from the primary

fault current at the desired turns ratio.
X Determine the total secondary burden,
Zt = Zb + Zlead + Zct.
X Calculate the required secondary voltage, Vs = (Ip/n) * Zt.

X Determine the secondary excitation current Ie required for
the value of Vs from the excitation characteristic curve.
X Determine the approximate burden current Is by
subtracting Ie from Ip/n.
X Check the effective ratio with the desired ratio to see if the
performance is within the intended accuracy.
U
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Steady State Example: CT ratio 500:5 C100,

If = 12000 A
Fall 2004
ECE525
Lecture 15
Ip/n = 12000/100 = 120

Zct = 80*.005 = .4
Zlead is 200 feet of full circuit run of #10 Awg,
Zl = e**(.232(10)-2.32)*200/1000 = .2
Relay burden of .15
Zt = .4 + .2 +.15 = .75
Vs = 120 * .75 = 90
Vs of 90 is approximately Ie = 18
Is = 120 - 18 = 102
Effective ratio is 12000/102 = 117.6 or 588.23:5
Fall 2004
U
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Steady-State Analysis
ECE525
Lecture 15
An alternate procedure to check CT performance is to use Ks the

saturation factor and a criteria of Ks = Vk/Vs. Where Vk is the
effective knee point voltage of the CT from the excitation
characteristic curve and Vs is the voltage across the CT
secondary.
X Determine Vk from the excitation characteristic curve and CT
ratio.
X Calculate Vs from (Ip/n)*Zt.
X Determine Ks and check criteria.
U
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DC Saturation
Fall 2004
ECE525
Lecture 15
When a fault occurs the current usually contains a DC component.
The total flux required to produce the offset drives the CT into
saturation.
Flux reaches a saturation during the positive cycle and the exciting
reactance decreases shunting the primary current thus distorting the
secondary.
During the negative cycle of the primary current, the core becomes
unsaturated.
As the DC component decays the negative cycle of the primary
current and flux become greater and the core eventually runs out of
saturation during a complete cycle returning to steady state.
The DC component time constant is the X/R ratio of the primary
circuit.
Fall 2004
U
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DC Saturation Analysis
ECE525
Lecture 15
If saturation is to be avoided the secondary voltage requirement Vs must

be (1 +X/R) times the voltage required for the AC component.
Example: CT 2000:5 C800, with 1500:5 tap, If = 19349 A with a source
impedance of 81 deg.
X Ip/n = 19349/300 = 64.5
X Zct = 300 * .0025 = .75, Zlead = .2, Zb = .15
X Zt = .75 + .2 +.15 = 1.1
X X/R = tan(81) = 6.31
X Vs = (6.311 +1) * 64.5 * 1.1 = 518.9
X Vs of 518.9 is approximately Ie = 20
X Is = 64.5 - 20 = 44.5
X Effective ratio is 19349/44.5 = 434 or 2175:5
Would have done better on full scale
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CT Burden
Fall 2004
ECE525
Lecture 15
Burden is defined as the total impedance of the secondary

circuit. This includes:
CT winding resistance
Resistance of connecting leads from CT to relay including return
Impedance of the connected relays
CT winding resistance
Higher ratio CTs (3000:5) resistance is .0025 Ohms/turn
Lower ratio CTs (300:5) resistance is .005 Ohms/turn
Resistance of leads is based on the AWG gage given by:

/ 1000' = e
.232G2.32
Fall 2004
U
I
CT Burden
ECE525
Lecture 15
Relay Impedance
Microprocessor based relay almost negligible
Electromechanical given in VA @ rated I
Burden is also influenced by CT connection and type

of fault.
Example: Y-connected CTs
X 3Ph fault is balanced, current through the phase relay is
the only burden.
X SLG fault is unbalanced, current must go through the
phase and
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CT Parallel Operation
Fall 2004
ECE525
Lecture 15
Parallel interconnection increases the burden
seen by each individual relay. The increase is

dependent upon the type of connection,
number of transformers, and distribution of
current between transformers.
Parallel interconnection can be used to supply
a high burden when low ratios are required.
In this case the primaries are connected in
series and secondaries in parallel.
10
Fall 2004
U
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Residual Magnetism
(Remanence)
ECE525
Lecture 15
Caused by current interruption and the magnetizing

force becoming zero while the flux density in the core is
operating at a high level. Occurs when:
Direct current is passed through a winding
Application of a high overcurrent interrupted at a peak
magnitude
Effect of residual magnetism is the accuracy of the

secondary when the CT is next energized. How effects:
The flux changes start at the remnant value near saturation
distorting the waveform.
The primary current is required for the excitation reducing the
secondary output and increasing the CT error.
11
U Parameters which Affect

I CT Secondary Current
Fall 2004
ECE525
Lecture 15
CT Ratio
CT Voltage Class
Secondary Burden
Magnitude of Primary Current
Offset Component of Primary Current
Decrement of Offset -- X/R Ratio
12
Fall 2004
U
I
ECE525
EMTP CT Model
Lecture 15
U
I
13
Fall 2004
ECE525
Desired Relay Current
Lecture 15
80
200000
60
150000
40
100000
20
50000
-20
-50000
-40
-100000
-60
-150000
-80
Voltage
Relay Current
C800,2000/5 CT -- 20 kA Fault at 90 Degree Incdence Angle
-200000
0.0
16.7
33.4
50.1
66.8
83.5
100.2 116.9 133.6
Tim e (m s)
14
Fall 2004
U
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Relay Current with

Decaying Offset
ECE525
Lecture 15
C800, 2000/5 CT with 0 Degree Fault Incidence Angle

150
200000
150000
100000
50000
50
0
0
-50000
-100000
-50
-100 0.0
Voltage
Relay Currents
100
-150000
16.7
33.4
50.1
66.8
83.5
100.2
116.9
133.6
-200000
Tim e (m s)
U
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15
Fall 2004
Secondary Current with

Decaying Offset
ECE525
Lecture 15
C800, 2000/5 CT with 0 Degree Fault Incidence Angle

200000
150000
100
100000
50000
50
0
0
-50000
-100000
-50
-100 0.0
Voltage
Secondary Currents
150
-150000
16.7
33.4
50.1
66.8
83.5
100.2
116.9
133.6
-200000
Tim e (m s)
16
Fall 2004
U Secondary Current with DC

I
Offset
ECE525
Lecture 15
Secondary Currents
C800, 2000/5 CT -- 20 kA Fault with no System R

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
0.0
16.7
33.4
50.1
66.8
83.5
100.2
116.9
133.6
Tim e (m s)
17
U Example Oscillogram for

I
High X/R Ratio
18
Fall 2004
ECE525
Lecture 15
Fall 2004
U Example Oscillogram for

I
High X/R Ratio
ECE525
Lecture 15
19
Fall 2004
U Relay Current for High X/R

I
Ratio Source
ECE525
Lecture 15
C800, 6000/5 CT -- Synchronous Condenser Source (High System X/R)

140
120
Relay Current
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
0.0
16.7
33.4
50.1
66.8
83.5
100.2
116.9
133.6
Tim e (m s)
20
Fall 2004
U Relay Currents for a Three

I
Phase Fault
ECE525
Lecture 15
C800, 2000/5 CT -- 20kA Three Phase Fault
Secondary Current
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
0.0
16.7
33.4
50.1
66.8
83.5
100.2
116.9
133.6
Tim e (m s)
21
Fall 2004
U Comparison of Single and

I Three Phase Relay Currents
ECE525
Lecture 15
C800, 2000/5 -- 20 kA Fault 3ph vs. 1ph Current
Relay Currents
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
0.0
16.7
33.4
50.1
66.8
83.5
100.2
116.9
133.6
Tim e (m s)
22
Fall 2004
U
I
Relay Currents with Reduced

Voltage Class and Ratio
ECE525
Lecture 15
C400, 1200/5 CT -- 20 kA Fault at 0 Degrees

150
Relay Current
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
0.0
16.7
33.4
50.1
66.8
83.5
100.2
116.9
133.6
Tim e (m s)
U
I
23
Fall 2004
Relay Currents with Reduced

Voltage Class and Ratio
ECE525
Lecture 15
C400, 1200/5 CT -- 20 kA Fault at 0 Degree Incidence Angle

150
Relay Current
100
50
0
-50
-100
-150
0.0
16.7
33.4
50.1
66.8
83.5
100.2
116.9
133.6
Tim e (m s)
24
Fall 2004
U
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Relay Currents with

Minimum Ratio
ECE525
Lecture 15
C400, 100/5 Ratio -- 20 kA Fault

2000
Relay Current
1500
1000
500
0
-500
-1000
-1500
-2000
-2500 0.0
16.7
33.4
50.1
66.8
83.5
100.2
116.9
133.6
Tim e (m s)
U
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25
Fall 2004
Relay Currents with Increased

Secondary Burden
ECE525
Lecture 15
Relay Current
C800, 2000/5 -- 20 kA with Twice Secondary Brden

80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
0.0
16.7
33.4
50.1
66.8
83.5
100.2
116.9
133.6
Tim e (m s)
26
Fall 2004
U
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Relay Currents with

Paralleled CTs
ECE525
Lecture 15
C800, 2000/5 CT -- 20 kA with Three CT's in Parallel

300
Relay Current
200
100
0
-100
-200
-300 0.0
16.7
33.4
50.1
66.8
83.5
100.2
116.9
133.6
Tim e (m s)
U
I
27
Fall 2004
Secondary Voltage for 100 Ohm

Burden with 5 Amp Load Current
ECE525
Lecture 15
C800, 2000/5 CT -- 100 Ohm Secondary Burden

1500
4000
Secondary Voltage
2000
500
1000
0
-1000
-500
-2000
-1000
-1500
0.0
16.7
33.4
50.1
66.8
83.5
100.2
116.9
133.6
Primary Current
3000
1000
-3000
-4000
Tim e (m s)
28
Fall 2004
U
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Voltage Output for Open

CT
ECE525
Lecture 15
Secondary Voltage
C800, 2000/5 CT -- No Fault Open Secondary

500000
400000
300000
200000
100000
0
-100000
-200000
-300000
-400000
-500000 0.0
16.7
33.4
50.1
66.8
83.5
100.2
116.9
133.6
Tim e (m s)
U
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29
Fall 2004
Remanance
ECE525
(transformer model with hystereris)
Lecture 15
3.0k
2.0k
Primary current
1.0k
0.0
-1.0k
-2.0k
-3.0k
-4.0k
A dvanced Graph Frame
20.0
Isa
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
y
Secondary Current
-5.0
-10.0
-15.0
-20.0
-25.0
0.00
0.10
30
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
Fall 2004
.
.
.
U
I
Remanance
ECE525
(transformer model with hystereris)
Lecture 15
A d v a n c e d G r a p h Fr a me
Flu x X
0 .4 m
0 .3 m
Flux
0 .2 m
0 .1 m
y
0 .0
- 0 .1 m
- 0 .2 m
- 0 .3 m
- 0 .4 m
0 .0 0
0 .1 0
0 .2 0
0 .3 0
0 .4 0
0 .5 0
.
.
.
0.40
0.50
.
.
.
Advanced Graph Frame

Imag
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
Excitation Current
-5.0
-10.0
-15.0
-20.0
0.00
U
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0.10
0.20
0.30
31
Fall 2004
Fault Current-2 burdens
ECE525
Lecture 15
A d v an c ed Gra ph Fr ame
20 .0
Is a
15 .0
Small Burden
10 .0
5.0
0.0
- 5.0
- 10.0
- 15.0
- 20.0
- 25.0
0.0 40
0.0 60
0.080
0.1 00
0.1 20
0.14 0
0.1 60
0.18 0
.
.
.
0.140
0.160
0.180
.
.
.
A dv anc ed Graph Frame

20.0
Larger Burden:
Note one cycle of
10.0
5.0
0.0
y
good current
Is a
15.0
-5.0
-10.0
-15.0
-20.0
-25.0
0.040
0.060
32
0.080
0.100
0.120
Fall 2004
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Voltage Transformers
ECE525
Lecture 15
VT - Voltage Transformer, also know as Potential
Transformer (PT)
CVT - Capacitive Voltage Transformer also know as
CCVT (Capacitive Coupled VT)
BPD - Bushing Potential Device also know as CBD
(Capacitive Bushing Device)
Residual Voltage - Voltage on the secondary after the
primary voltage has been removed
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33
VT Types
Fall 2004
ECE525
Lecture 15
Wire Wound Transformer (WWT)- Traditional
Transformer, primary and a secondary winding with

an iron core
Capacitive Voltage Transformer - Device with
coupling capacitors, wire wound transformer.
Bushing Potential Device - Similar to CVT, capacitive
coupling from tap points in bushing of PCB
34
Fall 2004
U Wire Wound Transformers

I
(WWT)
ECE525
Lecture 15
Not used as a stand alone transformer rated for Line
to Ground voltage.
Wide Operating Range. 5% - 150% to 190% of Rated
Voltage.
Sized for Low Flux Density for this Wide Range.
Expensive, and Large.
Used with coupling capacitors in a CVT.
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35
Fall 2004
Basic Transformer Model
ECE525
Lecture 15
Op
Ip
Np
Oe
Is
Zb
Vs
Ns
Os
36
Fall 2004
U Wire Wound Transformers

I
ECE525
Lecture 15
Ideal Because of Accuracy in

Reproducing Transients on the
Secondary.
Errors
no load Errors, Voltage Drop due to
Exciting Current in Primary
load Errors, Voltage Drop in both
Windings due to High Burden Currents
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37
Capacitive VT Model
Fall 2004
ECE525
Lecture 15
Basic Circuit and Circuit Diagram

L, Inductive Reactance
Tuned to Resonate with Equivalent C at System Frequency.
Prevents Phase Shift.
External or Internal to Wire Wound T.
Protects C2, Saturate if the Secondary of T is Shorted.
Tuning of T ratio using Taps on T or Separate AutoTransformer on Sec. Winding.
38
Fall 2004
U
I
ECE525
CVT Basic Circuit
Lecture 15
Line Voltage
C1
Coupling
Capacitors
L
Compensating Reactor
C2
Step-Down
Transfomer
U
I
Ferro-resonace
Suppression
Circuit
39
Fall 2004
ECE525
CVT Circuit Diagram

Ce
Ri
Rs
Ze
Vi
40
Lecture 15
ZB
Fall 2004
U
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Capacitive VTs (cont)
ECE525
Lecture 15
Typical values of C1 are around 2000 pf.

Accuracy/Errors
Typical Change of Phase Error at Rated Burden (150 VA .85 pf)
30 min/Hz at 145kV
10 min/Hz at 400kV.
Modern Transformers - Smaller Series Reactance, gives 1.5%
and 60 min.
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41
CVT Errors
Fall 2004
ECE525
Lecture 15
At Low System Voltage, the Core Flux and
Permeability are Reduced.

Exciting Impedance Decreases
Intermediate Current and Voltage go up
Causing Mag. and Phase Error.
Standards
Steady State Classifications based on Burden type
No Standard for Transient Response
42
Fall 2004
U
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Ferroresonance
ECE525
Lecture 15
Resulting from:
Primary Reclosing
Variations in Secondary Load (Short Circuits)
DC Voltage Applied to Intermediate Voltage Terminal

Saturates Core of WWT Reducing Exciting Impedance
and Causing Large Inrush Currents.
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43
Ferroresonance (cont)
Fall 2004
ECE525
Lecture 15
When Current Peaks and Starts to Decay, Core
Magnetic Field will Collapse, Charging the Capacitor in

the Opposite Polarity.
3rd Harmonic Voltage Common
Output Voltage Increase of 25% to 50%.
Common in Circuit with Low Losses. Increase the
Resistive Load on the VT.
Aux. VTs Aggravate the Condition.
Ferro-resonance Suppression Circuit
Two types Active and Passive
44
Fall 2004
U
I
Ferro-Resonance
Suppression Circuits
L
Step-Down Transformer
Secondary
Lecture 15
Relay Voltage
Relay Voltage
Step-Down Transformer
Secondary
ECE525
Lf
Rf
Active
U
I
Passive
45
CVTs (cont)
Fall 2004
ECE525
Lecture 15
Active Circuit, No Affect of Fundamental Voltage, Low
Impedance path for Off-Nominal Frequencies,

Attenuates Off-Nominal Frequency Voltages.
Passive Circuit, High Secondary Voltage, Flash Gap
to Loading Resistor, Saturable Inductor will Saturate
to Remove the Oscillations.
46
Fall 2004
U
I
Transient Response
ECE525
Lecture 15
Capacitors and Inductor Impedances , Large
compared to the burden for CVTs. Results in

Oscillations in Secondary when the Primary Voltage
Changes Rapidly.
Residual voltage due to Discharge of Energy
Devices.
Transient Overreach- CVT Transients Reduce
Fundamental Component of Fault Voltage.
Decreases Impedance, Zone 1 Element picks up for
Fault out of Zone of Protection.
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47
Solutions
Fall 2004
ECE525
Lecture 15
Reduce Zone 1 Impedance Reach - Becomes
Ineffective.
Time Delay to Block Tripping During Transient
Time - Close-In Fault Clearing Times.
CVT Transients depends on Point On Wave of the
Fault. Voltage Zero Faults Worse than Voltage
Peaks.
CVT Component Contributions to Transient
Response
Turns Ratio, Higher for Better Isolation Between
Capacitors and Burden.
48
Fall 2004
U
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CVTs (cont)
ECE525
Lecture 15
Coupling Capacitors, High Capacitance CVTs

Decrease Transient Magnitude.
Ferro-resonance Suppression Circuit
Active Circuit acts like a Band-Pass Filter, Extra Time
Delay in Output. Added Energy Storage Devices
Contribute Adversely to the Transient.
Passive Circuit has Little Effect on the Transient.
Output Burden, Parallel Burdens are Worse for Residual
Voltages. Provide Additional Discharge Paths with Little
Resistance for Damping.
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49
Bushing Potential Device
Fall 2004
ECE525
Lecture 15
Model
Same as CVT
Mounts on or Near Circuit Breaker Bushing
Capacitances C1 and C2 Chosen from Tap
Points on Side of Bushing.
50
Fall 2004
U
I
Bushing Potential Device
ECE525
Lecture 15
Accuracy/Errors
Steady State Accuracy's Similar to those in
a CVT
Suggest Having Burden with a pf of 100%
and Load Device to Burden Rating, to
Reduce Transients.
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51
BPD
Fall 2004
ECE525
Lecture 15
Transient Response
Low Capacitance Values Resulting from the
Method Obtained.
Lower C Devices have Worse Transient
Response.
52
Fall 2004
U
I
References
ECE525
Lecture 15
Power System Protection: Principles and
Components, IEE, Peter Perigrinus Ltd.

Capacitive Voltage Transformers: Transient
Overreach Concerns and Solutions for Distance
Relaying, Daqing Hou and Jeff Roberts, 22nd Annual
Western Protective Relay Conference.
Bushing Potential Device: Type PBA2, Westinghouse
I.B 33-357-1B
Bushing Potential Device: Type KA-108, General
Electric GEI-93192F
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53
Transient Response of
CCVTs
Fall 2004
ECE525
Lecture 15
CCVT Transient Response is

Dependent on:
Stack Capacitance
Intermediate Tap Voltage
Secondary Burden
54
Fall 2004
U
I
Example CCVT Data
ECE525
Lecture 15
Trench TEHM345
Total Capacitance 7500 pF
Intermediate Tap Voltage 11 kv
Transient Response < 5 % in 10 ms
Trench TEV345
Total Capacitance 2150 pF
Intermediate Tap Voltage 6 kV
Transient Response < 10 % in 1 cycle
U
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55
Fall 2004
EMTP CCVT Model

Xs
ECE525
Lecture 15
A
C1
Rp
C2
Lcomp
56
Fall 2004
U
I
CCVT Response to 0
Degree Incidence Fault
ECE525
Lecture 15
400000
100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
300000
200000
100000
0
-100000
-200000
Primary Voltage
Secondary Voltage
TEHM and TEV Response to 0 Degree Fault Incedence Angle
-300000
-400000
0.0
16.7
33.4
Tim e (m s)
U
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57
Fall 2004
CCVT Response to 90
ECE525
Lecture 15
Secondary Voltage
TEHM and TEV Response to 90 Incidence Fault

100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
400000
300000
200000
100000
0
-100000
-200000
-300000
-400000
0.0
16.7
33.4
Tim e (m s)
58
Fall 2004
U
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CCVT Response to 90
ECE525
Lecture 15
Secondary Voltage
TEHM and TEV Response to 90 Incidence Fault

100
80
60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
-100
0.0
16.7
Tim e (m s)
U
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59
345 Bus Fault Example

Oscillogram
60
Fall 2004
ECE525
Lecture 15
Fall 2004
U
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Midpoint 345 Bus Fault

Example
ECE525
Lecture 15
TEV Response at Midpoint for Bus Fault

400000
300000
200000
100000
0
-100000
-200000
-300000
-400000
Secondary Voltage
150
100
50
0
-50
-100
0.0
16.7
33.4
50.1
Tim e (m s)
61
Fall 2004

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U

Type T class CTs performance must be determined

from test curves of primary to secondary current at

Decrease Zb or Is (through the turns ratio) will limit

Steady State Analysis

X Determine the secondary current(Ip/n) from the primary

X Calculate the required secondary voltage, Vs = (Ip/n) * Zt.

Steady State Example: CT ratio 500:5 C100,

Ip/n = 12000/100 = 120

An alternate procedure to check CT performance is to use Ks the

When a fault occurs the current usually contains a DC component.

If saturation is to be avoided the secondary voltage requirement Vs must

Burden is defined as the total impedance of the secondary

Resistance of leads is based on the AWG gage given by:

Burden is also influenced by CT connection and type

Parallel interconnection increases the burden

seen by each individual relay. The increase is

Caused by current interruption and the magnetizing

Effect of residual magnetism is the accuracy of the

U Parameters which Affect

Desired Relay Current

C800,2000/5 CT -- 20 kA Fault at 90 Degree Incdence Angle

100.2 116.9 133.6

Relay Current with

C800, 2000/5 CT with 0 Degree Fault Incidence Angle

Secondary Current with

C800, 2000/5 CT with 0 Degree Fault Incidence Angle

U Secondary Current with DC

C800, 2000/5 CT -- 20 kA Fault with no System R

U Example Oscillogram for

U Example Oscillogram for

U Relay Current for High X/R

C800, 6000/5 CT -- Synchronous Condenser Source (High System X/R)

U Relay Currents for a Three

C800, 2000/5 CT -- 20kA Three Phase Fault

U Comparison of Single and

C800, 2000/5 -- 20 kA Fault 3ph vs. 1ph Current

Relay Currents with Reduced

C400, 1200/5 CT -- 20 kA Fault at 0 Degrees

Relay Currents with Reduced

C400, 1200/5 CT -- 20 kA Fault at 0 Degree Incidence Angle

Relay Currents with

C400, 100/5 Ratio -- 20 kA Fault

Relay Currents with Increased

C800, 2000/5 -- 20 kA with Twice Secondary Brden

Relay Currents with

C800, 2000/5 CT -- 20 kA with Three CT's in Parallel

Secondary Voltage for 100 Ohm

C800, 2000/5 CT -- 100 Ohm Secondary Burden

Voltage Output for Open

C800, 2000/5 CT -- No Fault Open Secondary

(transformer model with hystereris)

(transformer model with hystereris)

Advanced Graph Frame

Fault Current-2 burdens

A dv anc ed Graph Frame

VT - Voltage Transformer, also know as Potential

Wire Wound Transformer (WWT)- Traditional

Transformer, primary and a secondary winding with

U Wire Wound Transformers

Not used as a stand alone transformer rated for Line

Basic Transformer Model

U Wire Wound Transformers

Ideal Because of Accuracy in