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Review
of International
Studies
(1995),
21,
331-358
Printed
the resurgence
Explaining
in Great
Britain
of regionalism
in
world politics*
ANDREW
HURRELL
a resurgence
of regionalism
in world politics.
past decade has witnessed
have been revived, new organizations
formed, and
regionalist
organizations
have been central
regionalist arrangements
regionalism and the call for strengthened
to many of the debates about the nature of the post-Cold War international order.1
The
Old
The
Visegrad
Pact
and
the Pentagonale
in central
Europe;
Union
(AMU) and the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in theMiddle East; ECOWAS
and possibly
*
Development
Community
(SADC,
formerly
on material
in Louise Fawcett and Andrew Hurrell
article draws (with permission)
(eds.),
in World Politics
like to thank
(Oxford: OUP,
Regionalism
forthcoming
1995). The author would
Louise Fawcett, Ngaire Woods, William Wallace,
Andrew Wyatt-Walter,
Robert O'Brien
and the
referees for their helpful comments.
journal's
1
are well established.
For many
trends towards regionalism
Dominick
for example,
Salvatore,
analysts
believes
that 'the world has already and probably
into an international
trade
irreversibly moved
order characterized
and World
'Protectionism
Salvatore,
by three major
trading blocs': Dominick
Welfare:
in Salvatore
and World Welfare
Introduction',
CUP,
(ed.), Protectionism
1993),
(Cambridge:
believes
that the demands
of what he calls the 'knowledge
'makes
p. 10. Peter Drucker
economy'
both inevitable and irreversible': Peter F. Drucker,
regionalism
Post-Capitalist
(London:
Society
This
Heinemann,
argues that 'recent rhetoric
1993), p. 137. Aaron
Friedberg
the dominant
trend in world politics
rather than
notwithstanding,
today is towards regionalization
toward fragmentation
rather than unification':
Aaron
L. Friedberg,
globalization,
'Ripe for Rivalry.
for Peace in a Multipolar
International
18, 3 (Winter
Asia',
Prospects
Security,
1993/94), p. 5. See
also W W Rostow,
'The Coming Age of Regionalism',
Encounter,
74, 5 (June 1990); Richard
and the Post-Cold War Era', International
Rosecrance,
Journal, 46 (Summer
1991); and
'Regionalism
Kenichi
'The Rise of the Region
Ohmae,
State', Foreign Affairs
(Spring 1991).
2
For quantitative
in regional organizations
in the 1980s see Paul
data on increased
involvement
Butterworth
Taylor,
Pinter,
Joseph
Brown
in theModern
World. The Regional
and Global
Organization
1993), pp. 24^8.
in Parts: Integration
in Regional
S. Nye, Peace
and Conflict
Organizations
and Co.,
1971).
International
Process
(London:
(Boston:
Little,
331
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332
Andrew Hurrell
led by post-apartheid
South Africa
in Africa),
and by loosely institu
SADCC)
on Security and
tionalized meso-regional
such as the Conference
security groupings
now
more
in
and
the ASEAN
(CSCE,
OSCE)
Europe
recently
Cooperation
In
for
Forum
the
economic
schemes
economic
field,
(ARF).
Regional
micro-regional
or
as
the
Southern
Cone
Common
Market,
Mercosur,
cooperation
integration (such
the Andean Pact, the Central American Common Market
(CACM) and CARICOM
in the Americas;
the attempts to expand economic
and
integration within ASEAN;
of free trade areas throughout
the developing world) stand together
the proliferation
or 'bloc regionalism'
with arguments
for macro-economic
built around the triad
of an expanded
Union
the
North
American
Free Trade Area
(EU),
European
of Asia-Pacific
and some further development
(NAFTA)
regionalism. The relation
between
these
schemes
and
between
regional
regional and broader global
ship
initiatives is central to the politics of contemporary
regionalism.
In addition
to this diversity, there are four other important characteristics
of the
'new regionalism'.4 First, there is the emergence of 'North/South
regionalism', most
but relevant to developments
in both Europe and
illustrated by NAFTA,
powerfully
in the level of institutionalization,
Asia. Second, there is the very wide variation
with
the
institutional
and
bureaucratic
many
consciously
avoiding
regional groupings
structures of traditional
and of the regionalist model
international
organizations
new
A
EU.
third
feature
of
is its multi
the
the
represented
by
regionalism
dimensional
character. The dividing line between economic and political regionalism
ever
is fed both by the end of the
becomes
harder to draw as the new regionalism
or regionalization
of security concerns, and by
Cold War and the decentralization
in the global
and forming part of a broader
economy.
developments
Finally,
of identity and belonging, many parts of the world have
resurgence of questions
even if this
seen a marked
increase in regional awareness or regional consciousness,
translated
into concrete
schemes for
is not always easily or unproblematically
cooperation.
regional
different
article,
then,
The
term
Regionalism
Mercantilism:
'new regionalism'
has been used by several writers
D. Palmer, The New
including Norman
in Asia and the Pacific
'Neo
Books,
1991); and Bj?rn Hettne,
(Lexington:
Lexington
and Conflict,
The Pursuit of Regionness',
28, 3 (September
1993).
Cooperation
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Explaining
regionalism
333
temporary
Varieties
world
politics.
of regionalism
Both
some geographical
from other forms of 'less than global' organization. Without
limits the term 'regionalism' becomes diffuse and unmanageable.
The problem of
a
and
attracted
deal
of
academic
in the
attention
good
defining regions
regionalism
late 1960s and early 1970s, but the results yielded few clear conclusions. Regionalism
was often analyzed
in terms of social cohesiveness
race, language,
(ethnicity,
of a common heritage), economic
cohesive
religion, culture, history, consciousness
ness (trade patterns, economic
and organizational
ideology)
complementarity),
political cohesiveness
(regime type,
cohesiveness
of formal regional
institu
(existence
attention was given to the idea of regional
tions).6 Particular
interdependence.7
little
Nevertheless,
attempts to define and delineate regions 'scientifically' produced
in the growth of
clear result.8 The range of factors
that may be implicated
is very wide and includes economic,
cultural and
social, political,
regionalism
historic dimensions.
debates remind us that there are no 'natural'
Contemporary
5
Most
surveys
and Problems',
on Europe,
'Theoretical
e.g. Carole Webb,
Perspectives
Wallace
and Carole Webb
in the
(eds.), Policy-making
more
2nd edn, 1983); and
(Chichester: Wiley,
European
Community
recently Simon Hix,
'Approaches
to the Study of the EC: The Challenge
to Comparative
Polities', West European Politics,
17, 1
see Clive Archer,
International
1994). For a broader approach
(January
Organizations
(London:
2nd edn, 1992), especially
Routledge,
chapter 3.
6
'International
and the Study of Regions',
Studies
International
See, e.g., Bruce M. Russett,
Regimes
and Steven L. Spiegel
Politics
13, 4 (Dec. 1969); Louis J. Cantori
(eds.), The International
Quarterly,
tend to focus overwhelmingly
in Helen Wallace, William
A Comparative
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
1970); William
of Regions:
(Englewood
Approach
'The Regional
A Conceptual
and a Propositional
Thompson,
Subsystem:
Explication
Inventory',
International
Formations:
Studies Quarterly,
17, 1 (1973); and Raimo V?yrynen,
'Regional Conflict
An Intractable
Problem
of International
Journal of Peace Research,
Relations',
21, 4 (1984).
7
A good example
is Joseph S. Nye
(ed.), International
Regionalism:
(Boston: Little, Brown
Readings
and Co.,
1968).
8
See Bruce Russett,
and the International
International
Regions
System
(Chicago: Rand McNally,
1967).
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334
Andrew Hurrell
to
of 'region' and indicators of 'regionness' vary according
regions, and definitions
the particular problem or question under investigation.9
Moreover
it is how political actors perceive and interpret the idea of a region that
is critical: all regions are socially constructed
and hence politically
contested. This
as description
it especially
between regionalism
and
important to distinguish
as
as
a
or
a
as
to
that
moral
how
doctrine
is,
position
regionalism
prescription,
relations ought to be organized. As with the more general
idea of
international
a
a
sense
states
that
the
of
there
is
often
strong
given region are all
interdependence,
makes
of both
the
Regionalization
refers to the growth of societal integration within a region and to
Regionalization
the often undirected processes of social and economic
interaction. This is what early
as informal
some con
on regionalism
and what
described
writers
integration
temporary analysts refer to as 'soft regionalism'. The term lays particular weight on
autonomous
lead to higher
inter
levels of economic
economic
processes which
area than between that area and the rest of
dependence within a given geographical
the world. Although
seldom unaffected by state policies, the most
important driving
come from markets,
from private trade and
forces for economic
regionalization
of companies. The growth of
investment flows, and from the policies and decisions
and acquisitions,
intra-firm trade, the increasing numbers of international mergers
of strategic alliances between
of increasingly dense networks
and the emergence
For many
firms are of particular
commentators,
importance.
'[T]hese flows are
creating
and
across
inexorable momentum
towards
the further
integration
of economies
within
regions'.10
First,
the processes
involved
in regionalization
are, at least
in principle,
of classifying
of the problems
For a still very relevant discussion
systems see David Grigg,
regional
55 (1965).
'The Logic of Regional
Annals of the Association
of American
Geographers,
Systems',
10
Robert D. Hormats,
Safe', Foreign Affairs
1994), p. 98.
(March/April
'Making Regionalism
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Explaining
regionalism
335
as Deutsch's
to measure
and what
work
measurable,
suggested, what
although,
to infer from the collected
data remain deeply problematic
Second,
questions.
or
nor
on
not
states
of
the
conscious
based
of
is
states,
groups
policy
regionalization
on
states
the
relations
between
the
of
the
does it presuppose
any particular
impact
not
do
with
the
And
of
coincide
third,
patterns
necessarily
regionalization
region.11
markets
and social networks may
lead to increased
borders of states. Migration,
states and
interaction
and interconnectedness
tying together parts of existing
core
new
The
of
such
'transnational
cross-border
regionalism' may
regions.
creating
as in the development
of transborder
industrial
economic
growth
triangles,
or
centres.
networks
industrial
Or it
dense
the
corridors,
increasingly
linking major
can be built around high levels of human interp?n?tration
such as that which now
exists between California
and Mexico.12
be
Regional
awareness
and identity
are inherently
'regional identity' and 'regional consciousness'
are
to
Nevertheless
notions.
they
ignore and, for
imprecise
impossible
ever
more
to
central
the
of con
have
become
commentators,
many
analysis
are
some
to
extent
All
defined
and can
temporary regionalism.
regions
subjectively
in terms of what Emanuel Adler has termed 'cognitive regions'.13 As
be understood
with nations, so regions can be seen as imagined communities which rest on mental
'Regional
awareness',
and fuzzy
maps
supra-state
phenomenon.
com
to a particular
of belonging
the shared perception
awareness,
Regional
can
on
rest
in terms of common
internal factors, often defined
culture,
munity,
It can also be defined against some external
traditions.
'other'
history, religious
in terms of a political
which may be understood
threat (Europe's self
primarily
or Latin American
defined
nationalism
image defined as against the Soviet Union,
or
a
of
cultural challenge (the long tradition by
against the threat of US hegemony),
to the non-European
in opposition
which
and, especially,
'Europe' was defined
more
of an Asian
Islamic world; or,
recently, the revival of notions
identity in
11
Contrast
Bliss's definition
of an economic
of policy,
bloc: '[Yet] coordination
Christopher
rates, is at the heart of the idea'. Christopher
Bliss,
regard to trade or exchange
Economic
Manchester
U.P.,
1994), p. 14.
Theory and Policy for Trading Blocks
(Manchester:
12
see Abraham
For a fascinating
F. Lowenthal
and Katrina
study of this phenomenon
(eds.),
Burgess
The California-Mexico
Connection
Stanford U.P.,
1993).
(Stanford:
13
at 1994 Annual Meeting
Emanuel Adler,
of the
paper presented
'Imagined
(Security) Communities',
New York,
1-4 September
American
Political
1994. See also Anthony
Science Association,
Smith,
whether
with
with
International
'National
Unity',
Identity and the Idea of European
William Wallace,
The Transformation
(London:
of Western Europe
Affairs,
Pinter
68 1 (January
1992) and
for RIIA,
1990), chapter 2.
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336
Andrew Hurrell
Regional
inter-state
cooperation
or political
importance. As Oran Young correctly pointed out: 'Though
even
are social
regimes,
highly decentralized
arrangements,
private-enterprise
not
need
be
their own
institutions,
accompanied
by organizations
they
possessing
so
was
awareness
It
facilities
and
forth.'15
this
that led
personnel,
budgets, physical
move
to
those concerned with international
from
the
away
cooperation
study of
formal organizations
and to focus instead on the broader
of
concept
'regime':
effectiveness
all
involve
may
Regional
cooperation
often be based on a much
looser structure, involving patterns of regular meetings
with some rules attached,
for preparation
and follow-up.
together with mechanisms
Yet precisely how much
institutionalization
is necessary
for effective and sustained
current regionalist
remains a central and contested
issue for many
cooperation
schemes,
the Asia
Pacific
Economic
Cooperation
Forum
(APEC)
being
a good
example.
wide
14
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Explaining
337
regionalism
State-promoted
regional
economic
integration
concerns
of regional cooperation
sub-category
regional economic
involves
decisions
integration
integration. Regional
specific policy
by governments,
designed to reduce or remove barriers to mutual
exchange of goods, services, capital
and people. Such policies have generated an enormous
literature: on the processes of
on
on
it
the
that
and
the objectives
that it might
take,
might
integration,
paths
can
fulfil.18 As Peter Smith points out, regional economic
be
integration
compared
scope (the range of issues included), depth (the extent
along various dimensions:
of policy harmonization),
institutionalization
(the extent of formal institutional
to
and
centralization
which
effective authority
is centralized).19
(the degree
building)
on
to
concentrate
of
tend
the
of
trade barriers
elimination
Early stages
integration
and the formation of a customs union in goods. As integration proceeds the agenda
expands to cover non-tariff barriers, the regulation of markets, and the development
at both
of common
the micro
and macro
levels. Dominated
policies
by the
An
important
European
economic
regional
general
phenomenon.
Regional
cohesion
cohesion
refers to the possibility
of
that, at some point, a combination
Regional
these first four processes might
lead to the emergence of a cohesive and consolidated
that makes regionalism of particular
interest to the
regional unit. It is this cohesion
can
of
senses:
international
relations.
in
two
Cohesion
be
understood
study
(a) when
the region plays a defining role in the relations between the states (and other major
actors) of that region and the rest of the world; and (b) when the region forms the
organizing basis for policy within the region across a range of issues.
17
Although
intention
to reinforce
state power, there may still be an important difference
between
designed
and outcome. The mushrooming
of cooperative
may set in motion
arrangements
changes
that ultimately
tie down states in a process of 'institutional
enmeshment'
that alters the dynamics
of
19
Integration
(Oxford: OUP, 2nd edn, 1993).
Peter H. Smith,
'Introduction?The
Politics
(ed.), The Challenge
p. 5.
of Integration.
Europe
of
and
in Peter H. Smith
and Themes',
Integration:
Concepts
the Americas
Transaction,
(New Brunswick:
1992),
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338
Andrew Hurrell
As we have
dual regional
matters when
economic
states
exclusion
the organizing
and when the region becomes
basis for policy within
the
options),
across
a
of
An
issues.
indicator
of
range
important
important
region
regional
as is increasingly
is the extent to which,
cohesion
the case in Western
Europe,
and regional politics come to shape and define the domestic
regional developments
political
landscape.
to recognize
that there are different paths to regional
It is extremely
important
cohesion. The early theorists of European
integration were obsessed by a particular
a
new
of
of
formation
and by a particular
form
(the
end-goal
political community)
concern
was with
route to that goal (increased economic
the
integration). Their
states
of the role of nation
via the pooling of sovereignty,
transformation
possible
leading to the emergence of some new form of political community.
indeed be the
regional cohesion might be based on various models. One might
of supranational
within
the context
of
creation
regional
organization
gradual
involve the creation of
economic
integration. A second model might
deepening
or regimes.
and institutionally
series of overlapping
strong inter-state arrangements
A third (perhaps visible in the current status of the European Union) might derive
from a complex
and evolving mixture
of traditional
and
intergovernmentalism
Yet
A fourth might
involve the development
of
'con
supranationalism.
emerging
of the kind discussed
constitutional
sociationalist'
arrangements
by Paul Taylor.20
order
Fifthly, regional cohesion might be conceived of in terms of a 'neo-medieval'
in which the principles of territoriality and sovereignty are replaced by a pattern of
identities and authorities,
although just how cohesive this might prove
overlapping
to be is open to doubt.21 Finally,
be based on a strong regional
cohesion might
the
both polices
which, with or without
institutions,
strong regional
hegemon
of states within
its sphere of influence and sets limits on the
foreign policies
range of domestic policy options.
permissible
20
in theModern
International
World, especially
Organization
chapter 4.
21 Taylor,
for example, describes
'in which
the EC as a 'multiperspectival
John Ruggie,
the process
polity'
has gone further than anywhere
else': Territoriality
and beyond:
unbundling
territoriality
in international
International
47, 1 (Winter
relations',
Organization,
modernity
problematizing
was
idea of a 'Grotian moment')
pp. 171-2. The notion of 'neo-medievalism'
(and the parallel
developed
by Hedley
Bull,
The Anarchical
Society
(London:
Macmillan,
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of
1993),
Explaining
Explaining
regionalism
regionalism
339
in world politics
analysis of regionalism
conventionally
begins with those theories that were
to
the
creation
and early evolution
of the European
developed
explain
explicitly
was
This
literature
dominated
liberal
theorists
who
focused on the
Community.
by
on
were likely to
of
character
the
conditions
that
relations,
changing
intra-regional
or
to
movement
hinder
the
towards
economic
promote
regional
integration, and on
on
the relationship
between
economic
the one hand and
deepening
integration
on
the prospects
for peace and political
the other. Yet the strongly
community
The
Eurocentric
character
of
regional
importance
Systemic
of
this work
and,
interdependence,
of domestic factors.
and
second,
those
approaches
which
highlight
the
theories
world
outside
constraints
of
international
the anarchical
of power
system and the importance
and
theories
of
structural
and
second,
political
competition;
interdependence
which
the
character
of
the
international
globalization
emphasize
changing
system
and the impact of economic and technological
change.
On one level, regional cooperation
has often seemed to pose a direct
to
The
of
'islands
of
in what
realism.
peace and cooperation'
appearance
challenge
was commonly viewed as an inherently conflictual world dominated
the
by
struggle
for power was widely seen in the 1950s as an anomaly that realism was incapable of
Indeed much of the early work on regionalism
and regional integration
explaining.
1. Neorealism:
can be seen as an attempt to shed light on this apparent anomaly. Yet, neorealism
can in fact tell us a number of very important things about regionalism.
Both classical realism and its
power politics and mercantilism.
(a) Regionalism,
more recent neorealist variants stress the importance of external configurations
of
22
The
useful distinction
to regionalism
between
'outside-in'
and 'inside-out'
has been
approaches
'ARegion-Building
to Northern
Review
developed
by Iver B. Neumann,
Approach
Europe',
of
International
Sadler (eds.),
Studies,
20, 1 (January
1994). See also Paul Cloke, Chris Philo and David
An Introduction
to Contemporary
Human
Theoretical
Debates
(London: Paul
Approaching
Geography:
Publishers,
1991), pp. 8-13.
Chapman
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
340
Andrew Hurrell
built;
This
cooperation
but
States. Equally,
reducing what he saw as the 'exorbitant privilege' of the United
can
in
relaunch of European
the
1980s
be
interpreted as a response
integration
23
The most
statement
of the structural
realist position
has been Kenneth Waltz,
influential
Theory
International
Politics
1979).
(Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley,
24
The Origins of Alliances
See, in particular,
1987).
(Ithaca: Cornell UP.,
Stephen M. Walt,
25
see John Mearsheimer,
of the realist position
'Back to the Future:
For a strong restatement
15 (Summer
in Europe
after the Cold War',
International
1990).
Organization,
Instability
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the
au
of
Explaining
regionalism
341
in strategically
and to a loss of competitiveness,
especially
(sic)
d?fi japonais
From
this
the
economic objectives
industries.
important high-technology
perspective
of regional integration do not derive from the pursuit of welfare, but from the close
and political
economic wealth
that exists between
power and from
relationship
states' 'inevitable' concern with relative gains and losses.
can therefore be seen as a strategy
Economic
in the game of
regionalism
as a bargaining
It can also be deployed
competition.
chip in the
of
determine
the
the
international
economic
From
order.
that
negotiations
shape
this perspective,
for example, growing US interest in economic
in the
regionalism
was both a response to its declining
mid-1980s
and
loss
of
relative
competitiveness
or
economic power vis-?-vis Europe and Japan, and a negotiating
ploy
bargaining
tool (NAFTA as a 'stick' to increase pressure on Japan to open its markets; APEC
neo-mercantilist
as a means
on
of applying pressure on the EU in the final stages of the negotiations
the Uruguay Round of GATT).
The same neorealist
logic can also be applied to the policies of smaller states
are basically
outside Europe. On this view many regionalist groupings
the natural
states
of
in
the
of
weak
world
the
Thus
much
response
strong.
trapped
regionalist
and
years involved, in essence, schemes for diplomatic
a
to
in
the
international
cooperation
region's position
political
designed
improve
to seal off the
system, either by increasing its bargaining
strength or by attempting
and
the
for
outside
the
reduce
intervention.
revival of
scope
region
Equally,
in
that
of
in
the developing world
the 1980s
many parts
regionalism
gathered pace
followed
The
coalitions.
logically from the erosion of alternative,
cross-regional
erosion of the Third World
coalition on which so many hopes had been pinned in
activity
the
through
developing
solidarity'
Neorealism
combined
countries
of a more
with
a fear
of marginalization
and vulnerability,
pressed
Latin America
and the Middle East towards 'group
limited, regional character.
also brings out the extent to which regional economic
and security
created by relatively weak states remain contingent
upon the policies
arrangements
and attitudes of the major powers. Thus during the Cold War both superpowers
the strength of their res
favoured those regionalist
that reinforced
arrangements
alliance
clients. But where
systems or provided
support for important
pective
1970s,
in Africa,
the sub-continent
Regional
and
Cooperation
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342
Andrew Hurrell
far more
Council
the Contadora
(against Iran), SADCC
(against South Africa),
Cooperation
Mercosur
the
cannot
the
Rio
and
United
be under
Group,
Group
(against
States)
stood except against the background
of their respective regional balances of power
and the policies of the regionally dominant
and/or threatening power.
can
as
an
to restrict the free exercise of
Second,
emerge
attempt
regionalism
the
creation
of
institutions.
power, through
hegemonic
regional
Many would see the
as
within
the
of
the
classic illustration of
Germany
European Community
position
to
this 'regionalist
and
the unavoidable
manage
entrapment',
mitigate
designed
was
If
of
German
preponderance.
European
pressed from outside
integration
impact
by the threat of the Soviet Union on the one side and by the hegemonic
leadership of
as a means
the United
States on the other, it was also explicitly promoted
of
the
German
division
of
the
fears
of
power. Although
managing
Germany mitigated
other Europeans,
it certainly did not remove them. Europe needed German
economic
recovery and German military
power to counter the Soviet
power to fuel post-war
as the
threat. Indeed the specific project of regional
integration arose precisely
means
rearmament and economic
of dealing with this problem: permitting
preferred
into an integrated network
rehabilitation
of
Germany
by tying a semi-sovereign
in both the economic field (EC) and the military
institutions
field (NATO/WEU).
cover
From Germany's
perspective, regionalism has provided the essential multilateral
recover
under which it could first of all re-establish
its position and
its sovereignty
its influence.26 In the Far East, by contrast,
the
and, more
recently, re-establish
of Japanese power was achieved by undermining macro-regionalism
containment
and
bilateral alliances with the USA.
relying instead on extra-regional
the end of the
Although
institutionalized
regionalism
effects of
tially disruptive
international politics of both
On the multiple
Name.
Germany
uses
and
see Timothy
of the idea and institutions
of Europe
the Divided
Continent
(London: Vintage,
1994).
Garton
Ash,
In Europe's
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Explaining
343
regionalism
a rule-constrained
of major US
order in which
acceptance
hegemonic
more
secure
access
to
is
for
the
crucial
US
market
and in which
traded
objectives
of
will
levels
institutionalization
restrict
these states'
relatively high
(hopefully)
to the unilateral exercise of US power. In Asia-Pacific,
vulnerability
by contrast, the
resisted the USA's
far stronger states of the region have successfully
efforts to
as an alternative
formal vehicle for pressing
its foreign economic
promote APEC
a loose regional arrangement
is a way of keeping the
agenda. From their perspective
favours
States
the hegemon,
and when
the small state is in close geographic
or
actual
such a strategy
prompted by
potential vulnerability,
proximity. Although
of material
offers the smaller state the possibility
benefits.
in a
Participation
for
most
coalition
be
the
viable
may,
military
example,
great-power-dominated
means
of acquiring modern
the more
the
weapons
systems. Clearly
prepared
more
dominant power is to accept a rule-constrained
the
order,
accept
hegemonic
able is a strategy of bandwagoning
for the weak states.27
seek to become
the hegemon
itself may
involved actively
in the con
Fourth,
modation
with
of regional institutions.
the logic here is at variance with the
Interestingly
that the emergence
of cooperation
and the creation of international
argument
are linked with hegemonic
at
institutions
almost exclusively
ascendancy.
Looking
struction
theorists of hegemonic
institutions,
non-regional
stability argued that the creation of
institutionalized
very heavily on unequal
power and the
cooperation
depends
is in an extremely dominant
existence of hegemony. Yet, if the hegemon
position,
the very extent of that power may make
institutions
and, in this case, institu
or at best marginal. Declining
tionalized
how
regionalism unnecessary
hegemony,
to
towards the creation of common
institutions
ever, may well press the hegemon
to solve common problems and to generate
pursue its interests, to share burdens,
international
support and legitimacy for its policies. A still marked
inequality but
to the
conducive
particularly
declining overall levels of power may be a combination
to provide
creation of regionalist
the core state is strong enough
arrangements:
effective leadership and, if necessary, coercion, but this is balanced by the perception
ever more necessary.28
that declining power makes cooperation
27
On
in which
states will always be fearful of unequal power,
traditional
realist accounts
will be an exception.
However,
argues, states seek to balance
if, as Stephen Walt
bandwagoning
threats rather than simply power, and if factors such as ideological
and
commonality
a less anomalous
with the hegemon
institutionalization
becomes
play a role, then accommodation
of traditional
logic, see The Origins of Alliances,
policy. For Walt's modification
balance-of-power
1. For a restatement
of the view that states will always balance
especially
chapter
unequal power
Kenneth
28
Waltz,
'The Emerging
Structure
of
International
Polities',
International
Security,
see
18, 2 (Fall
1993).
in relation to the Asia-Pacific
has recently been made
'Does
Crone,
argument
region by Donald
of the Pacific Political
Matter?
World Politics
The Reorganization
45, 4 (July
Hegemony
Economy',
see Andrew
'Latin America
and the New World Order:
Hurrell,
1993). In relation to Latin America
A Regional
Bloc in the Americas?',
International
68, 1 (January
Affairs,
1992).
This
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344
Andrew Hurrell
with
transnationalism
Although
29
and
in Power and Interdependence,
which
Keohane
Thus
largely set the agenda for this scholarship,
which focused
using a conception
of interdependence
Nye
'sought to integrate realism and liberalism
on bargaining'
and Joseph S. Nye, Power and Interdependence,
Robert O. Keohane
(my emphasis).
and Company,
2nd edn, (Glenview:
Scott, Foresman
1989), p. 251.
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Explaining
regionalism
345
'human community'.
The answer
is complex
how do these ideas relate to regionalism?
and
are
a
one
number of ways in which globalization
works
side, there
ambiguous. On
In the first place, increasing
levels of eco
against the emergence of regionalism.
new
nomic interdependence,
global issues (such as environ
together with the rise of
to humanitarian
mental degradation,
disasters), create powerful
refugees, responding
single
But
international
'demand' for non-regionally
institutions designed
based, issue-specific
to solve common
the many new sources of friction to
and to manage
problems
increased concern with
which
gives rise. Indeed it was precisely
interdependence
that transcended any single region that persuaded many
patterns of interdependence
to turn their attention
to a
of those involved in the study of regional integration
broader
stage.31
the Group
they have
of Seven;
represented
transatlantic
and transpacific
to represent)
(and continue
31
See Keohane
Regional
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of
346
Andrew Hurrell
of enforcement
inequality
integration
and redistribution.
may
have
acted
as a
Globalization
and World
Economic
in Fawcett
See Andrew Wyatt-Walter,
Order',
'Regionalization,
in World Politics.
and Hurrell
(eds.), Regionalism
on the NAFTA,
Conference
Mexico
See, for example,
'Papers from the International
City, March
25, 4 (December
1993', Review
1993). For arguments
of Radical Political Economics,
linking
see Stephen Gill,
to 'a crisis of global economic
Global
Politics:
order',
'Restructuring
regionalism
Trilateral
September
Relations
and World
Order
"After"
(York University,
CISS Working
1992).
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Paper,
Explaining
regionalism
347
stimulus to economic
by altering and intensifying patterns of
regionalism
powerful
in technology,
in communications,
in
mercantilist
economic
competition.
Changes
in the growth of global systems of production,
have
the operation of global markets,
have defined the
certainly had a profound
impact on the ways in which governments
two most
and political
important goals of foreign policy?economic
development
the range of acceptable
trade-offs between them. On the one hand,
means
that states are facing powerful pressures
towards the homo
globalization
to
attract
in
of
order
investment
and techno
economic
policies,
foreign
genization
an
ever
more
to
in
linked
and
These
compete
closely
marketplace.
logy
systemically
autonomy?and
driven
towards market
actors. Economic
regionalization
ences of transnational
companies,
is driven
Regionalism
collaboration
and strategic
alliances.34
and interdependence
In contrast to these 'outside-in' approaches which start with the system as a whole,
a second cluster of theories sees a close link between regionalism
and regional (as
34
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348
Andrew Hurrell
as a
to global)
The first two variants view regionalism
interdependence.
opposed
functional
created by regional interdependence,
response by states to the problems
in fostering
and stress the critical role of institutions
and developing
regional
on
in the liberal camp with
their emphasis
cohesion.35 They
stand four-square
welfare
rationality,
view
pluralist
relationship
of
community.
a central,
1. Neofunctionalism:
has played
Neofunctionalism
much
although
of
role
in
the
theories
of
criticized,
development
European
integration.36 Neo
that
and
levels
of
set in
would
functionalists
rising
argued
high
interdependence
an ongoing process of cooperation
to political
motion
that would
lead eventually
institutions were seen as the most
of
effective means
integration.
Supranational
common
with
technical
and
non-controversial
issues,
solving
problems, beginning
but 'spilling over' into the realm of high politics and leading to a redefinition
of
the
around
unit.
group identity
regional
was that integration would become
of neofunctionalism
The central prediction
was
and
the
that of 'spill-over'. There were two
central metaphor
self-sustaining,
sorts of
the process
loyalties,
possess
whereby
expectations,
or demand
Neofunctionalism
actors
in several
and
political
over
jurisdiction
therefore
distinct
national
activities
towards
the pre-existing
are persuaded
to shift
settings
a new centre whose
institutions
national
their
states.38
on the unintended
consequences
35
Most
Studies,
31,4
(December
1993).
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the
A
Explaining
regionalism
349
of previous (and often small) decisions; on the idea of learning how to adapt to new
inter-bureaucratic
of the EC; and on the
situations; on the extensive
penetration
officials to provide leadership. Yet, as the EC developed
in
capacity of supranational
of the theory, criticisms grew:
ways that were often at variance with the predictions
that the theory failed to predict the evolution of the EC; that it underestimated
the
of the nation-state
and of loyalties at the national
level; that it ignored the
great differences between matters of 'low polities', which may be subject to techno
cratic management,
and matters
of 'high politics' that remain essential to national
that
the
it
sovereignty;
ignored
changing role of external factors, political, economic
and security (and also the influence of shifts in the economic cycle); and that it was
resilience
technocratic
and apolitical with
little ability to explain the
overly deterministic,
nature of power-political
states and the
and distributional
conflicts between member
choices between different means of managing
them. Yet the core idea, that enhanced
are essentially
res
inter-state cooperation
and moves
towards formal integration
an
to
increased
and
economic
has
im
social
remained
ponses
interdependence,
in
momentum
the
and
the
renewed
element
of
portant
European debate,
integration
in the late 1980s prompted a reconsideration
of the relevance of the theory.39
its influence on the theory and practice of European
its
Despite
regionalism,
is
relevance to contemporary
elsewhere
rather
less
clear.
In
the
first
regionalism
to say about the ongoing
has always had more
role of
place, neofunctionalism
institutions
than about the factors that explain the birth of regionalist
schemes.
state
its
about
the
role
of
in
to
the
relation
central
Second,
expectations
declining
seem radically at variance with the very heavily statist orientation
institutions
of
neo
most
contrast
to
outside
the
EC.
both
Third,
arrangements
(in
regionalist
neo
liberal
institutionalism
and Deutsch's
of security
concept
community)
as
to
functionalism
views institutions
and is thus difficult
fundamental
relate to the
found in many regionalist
schemes. It is,
relatively low levels of institutionalization
that neo-functionalist
however, possible
insights may become more relevant in the
future as regional cooperation
deepens and regional institutions become more firmly
or the
inMercosur
established. Thus, for example, recent institutional developments
and often highly technical provisions of NAFTA may lead to the kinds
wide-ranging
of social and political
to neofunctionalist
that have been so central
processes
about European
the process
of institutional
thinking
integration:
growth and
sectors; the leading role for technical ?lites and inter
spill-over across different
national bureaucracies;
the institutionalized
structure of
and the extent to which
the complex negotiating
process opens the way for transnational
interest-group
mobilization.
has been the most
in
Neoliberal
institutionalism
institutionalism:
to the recent study of international
fluential
theoretical
approach
cooperation
and represents a highly plausible
and generalizable
the
theory for understanding
2. Neoliberal
39
in the European
A
'Preferences
and Power
See, for example, Andrew Moravcsik,
Community:
Liberal
Journal of Common Market
Studies,
31,4
(December
1993),
Intergovernmentalist
Approach',
and Stanley Hoffman,
'Conclusions:
pp. 474-80; Robert O. Keohane
especially
Community
politics
inWallace
and institutional
change',
(ed.), Dynamics
Integration-, and Jeppe
of European
or Obsolete?
'Neo-functionalism:
Obstinate
A Reappraisal
in the Light of the
Tranholm-Mikkelsen,
New
Dynamism
of
20,
1 (1991).
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Andrew HurrelI
350
are established
such regimes
the contrary,
and collaboration
dilemmas
of coordination
on
Facing
demand
governments
international
institutions
states
by
under
to enable
to achieve
conditions
their
of
to achieve
them
purposes.
interdependence,
their interests
Norms,
common
and
and international.
the domestic
Indeed, this approach empha
gatekeeper between
of common problems strengthens
sizes how the successful collaborative management
institutionalism
has
strand of rationalist
the role of the state. Thus the dominant
to
not
to
but
that
do
retain
neo-realist
argue
they
sought
assumptions
preclude
of power,
The aim is to analyze and isolate the particular constellations
cooperation.
interests and preferences
likely to explain the sources and constraints of cooperative
behaviour.
Third, institutions matter because of the benefits that they provide, and because
of the players and the ways in which states define
of their impact on the calculations
of information,
the pro
their interests. They achieve this through the provision
of
and
the
transaction
of
reduction
motion
costs, the
transparency
monitoring,
use of
and
facilitation
of
the
of
convergent
productive
expectations,
development
to
the
of
attention
is
number
Particular
players; the
paid
strategies.
issue-linkage
extent to which states are involved in an ongoing process of cooperation
(the idea of
or
of the
the
of
the
shadow
and
'iteration'
importance
lengthening
repeated games
to
is
of
mechanisms
effectiveness
and
the
discourage
cheating (it
cheating or
future);
to cooperation
obstacle
rather than, as
the main
that is considered
defection
conflict and concern for relative gains).
neorealists
argue, distributional
on the ways in which
Institutionalist
theories, then, concentrate
strategic inter
in a given area of international
action may lead to the emergence of cooperation
to
trend in the 1970s and 1980s was
relations. As noted earlier, the dominant
apply
40
41
this approach
to non-region-specific
is enormous.
questions
(mainly
in the economic
and
Institutions
for example, Robert O. Keohane,
International
and State
in the World
and Discord
1989); Keohane,
Cooperation
After Hegemony.
and
Princeton
Political Economy
U.P,
1984); David A. Baldwin
(ed.), Neorealism
(Princeton:
Neoliberalism
U.P,
(ed.), Regime Theory and
1993); Volker Rittberger
(New York: Columbia
'International
of Cooperation
International
Relations
(Oxford: OUP,
1993); Helen Milner,
Theory
44 (April 1992).
World Politics,
and Weaknesses',
Strengths
Among Nations:
The
literature
See,
Power
(Boulder: Westview,
Robert
Baldwin
42
Because
After
in
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
role
Explaining
regionalism
351
institu
fields, but with some emphasis on security regimes). However,
to the EC, highlighting
the extent
tionalists have increasingly turned their attention
to which even institutionally
rest on an evolving set
complex regional arrangements
to the
of inter-governmental
between
the
and pointing
states,
bargains
major
national governments
after the early moves
reassertion of the control of European
in the direction
of supranationalism
and the creation or strengthening
of inter
environmental
governmental
practices and institutions.43 The major difficulty with these approaches
is that extensive regionalization
and sustained regional cooperation
may work to
undermine
the monolithic
character of the state, leading to the creation of cross
to multi-level
bureaucratic
and multi-player
alliances,
games, and to
governmental
the formation of new forms of identity both above and below existing territorially
states?all
that are hard to incorporate
into the rational
developments
and state bargaining perspectives
that dominate US institutionalist writing.44
to other examples of regionalism,
institutionalist
seek to
theory would
Applied
defined
choice
in which
of regionalization
and regional economic
processes
identify the ways
and
what
has called
material
Richard
integration create, first,
problems
Cooper
that require collective management;
'international policy externalities'
and, second,
incentives for reducing transaction costs and facilitating
intra-regional
linkages.45 It
is expected
that both
lead to the expansion
of formal or informal
inter-state
cooperative institutions.
in the NAFTA
Mexico
in Asia-Pacific
regionalism
economic
interdependence
recently
The
argued:
of
importance
a particular
partner
in a country's
transactions
to be
is likely
closely
related to the country's investments in linkages with that partner. It is thus not surprising
that
a wide
of regional
initiatives
have
recently
emerged
an analytical
East
Asian
From
generated
by
interdependence.
can be seen as attempts
to reduce
costs
in regional
transaction
and marshal
economic
forces
trade frictions,
regional
against
array
to address
the new
these
perspective,
trade, manage
external
economic
issues
initiatives
intraregional
challenges.46
an institutionalist
the emergence of regional security regimes
perspective,
as
or
the
ASEAN
CSCE
Forum, or the network of confidence
(such
Regional
measures
not be viewed in terms of the balance
in
South
should
America)
building
From
43
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352
Andrew Hurrell
on each new
issue becomes
embedded
complex
whole.
3. Constructivism:
Constructivist
theories focus on regional awareness and regional
on
sense
to a particular
the
shared
of belonging
and
regional community,
identity,
on what has been called 'cognitive regionalism'.
They stress the extent to which
regional cohesion depends on a sustained
trust and high
mutual
responsiveness,
based
on
'cognitive
interdependence'.
There are two main
within
to the processes
in which
ways
language
47
by which
both
interact with
self-images
and discourse
through which
are created
material
changing
these understandings
Political
Science Review,
distinction
between
88, 2 (June 1994). See also Keohane's
rationalist
and reflectivist
'International
Institutions:
in International
Two Approaches',
approaches:
Institutions
and State Power (Boulder: Westview,
1989), chapter 7.
48
For a discussion
of the weaknesses
of Deutsch's
views and the contemporary
relevance of the
see Emanuel Adler
and Michael
'Pluralistic Security
Barnett,
concept of 'security community'
1 (University
Communities:
Past, Present and Future', Working Paper Series on Regional
Security,
of
American
Wisconsin,
1994).
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of
Explaining
353
regionalism
how
that it matters
'where they belong'
Constructivists
take
a more
have
argued
historically
interested
sociological
that states
contingent
than
are not
in the construction
of
identities
and
interests,
to systemic
approach
theory.
or
given but
structurally
exogenously
economic
On
and,
this
constructed
as
basis,
such,
they
by
interactions.49
Domestic-level
theories
49
'Collective
Wendt,
p. 385. As
Identity Formation',
seen as a systemic
of a
perceptions
theory. Whilst
identity, it is constructivism's
analysis of strategic
the regional
relevant for our purposes.
that ismost
50
see Tony Judt, The
For an excellent
Past
example
51
can be
indicates, constructivism
'other' can indeed reinforce regional
and cognitive
within
interdependence
this quotation
non-regional
interaction
is Another
in
and Memory
Country: Myth
Postwar Europe', Daedalus,
121, 4 (Fall 1992).
Ole Waever,
French and Russian',
'Three Competing
International
66, 3
Europes: German,
Affairs,
on European
and Identity', paper for EUPRA
Conference
(1990), and 'Territory, Authority
Identity,
8-10 November
1991.
Florence,
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354
Andrew Hurrell
to political
in the emergence
of security communities.
Neo
decision-making'
on certain
of the 'spill-over' depended
believed
that the dynamics
functionalists
nature of modern
above all the pluralist
domestic
industrialized
prerequisites,
interests on a broader
societies and the particular role played by ?lites in redefining
than national basis. There are three broad ways in which domestic
factors can be
related to contemporary
regionalism.
to the
1. Regionalism
and state coherence: Regionalism
is often seen as an alternative
state or as a means of going 'beyond the nation-state',
and it has been common
(and
too
commentators
and
in
rather
for
academic
enthusiasts
easy)
perhaps
regional
or
to
the
of
the
talk
about
end
of
national
unimportance
Europe
sovereignty
and state
(conveniently
forgetting the overriding
importance of boundaries
most
in
of
Central
the
Balkans
and
Yet
the
of
Europe).
sovereignty
possibilities
are
on
to
and
the
very heavily
integration
likely
depend
regional
cooperation
a truism that
and viability of states and state structures. It is becoming
coherence
not from the
most
of
the
War
world
result
of
the
serious
many
problems
post-Cold
lack of legitimacy between states, but from the still greater lack of legitimacy within
frontiers
In many
the post-colonial
world,
political
instability, civil war,
to undermine
and
environmental
interact
the
degradation
mismanagement
to erode the economic
of state structures,
base and social fabric of
cohesion
a deadly downward
states, and to produce
many weak
spiral leading towards
them.
parts
of
economic
and anarchy.
disintegration
The absence of viable states
state apparatuses
effective
and
the
of
process
mutually
accepted
region-building
to the
if not impossible. These problems already stand as major obstacles
difficult,
in
of
the
Middle
East
and
of
effective
many parts
Africa,
development
regionalism
no
most
that
elaborate
Asia.
It
coincidence
the
of
South
is, therefore,
examples
in
have
occurred
where
ASEAN, Mercosur)
regions
(the EC, NAFTA,
regionalism
state structures remain relatively strong and where the legitimacy of both frontiers
territorial disputes might
and regimes is not widely called into question
(although
over
to the creation of new
to exist). Whilst
time
lead
continue
regionalism may
territorial
regionalist
arrangements
are
constructed.
'The
The literature
is expanding
Small and J. David
very rapidly. But see especially Melvin
Singer,
1 (1976);
The Jerusalem
Journal of International
War Process of Democratic
Relations,
Regimes',
on Violence Within
R. J. Rummel,
and Between Nations',
Journal
'Libertarian
of
Propositions
two
and Foreign Affairs',
29 (1985); Michael W. Doyle,
'Kant, Liberal Legacies,
Conflict Resolution,
and Bruce Russett,
'Normative
and Public Affairs,
12, 3 & 4 (1983); Zeev Maoz
parts, Philosophy
87
of Democratic
American
Political
Science Review,
and Structural
Causes
Peace,
1946-1986',
Peace
the Democratic
Princeton
U.P,
(Princeton:
1993).
(1993); and Bruce Russett,
Grasping
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Explaining
355
regionalism
of liberal states.
about the behaviour
is concerned with general propositions
cross
to
'liberal
zones'
that
would
seek
regions
identify
geographical
Equally, many
area in Deutsch's
classic study, or Daniel Deudney's
and John
(the North Atlantic
across the OECD world, or Anne
cooperation
Ikenberry's picture of continued
work
the
Burley's analysis of the legal dynamics of liberal zones).53 Nevertheless,
unions
is
of
of
existence
clearly
major potential
importance
regional pacific
possible
the dynamics of contemporary
for understanding
Indeed, as Raymond
regionalism.
Marie
Cohen
and political
accountability
legitimacy.
representation,
There are certainly cases where the wave of democratic
transitions
that swept the
in
in the 1980s can be plausibly
revival
world
the
of
implicated
regionalism.
For example, moves
in South America
towards sub-regional
occurred
cooperation
a
shift
from
the
of
and
bureaucratic
away
region-wide
against
background
military
authoritarian
regimes. Yet it is also clear that the relationship between regionalism
is complex. Thus even in cases where democratization
and democracy
did play a
role, its relative weight needs to be assessed with some precision and on the basis of
more detailed studies than have yet been undertaken.
In Latin America,
for example,
in
there are numerous
that have been
other factors
the
revival of
important
which
of
neorealism.
there are
many
support
cooperation,
sub-regional
Equally,
53
et al., Political
in the North Atlantic Area (Princeton:
Princeton
U.P.,
Community
'The Logic of the West', World Policy Journal,
and G. John Ikenberry,
10, 4
1957); Daniel Deudney
'Law among Liberal States: Liberal
Internationalism
and the
1993/94); Anne-Marie
(Winter
Burley,
92 (December
Act of State Doctrine',
Columbia Law Review,
1992).
54
A Reappraisal
of the theory that "Democracies
'Pacific Unions:
do not go toWar
Cohen,
Raymond
55
K. W. Deutsch
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
in
and
356
Andrew Hurrell
in which democracy
has
important
examples of contemporary
regionalism
role: the creation of NAFTA
is one; another is the
clearly not played a facilitating
in which
of cooperation
within ASEAN,
intensification
increased regional
inter
in
both
the
and
action and institutional
economic
has
security
spheres
deepening
can be considered demo
member
occurred despite the fact that only one ASEAN
other
theories: Convergence
and especially
regional
theories
understand
social arrangements.
social welfare and corporatist
therefore
Integration
emerged from the pursuit of quite narrowly focused national policies and parochial
not weaken
rather than internationalist
visions, and could result in strengthening,
in the
ing, the role of the state.57 Similarly, the revival of integrationist momentum
can be seen in terms of the convergence
of national
economic
mid-1980s
policy
liberalization
and deregulation.58
centred around economic
preferences,
been an important factor in the
has undoubtedly
Domestic
policy convergence
shift in the developing world
the widespread
resurgence of regionalism,
especially
and export expansion.
towards market-liberal
policies that stress trade liberalization
a vehicle for the external
in some cases, regional
Moreover,
integration becomes
economics,
of market-liberal
for example,
the importance
of
reinforcement
policies. Thus,
NAFTA
for Mexico
did not rest on trade liberalization
(much of which had already
that the treaty would
lock Mexico
taken place) but on the expectation
into a
particular
set of market-liberal
domestic
economic
policies,
insulating
its economic
56
in societal
factors may still have played an important
role: changes
In both cases, however,
domestic
of shared
towards the United
States in the case of Mexico;
increased awareness
values and attitudes
in the case of ASEAN.
and political
values
social, economic
57
unless this neo-mercantilism
'domestic policy was not in the end sustainable
As Alan Milward
writes,
The European
Rescue
could be guaranteed
(London:
of the Nation-State
by its Europeanization'.
58
1992), p.
Routledge,
See Hix, Approaches
134.
to the Study
of
the EC,
pp. 7-8.
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Explaining
reforms
political
the vagaries of
power of those groups
from
regionalism
the Mexican
system and
political
that have benefited from reform.
cementing
357
the
Conclusion
are deeply
argued that debates over the revival of regionalism
the broader theoretical debates
that have dominated
international
is to be gained by exposing and exploring
the nature of
relations, and that much
It has also argued that the theories of regional integration
these connections.
that
have dominated
the analysis of the EC provide only a partial and incomplete guide
This
article
connected
has
with
to understanding
It has analyzed three separate clusters
contemporary
regionalism.
on
of theories
three levels of analysis: the systemic, the regional and the domestic.
relations more generally, a great deal hangs on how
Yet, again as in international
are
to
to
be related
each other. There are three broad strategies.59
these levels
In the first place, the theorist can claim that primacy should be given to one level
of analysis. Neorealists,
for example, argue for the primacy of the international
system. Their claim is not that systemic or structural theory can explain
political
everything, but that, as Kenneth Waltz argues, it explains a small number of big and
important things.60 Other theories can be left to fill in the rest of the picture, to
explain 'residual variance'. Similarly, institutionalist
theory focuses on intra-regional
the importance
of both domestic-level
factors and the
downplaying
context. Much
is to be gained from such bold claims to primacy,
particularly when theory is used to map the political
landscape, to raise important
schemes, and to illuminate historical develop
questions about individual regionalist
ments. But there are two difficulties. First, it is far from clear that even the main
can be plausibly
lines of any historical
understood
example of regionalism
by
interactions,
geopolitical
argues,
focusing on a single level of analysis. And second, as Andrew Moravscik
are
in
about
other
levels
of
often
and
analysis
assumptions
smuggled
surreptitiously
to explain anomalies
in the theory.61
then modified
A second path is therefore to explore the nature of the interaction between
the
we
see
con
at
in
different
that
work
Thus
logics
contemporary
regionalism.
structivism provides a theoretically
rich and promising way of conceptualizing
the
interaction between material
and interests of the actors
59
incentives,
(although
see R. B. J.Walker,
:
of the 'levels of analysis' problem
Inside/outside
as Political
CUP,
Theory
1993), especially pp. 130-40; and
(Cambridge:
Andrew Moravscik,
'Introduction.
International
and Domestic
of International
Theories
Integrating
in Peter B. Evans, Harold K. Jacobsen
and Robert D. Putnam
(eds.), Double-edged
Bargaining',
of California
Press, 1993).
Diplomacy
(Berkeley: University
60
'A Response
to my Critics',
in Robert O. Keohane
See Kenneth Waltz,
and Its
(ed.), Neorealism
Critics
(New York: Columbia,
1986), p. 329.
61
is Stephen Walt's modification
of neorealist
Moravscik,
'Introduction',
pp. 6-17. A good example
For relevant
International
discussions
Relations
perceived
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358
Andrew Hurrell
and empirical
are in
Liberal
theorists
sophistication
application).
ideas about inter-state cooperation
with
seeking to link institutionalist
rooted theories of preference
formation.62 And finally much greater
domestically
attention
needs to be given to the tradition of dependency
and radical political
economy which has long stressed the need to unpack the 'state' and to examine the
changing domestic political coalitions and 'state-society
complexes' on which many
new
come
to
of
the
have
examples
regionalism
rely.
one can adopt a phased or 'stage-theory'
to understanding
Thirdly,
approach
conceptual
creasingly
somewhat unsatisfying,
it is historically
often
regionalism. Although
theoretically
it
be
that
the
of
very plausible. Thus,
might
argued
early phases
regional co
a
common
the
be
of
the
existence
of
result
enemy or powerful
operation may
but
been
thrown
different
power;
that, having
hegemonic
together,
logics begin to
or
or
the
functionalist
stressed
develop:
logic
problem-solving
by institutionalists,
the logic of community
Thus, neorealists may be
by the constructivists.
highlighted
to
stress
the
of
the
context
in the early stages of
importance
right
geopolitical
and
to
in
the
which both
informal
yet wrong
European
unity,
degree
ignoring
and
successful
institutionalization
the
altered
of
integration
dynamics
European
international
relations over the ensuing forty years. This kind of 'staged' approach
our understanding
has a great deal to offer in sharpening
of the moves
towards
case
in
economic
the
of the evolving pattern of cooperation
of NAFTA,
integration
or of the growth of sub-regional
within ASEAN,
in South America.
cooperation
62
For
an
important
move
in this direction
see Moravscik,
'Preferences
and Power'.
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