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Explaining the Resurgence of Regionalism in World Politics

Author(s): Andrew Hurrell


Source: Review of International Studies, Vol. 21, No. 4 (Oct., 1995), pp. 331-358
Published by: Cambridge University Press
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Review

of International

Studies

(1995),

21,

331-358

Printed

the resurgence

Explaining

in Great

Britain

of regionalism

in

world politics*
ANDREW

HURRELL

a resurgence
of regionalism
in world politics.
past decade has witnessed
have been revived, new organizations
formed, and
regionalist
organizations
have been central
regionalist arrangements
regionalism and the call for strengthened
to many of the debates about the nature of the post-Cold War international order.1

The
Old

The

and diversity of regionalist


schemes have grown significantly
in
wave'
the
1960s.2
towards the end of this
'regionalist
Writing
earlier regionalist wave, Joseph Nye could point to two major classes of regionalist
activity: on the one hand, micro-economic
involving formal economic
organizations
and
characterized
formal
institutional
and on the other,
structures;
by
integration
concerned
with
conflict.3 Today,
political organizations
controlling
macro-regional
in the political field, regional dinosaurs
such as the Organization
of African Unity
of American
States (OAS) have re-emerged. They have
(OAU) and the Organization
been joined both by a large number of aspiring micro-regional
bodies (such as the
number,
scope
since the last major

Visegrad

Pact

and

the Pentagonale

in central

Europe;

the Arab Maghreb

Union

(AMU) and the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) in theMiddle East; ECOWAS

and possibly
*

a revived Southern African

Development

Community

(SADC,

formerly

on material
in Louise Fawcett and Andrew Hurrell
article draws (with permission)
(eds.),
in World Politics
like to thank
(Oxford: OUP,
Regionalism
forthcoming
1995). The author would
Louise Fawcett, Ngaire Woods, William Wallace,
Andrew Wyatt-Walter,
Robert O'Brien
and the
referees for their helpful comments.
journal's
1
are well established.
For many
trends towards regionalism
Dominick
for example,
Salvatore,
analysts
believes
that 'the world has already and probably
into an international
trade
irreversibly moved
order characterized
and World
'Protectionism
Salvatore,
by three major
trading blocs': Dominick
Welfare:
in Salvatore
and World Welfare
Introduction',
CUP,
(ed.), Protectionism
1993),
(Cambridge:
believes
that the demands
of what he calls the 'knowledge
'makes
p. 10. Peter Drucker
economy'
both inevitable and irreversible': Peter F. Drucker,
regionalism
Post-Capitalist
(London:
Society
This

Heinemann,
argues that 'recent rhetoric
1993), p. 137. Aaron
Friedberg
the dominant
trend in world politics
rather than
notwithstanding,
today is towards regionalization
toward fragmentation
rather than unification':
Aaron
L. Friedberg,
globalization,
'Ripe for Rivalry.
for Peace in a Multipolar
International
18, 3 (Winter
Asia',
Prospects
Security,
1993/94), p. 5. See
also W W Rostow,
'The Coming Age of Regionalism',
Encounter,
74, 5 (June 1990); Richard
and the Post-Cold War Era', International
Rosecrance,
Journal, 46 (Summer
1991); and
'Regionalism
Kenichi
'The Rise of the Region
Ohmae,
State', Foreign Affairs
(Spring 1991).
2
For quantitative
in regional organizations
in the 1980s see Paul
data on increased
involvement
Butterworth

Taylor,
Pinter,
Joseph
Brown

in theModern
World. The Regional
and Global
Organization
1993), pp. 24^8.
in Parts: Integration
in Regional
S. Nye, Peace
and Conflict
Organizations
and Co.,
1971).
International

Process

(London:

(Boston:

Little,

331

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332

Andrew Hurrell

led by post-apartheid
South Africa
in Africa),
and by loosely institu
SADCC)
on Security and
tionalized meso-regional
such as the Conference
security groupings
now
more
in
and
the ASEAN
(CSCE,
OSCE)
Europe
recently
Cooperation
In
for
Forum
the
economic
schemes
economic
field,
(ARF).
Regional
micro-regional
or
as
the
Southern
Cone
Common
Market,
Mercosur,
cooperation
integration (such
the Andean Pact, the Central American Common Market
(CACM) and CARICOM
in the Americas;
the attempts to expand economic
and
integration within ASEAN;
of free trade areas throughout
the developing world) stand together
the proliferation
or 'bloc regionalism'
with arguments
for macro-economic
built around the triad
of an expanded
Union
the
North
American
Free Trade Area
(EU),
European
of Asia-Pacific
and some further development
(NAFTA)
regionalism. The relation
between
these
schemes
and
between
regional
regional and broader global
ship
initiatives is central to the politics of contemporary
regionalism.
In addition
to this diversity, there are four other important characteristics
of the
'new regionalism'.4 First, there is the emergence of 'North/South
regionalism', most
but relevant to developments
in both Europe and
illustrated by NAFTA,
powerfully
in the level of institutionalization,
Asia. Second, there is the very wide variation
with
the
institutional
and
bureaucratic
many
consciously
avoiding
regional groupings
structures of traditional
and of the regionalist model
international
organizations
new
A
EU.
third
feature
of
is its multi
the
the
represented
by
regionalism
dimensional
character. The dividing line between economic and political regionalism
ever
is fed both by the end of the
becomes
harder to draw as the new regionalism
or regionalization
of security concerns, and by
Cold War and the decentralization
in the global
and forming part of a broader
economy.
developments
Finally,
of identity and belonging, many parts of the world have
resurgence of questions
even if this
seen a marked
increase in regional awareness or regional consciousness,
translated
into concrete
schemes for
is not always easily or unproblematically
cooperation.

regional

two very basic questions. First, what do we mean when we


This article addresses
talk of regionalism and what are the principal varieties of regionalism? And second,
to explain the
theoretical
that may be deployed
what are the major
approaches
dynamics of regionalism? Theory, of course, is not everything. But it is central to the
and categories
around which
the analysis of
creation of the definitions,
concepts
to the surface assumptions
is necessarily
it brings
that
conducted;
regionalism
in purely descriptive or historical work on region
remain explicit and unquestioned
of the main explanatory
variables and causal
alism; it sharpens our understanding
a coherent
framework
for systematically
and it provides
mechanisms;
comparing
in different parts of the world. The purpose of this
of regionalism
or perspectives
on the
is to open up a series of theoretical approaches
to
that
of
and
the
close
connections
exist
contemporary
regionalism
highlight
study
and
the
theoretical
between the analysis of contemporary
debates
regionalism
major
in the academic
literature on
relations. The theoretical
study of international
forms

different
article,

then,

is vast, but it is also uneven and fragmented. Moreover,


leaving aside the
regionalism
amount
of
theoretical
debates
about
the
the
theoretical or
EU,
explicitly
ongoing
4

The

term

Regionalism
Mercantilism:

'new regionalism'
has been used by several writers
D. Palmer, The New
including Norman
in Asia and the Pacific
'Neo
Books,
1991); and Bj?rn Hettne,
(Lexington:
Lexington
and Conflict,
The Pursuit of Regionness',
28, 3 (September
1993).
Cooperation

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Explaining

regionalism

333

since the late 1980s has been


work on the resurgence of regionalism
conceptual
relatively modest.5 The enormous amount of attention given to the generic question
and neorealists
of cooperation
institutionalists
stands in marked
by neoliberal
contrast
to their apparent
lack of interest in explanations
of actually
existing
some of the
outside Europe. This article draws together
regional
cooperation
literature. It does not claim to present a new
principal elements of the theoretical
nor
to
of
the
it does
any one school of thought, although
press
synthesis,
strengths
that neorealism
is by no means down and out and that the link between
and
is worthy of greater development.
Rather, it tries to give
regionalism
hegemony
an idea of what the theoretical
to
looks
like
and
landscape
provide a framework
for understanding
and assessing
the proliferation
of regionalist
schemes
in con
suggest

temporary

Varieties

world

politics.

of regionalism

terms. The terrain is contested and


'region' and 'regionalism' are ambiguous
the debate on definitions
has produced
little consensus. Although
geographical
in themselves
tell us very little about either the definitions
proximity and contiguity
of regions or the dynamics of regionalism,
they do helpfully distinguish
regionalism

Both

some geographical
from other forms of 'less than global' organization. Without
limits the term 'regionalism' becomes diffuse and unmanageable.
The problem of
a
and
attracted
deal
of
academic
in the
attention
good
defining regions
regionalism
late 1960s and early 1970s, but the results yielded few clear conclusions. Regionalism
was often analyzed
in terms of social cohesiveness
race, language,
(ethnicity,
of a common heritage), economic
cohesive
religion, culture, history, consciousness
ness (trade patterns, economic
and organizational
ideology)

complementarity),
political cohesiveness
(regime type,
cohesiveness
of formal regional
institu
(existence
attention was given to the idea of regional
tions).6 Particular
interdependence.7
little
Nevertheless,
attempts to define and delineate regions 'scientifically' produced
in the growth of
clear result.8 The range of factors
that may be implicated
is very wide and includes economic,
cultural and
social, political,
regionalism
historic dimensions.
debates remind us that there are no 'natural'
Contemporary
5
Most
surveys
and Problems',

on Europe,
'Theoretical
e.g. Carole Webb,
Perspectives
Wallace
and Carole Webb
in the
(eds.), Policy-making
more
2nd edn, 1983); and
(Chichester: Wiley,
European
Community
recently Simon Hix,
'Approaches
to the Study of the EC: The Challenge
to Comparative
Polities', West European Politics,
17, 1
see Clive Archer,
International
1994). For a broader approach
(January
Organizations
(London:
2nd edn, 1992), especially
Routledge,
chapter 3.
6
'International
and the Study of Regions',
Studies
International
See, e.g., Bruce M. Russett,
Regimes
and Steven L. Spiegel
Politics
13, 4 (Dec. 1969); Louis J. Cantori
(eds.), The International
Quarterly,
tend to focus overwhelmingly
in Helen Wallace, William

A Comparative
Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall,
1970); William
of Regions:
(Englewood
Approach
'The Regional
A Conceptual
and a Propositional
Thompson,
Subsystem:
Explication
Inventory',
International
Formations:
Studies Quarterly,
17, 1 (1973); and Raimo V?yrynen,
'Regional Conflict
An Intractable
Problem
of International
Journal of Peace Research,
Relations',
21, 4 (1984).
7
A good example
is Joseph S. Nye
(ed.), International
Regionalism:
(Boston: Little, Brown
Readings
and Co.,
1968).
8
See Bruce Russett,
and the International
International
Regions
System
(Chicago: Rand McNally,
1967).

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334

Andrew Hurrell

to
of 'region' and indicators of 'regionness' vary according
regions, and definitions
the particular problem or question under investigation.9
Moreover
it is how political actors perceive and interpret the idea of a region that
is critical: all regions are socially constructed
and hence politically
contested. This
as description
it especially
between regionalism
and
important to distinguish
as
as
a
or
a
as
to
that
moral
how
doctrine
is,
position
regionalism
prescription,
relations ought to be organized. As with the more general
idea of
international
a
a
sense
states
that
the
of
there
is
often
strong
given region are all
interdependence,

makes

in the same regional boat, ecologically,


that they are not
strategically, economically;
or
either
stated
that
implied,
they should put aside
pulling together, but,
explicitly
In much of the political and
national egoisms and devise new forms of cooperation.
that regionalism
academic debate, then, there is a strong implication
is a naturally
good thing.
Even a cursory glance at recent debates suggests that the broad term 'regionalism'
Indeed rather than try and work
is used to cover a variety of distinct phenomena.
it
is
with a single, very broad overarching
concept,
helpful to break up the notion of
are
five
These
different
distinct although
into
categories.
analytically
'regionalism'
the ways in which
theory and practice

they can be related to each other


of contemporary
regionalism.

lie at the heart

of both

the

Regionalization
refers to the growth of societal integration within a region and to
Regionalization
the often undirected processes of social and economic
interaction. This is what early
as informal
some con
on regionalism
and what
described
writers
integration
temporary analysts refer to as 'soft regionalism'. The term lays particular weight on
autonomous
lead to higher
inter
levels of economic
economic
processes which
area than between that area and the rest of
dependence within a given geographical
the world. Although
seldom unaffected by state policies, the most
important driving
come from markets,
from private trade and
forces for economic
regionalization
of companies. The growth of
investment flows, and from the policies and decisions
and acquisitions,
intra-firm trade, the increasing numbers of international mergers
of strategic alliances between
of increasingly dense networks
and the emergence
For many
firms are of particular
commentators,
importance.
'[T]hese flows are
creating
and

across

inexorable momentum

towards

the further

integration

of economies

within

regions'.10

can also involve increasing flows of people,


the development
of
Regionalization
and
social
networks
which
attitudes
channels
ideas,
complex
by
multiple
political
and the creation of a
and ways of thinking
spread from one area to another,
is therefore often conceptualized
transnational
regional civil society. Regionalization
should be
in terms of 'complexes',
'flows', 'networks' or 'mosaics'. Three points
stressed.

First,

the processes

involved

in regionalization

are, at least

in principle,

of classifying
of the problems
For a still very relevant discussion
systems see David Grigg,
regional
55 (1965).
'The Logic of Regional
Annals of the Association
of American
Geographers,
Systems',
10
Robert D. Hormats,
Safe', Foreign Affairs
1994), p. 98.
(March/April
'Making Regionalism

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Explaining

regionalism

335

as Deutsch's
to measure
and what
work
measurable,
suggested, what
although,
to infer from the collected
data remain deeply problematic
Second,
questions.
or
nor
on
not
states
of
the
conscious
based
of
is
states,
groups
policy
regionalization
on
states
the
relations
between
the
of
the
does it presuppose
any particular
impact
not
do
with
the
And
of
coincide
third,
patterns
necessarily
regionalization
region.11
markets
and social networks may
lead to increased
borders of states. Migration,
states and
interaction
and interconnectedness
tying together parts of existing
core
new
The
of
such
'transnational
cross-border
regionalism' may
regions.
creating
as in the development
of transborder
industrial
economic
growth
triangles,
or
centres.
networks
industrial
Or it
dense
the
corridors,
increasingly
linking major
can be built around high levels of human interp?n?tration
such as that which now
exists between California
and Mexico.12

be

Regional

awareness

and identity

are inherently
'regional identity' and 'regional consciousness'
are
to
Nevertheless
notions.
they
ignore and, for
imprecise
impossible
ever
more
to
central
the
of con
have
become
commentators,
many
analysis
are
some
to
extent
All
defined
and can
temporary regionalism.
regions
subjectively
in terms of what Emanuel Adler has termed 'cognitive regions'.13 As
be understood
with nations, so regions can be seen as imagined communities which rest on mental
'Regional

awareness',
and fuzzy

some features whilst


of
whose
lines highlight
ignoring others. Discussions
on
on
awareness
the discourse of
lay great emphasis
language and rhetoric;
regional
and regional identity
and the political processes by which regionalism
regionalism
are constantly
and redefined;
and on shared understandings
and the
defined
given to political activity by the actors involved. As the case of Europe
meanings
makes clear, the resurgence of questions of regional identity is both a sub-state and

maps

supra-state

phenomenon.

com
to a particular
of belonging
the shared perception
awareness,
Regional
can
on
rest
in terms of common
internal factors, often defined
culture,
munity,
It can also be defined against some external
traditions.
'other'
history, religious
in terms of a political
which may be understood
threat (Europe's self
primarily
or Latin American
defined
nationalism
image defined as against the Soviet Union,
or
a
of
cultural challenge (the long tradition by
against the threat of US hegemony),
to the non-European
in opposition
which
and, especially,
'Europe' was defined
more
of an Asian
Islamic world; or,
recently, the revival of notions
identity in

11
Contrast

Bliss's definition
of an economic
of policy,
bloc: '[Yet] coordination
Christopher
rates, is at the heart of the idea'. Christopher
Bliss,
regard to trade or exchange
Economic
Manchester
U.P.,
1994), p. 14.
Theory and Policy for Trading Blocks
(Manchester:
12
see Abraham
For a fascinating
F. Lowenthal
and Katrina
study of this phenomenon
(eds.),
Burgess
The California-Mexico
Connection
Stanford U.P.,
1993).
(Stanford:
13
at 1994 Annual Meeting
Emanuel Adler,
of the
paper presented
'Imagined
(Security) Communities',
New York,
1-4 September
American
Political
1994. See also Anthony
Science Association,
Smith,
whether

with

with

International
'National
Unity',
Identity and the Idea of European
William Wallace,
The Transformation
(London:
of Western Europe

Affairs,
Pinter

68 1 (January
1992) and
for RIIA,
1990), chapter 2.

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336

Andrew Hurrell

concerns with the 'idea' of Europe,


to the 'West').14 Although
contradistinction
the
or Asia are indeed striking features of the 'new' regionalism,
are
Americas
they
framed by historically deep-rooted
arguments about the definition of the region and
the values and purposes
that it represents?although,
again as with nationalism,
there is a good deal of historical
and invented tradition.
rediscovery, myth-making

Regional

inter-state

cooperation

involves the negotiation


and construction
of
great deal of regionalist
activity
or
can
inter-state or inter-governmental
Such
be
agreements
regimes.
cooperation
are no guarantee of either
formal or informal, and high levels of institutionalization

or political
importance. As Oran Young correctly pointed out: 'Though
even
are social
regimes,
highly decentralized
arrangements,
private-enterprise
not
need
be
their own
institutions,
accompanied
by organizations
they
possessing
so
was
awareness
It
facilities
and
forth.'15
this
that led
personnel,
budgets, physical
move
to
those concerned with international
from
the
away
cooperation
study of
formal organizations
and to focus instead on the broader
of
concept
'regime':
effectiveness

all

'explicit or implicit principles, norms,


which actors' expectations
converge

rules and decision-making


around
procedures
in a given area of international
relations'.16
the creation of formal institutions,
but it can

involve
may
Regional
cooperation
often be based on a much
looser structure, involving patterns of regular meetings
with some rules attached,
for preparation
and follow-up.
together with mechanisms
Yet precisely how much
institutionalization
is necessary
for effective and sustained
current regionalist
remains a central and contested
issue for many
cooperation
schemes,

the Asia

Pacific

Economic

Cooperation

Forum

(APEC)

being

a good

example.

can serve a wide variety of purposes. On the one


Such cooperative
arrangements
can
serve
as
a
means
to external challenges
of responding
and of
hand,
they
or negotiating
in international
institutions
forums.
coordinating
regional positions
common
to secure welfare gains, to promote
On the other, they can be developed
or
common
to
values
solve
problems,
especially problems
arising from increased
In the security field, for example,
levels of regional
such co
interdependence.
can
a
of
range from the stabilization
operation
regional balance of power, to the
to the negotiation
institutionalization
of confidence-building
of a region
measures,
some brands of regional integration,
such cooperative
security regime. Unlike
are very clearly statist, designed to protect and enhance the role of the
arrangements
state and the power of the government.
They involve a reassertion and extension of

wide

14

an example of these perspectives


see Iver B. Neumann
and Jennifer Welsh,
'The other in
an addendum
to the literature on international
self-definition:
European
society', Review
of
International
17, 4 (October
Studies,
1991).
15
Oran Young,
International
Resources
and the Environment
Cooperation.
Building Regimes for Natural
(Ithaca: Cornell U.P.,
1989), p. 25.
16
as Intervening
'Structural Causes
and Regime Consequences:
Stephen D. Krasner,
Regimes
in Krasner
Variables',
(ed.), International
Regimes
(Ithaca: Cornell U.R,
1983), p. 1.
For

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Explaining

337

regionalism

state authority as part of a process by which states are increasingly willing


to trade
a degree of legal freedom of action for a greater degree of practical
influence over
of common problems.17
the policies of other states and over the management

State-promoted

regional

economic

integration

concerns
of regional cooperation
sub-category
regional economic
involves
decisions
integration
integration. Regional
specific policy
by governments,
designed to reduce or remove barriers to mutual
exchange of goods, services, capital
and people. Such policies have generated an enormous
literature: on the processes of
on
on
it
the
that
and
the objectives
that it might
take,
might
integration,
paths
can
fulfil.18 As Peter Smith points out, regional economic
be
integration
compared
scope (the range of issues included), depth (the extent
along various dimensions:
of policy harmonization),
institutionalization
(the extent of formal institutional
to
and
centralization
which
effective authority
is centralized).19
(the degree
building)
on
to
concentrate
of
tend
the
of
trade barriers
elimination
Early stages
integration
and the formation of a customs union in goods. As integration proceeds the agenda
expands to cover non-tariff barriers, the regulation of markets, and the development
at both
of common
the micro
and macro
levels. Dominated
policies
by the

An

important

European
economic

is all too often


regionalism
simply equated with
even
one
this
is
aspect of a more
integration,
though
only
'model',

regional
general

phenomenon.

Regional

cohesion

cohesion
refers to the possibility
of
that, at some point, a combination
Regional
these first four processes might
lead to the emergence of a cohesive and consolidated
that makes regionalism of particular
interest to the
regional unit. It is this cohesion
can
of
senses:
international
relations.
in
two
Cohesion
be
understood
study
(a) when
the region plays a defining role in the relations between the states (and other major
actors) of that region and the rest of the world; and (b) when the region forms the
organizing basis for policy within the region across a range of issues.
17
Although
intention

to reinforce
state power, there may still be an important difference
between
designed
and outcome. The mushrooming
of cooperative
may set in motion
arrangements
changes
that ultimately
tie down states in a process of 'institutional
enmeshment'
that alters the dynamics

of

See Mark W. Zacher,


'The Decaying
Pillars of the Westphalian
politics.
Temple:
in James N. Rosenau
for Order and Governance',
and Ernst-Otto
Implications
Czempiel
(eds.),
Governance
without Government:
in World Politics
Order and Change
CUP,
1992).
(Cambridge:
18
One of the most
is Bela Balassa,
The Theory of Economic
classic works
important
Integration
and Unwin,
(London: Allen
1961). For an up-to-date
analysis of the evolving process of European
see Loukas Tsoukalis,
The New European Economy.
The Politics
and Economics
integration
of
regional

19

Integration
(Oxford: OUP, 2nd edn, 1993).
Peter H. Smith,
'Introduction?The
Politics
(ed.), The Challenge
p. 5.

of Integration.

Europe

of
and

in Peter H. Smith
and Themes',
Integration:
Concepts
the Americas
Transaction,
(New Brunswick:
1992),

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338

Andrew Hurrell

As we have

is often defined in terms of patterns or networks of


seen, regionalism
But
political
interdependence.
significance derives not from some absolute measure
of interdependence,
but from the extent to which
that interdependence
(and the
or
on im
costs
of
its
actual
possibility
disruption)
imposes significant potential
actors.
For
to
those
outside
the
is
portant
region, regionalism
politically
significant
the extent that it can impose costs on outsiders, whether
the
detrimental
through
arrangements
(so-called malign
impact of preferential
regional economic
region
alism that diverts trade and investment) or through causing a shift in the distribution
of political power. It is also politically
significant when outsiders
(again including
are
to define their policies
forced
towards indivi
both states and non-state
actors)
terms. For those inside the region, regionalism
in regionalist
from regional arrangements
imposes significant costs, both
or
a reduction
as
and political
loss
of
in foreign policy
autonomy
(such

dual regional
matters when
economic

states

exclusion

the organizing
and when the region becomes
basis for policy within
the
options),
across
a
of
An
issues.
indicator
of
range
important
important
region
regional
as is increasingly
is the extent to which,
cohesion
the case in Western
Europe,
and regional politics come to shape and define the domestic
regional developments
political
landscape.
to recognize
that there are different paths to regional
It is extremely
important
cohesion. The early theorists of European
integration were obsessed by a particular
a
new
of
of
formation
and by a particular
form
(the
end-goal
political community)
concern
was with
route to that goal (increased economic
the
integration). Their
states
of the role of nation
via the pooling of sovereignty,
transformation
possible
leading to the emergence of some new form of political community.
indeed be the
regional cohesion might be based on various models. One might
of supranational
within
the context
of
creation
regional
organization
gradual
involve the creation of
economic
integration. A second model might
deepening
or regimes.
and institutionally
series of overlapping
strong inter-state arrangements
A third (perhaps visible in the current status of the European Union) might derive
from a complex
and evolving mixture
of traditional
and
intergovernmentalism
Yet

A fourth might
involve the development
of
'con
supranationalism.
emerging
of the kind discussed
constitutional
sociationalist'
arrangements
by Paul Taylor.20
order
Fifthly, regional cohesion might be conceived of in terms of a 'neo-medieval'
in which the principles of territoriality and sovereignty are replaced by a pattern of
identities and authorities,
although just how cohesive this might prove
overlapping
to be is open to doubt.21 Finally,
be based on a strong regional
cohesion might
the
both polices
which, with or without
institutions,
strong regional
hegemon
of states within
its sphere of influence and sets limits on the
foreign policies
range of domestic policy options.
permissible

20
in theModern
International
World, especially
Organization
chapter 4.
21 Taylor,
for example, describes
'in which
the EC as a 'multiperspectival
John Ruggie,
the process
polity'
has gone further than anywhere
else': Territoriality
and beyond:
unbundling
territoriality
in international
International
47, 1 (Winter
relations',
Organization,
modernity
problematizing
was
idea of a 'Grotian moment')
pp. 171-2. The notion of 'neo-medievalism'
(and the parallel
developed

by Hedley

Bull,

The Anarchical

Society

(London:

Macmillan,

1977), pp. 264-76.

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of
1993),

Explaining
Explaining

regionalism

regionalism

339

in world politics

analysis of regionalism
conventionally
begins with those theories that were
to
the
creation
and early evolution
of the European
developed
explain
explicitly
was
This
literature
dominated
liberal
theorists
who
focused on the
Community.
by
on
were likely to
of
character
the
conditions
that
relations,
changing
intra-regional
or
to
movement
hinder
the
towards
economic
promote
regional
integration, and on
on
the relationship
between
economic
the one hand and
deepening
integration
on
the prospects
for peace and political
the other. Yet the strongly
community

The

concern with processes


its dominant
of
an
economic
alternative focus. In order to escape
suggest the need for
integration
from the theoretical shadow of the European Community,
this section will start with
the relevance of systemic theories to the analysis of contemporary
and
regionalism,
on to consider,
then move
which
focus on the impact
first, those approaches

Eurocentric

character

of

regional
importance

Systemic

of

this work

and,
interdependence,
of domestic factors.

and

second,

those

approaches

which

highlight

the

theories

there can be no wholly


self-contained
regions, immune from
theories
underline
the
pressures. Systemic
importance of the broader poli
structures within which regionalist
tical and economic
schemes are embedded and
on the region.22 Two sets of systemic or
the impact of outside pressures working
structural theories are especially significant: first, neorealist
theory that stresses the
In the modern

world

outside

constraints

of

international
the anarchical
of power
system and the importance
and
theories
of
structural
and
second,
political
competition;
interdependence
which
the
character
of
the
international
globalization
emphasize
changing
system
and the impact of economic and technological
change.
On one level, regional cooperation
has often seemed to pose a direct
to
The
of
'islands
of
in what
realism.
peace and cooperation'
appearance
challenge
was commonly viewed as an inherently conflictual world dominated
the
by
struggle
for power was widely seen in the 1950s as an anomaly that realism was incapable of
Indeed much of the early work on regionalism
and regional integration
explaining.
1. Neorealism:

can be seen as an attempt to shed light on this apparent anomaly. Yet, neorealism
can in fact tell us a number of very important things about regionalism.
Both classical realism and its
power politics and mercantilism.
(a) Regionalism,
more recent neorealist variants stress the importance of external configurations
of
22

The

useful distinction
to regionalism
between
'outside-in'
and 'inside-out'
has been
approaches
'ARegion-Building
to Northern
Review
developed
by Iver B. Neumann,
Approach
Europe',
of
International
Sadler (eds.),
Studies,
20, 1 (January
1994). See also Paul Cloke, Chris Philo and David
An Introduction
to Contemporary
Human
Theoretical
Debates
(London: Paul
Approaching
Geography:
Publishers,
1991), pp. 8-13.
Chapman

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340

Andrew Hurrell

and the constraining


role of the
power, the dynamics of power-political
competition,
as a whole.23 For the neorealist,
the politics
international political
system considered
in common
of regionalism
and the emergence of regionalist alignments have much
is understood
with the politics of alliance formation.24 Regionalism
by looking at the
in
of
from
outside
and
the
the
the
by analyzing
place
region in the broader
region
to
in
form
external challenges
international
response
system. Regional
groupings
and there is no essential difference between economic and political regionalism.
for example, the fundamental
of such a view emphasize,
Proponents
importance
framework within which the moves
towards European
of the geopolitical
integration
it easier to understand
took place.25 The ending of the Cold War makes
the extent to
in the 1940s and early 1950s from war and
which the dramatic
shift within Europe
to
then to the promotion
and
of regional integra
regional cooperation
competition
circumstances:
the erosion and
tion depended on a very particular set of geopolitical
then collapse of the colonial empires on which the power of Britain and France had
the immense physical destruction
and psychological
exhaustion
of the
a
of
from
civil
the
threat
the
war;
perception
burgeoning
thirty-year European
in the scale of power and the
the long-predicted
transformation
Soviet Union;
emergence of a new class of superpowers
(with which the traditional nation states of
western Europe acting alone could no longer hope to compete); and the powerful
been

built;

States to move towards greater regional cooperation.


pressure from the United
US
For the neorealist,
hegemony was especially
important. Neorealists
highlight
was
to
which
and
the degree
encouragement
spurred by direct US
integration
to Marshall
attached
Aid
for example,
the conditions
pressure,
leading to the
of the OEEC
for European
Economic
and
formation
Cooperation)
(Organization
to press
of Washington
(EPU); or the determination
European
Payments Union
of West Germany
the start of the Korean
ahead with the rearmament
following
of German
War, thus forcing Europe to find a way of living with the rehabilitation
was
power. They also stress the extent to which European
integration?which
a
in reality sub-regional
embedded within
transatlantic
security
integration?was
meant
difficult
tasks of politico-military
that the immensely
of security
and security could be left to one side. The acceptance
on which European
was therefore one of the essential compromises
dependence
it vital to examine
the
and integration was built, a fact that makes
cooperation
and security issues in other parts of the world.
relationship between economics
and on the
Neorealism
focuses
both on power-political
attention
pressures
This suggests to the neorealist
that
economic
competition.
dynamics of mercantilist
framework.

This

cooperation

to influence the path of European


pressures have continued
integration,
to do with mercantilist
economic
that these have had ever more
rivalry. Thus
to European
(albeit in
already in the 1960s de Gaulle gave great weight
cooperation
of countering
le d?fi am?ricain and
the form of a Europe des patries) as a means
'outside-in'

but

States. Equally,
reducing what he saw as the 'exorbitant privilege' of the United
can
in
relaunch of European
the
1980s
be
interpreted as a response
integration
23

The most

statement
of the structural
realist position
has been Kenneth Waltz,
influential
Theory
International
Politics
1979).
(Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley,
24
The Origins of Alliances
See, in particular,
1987).
(Ithaca: Cornell UP.,
Stephen M. Walt,
25
see John Mearsheimer,
of the realist position
'Back to the Future:
For a strong restatement
15 (Summer
in Europe
after the Cold War',
International
1990).
Organization,
Instability

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the
au

of

Explaining

regionalism

341

in strategically
and to a loss of competitiveness,
especially
(sic)
d?fi japonais
From
this
the
economic objectives
industries.
important high-technology
perspective
of regional integration do not derive from the pursuit of welfare, but from the close
and political
economic wealth
that exists between
power and from
relationship
states' 'inevitable' concern with relative gains and losses.
can therefore be seen as a strategy
Economic
in the game of
regionalism
as a bargaining
It can also be deployed
competition.
chip in the
of
determine
the
the
international
economic
From
order.
that
negotiations
shape
this perspective,
for example, growing US interest in economic
in the
regionalism
was both a response to its declining
mid-1980s
and
loss
of
relative
competitiveness
or
economic power vis-?-vis Europe and Japan, and a negotiating
ploy
bargaining
tool (NAFTA as a 'stick' to increase pressure on Japan to open its markets; APEC
neo-mercantilist

as a means

on
of applying pressure on the EU in the final stages of the negotiations
the Uruguay Round of GATT).
The same neorealist
logic can also be applied to the policies of smaller states
are basically
outside Europe. On this view many regionalist groupings
the natural
states
of
in
the
of
weak
world
the
Thus
much
response
strong.
trapped
regionalist
and
years involved, in essence, schemes for diplomatic
a
to
in
the
international
cooperation
region's position
political
designed
improve
to seal off the
system, either by increasing its bargaining
strength or by attempting
and
the
for
outside
the
reduce
intervention.
revival of
scope
region
Equally,
in
that
of
in
the developing world
the 1980s
many parts
regionalism
gathered pace
followed
The
coalitions.
logically from the erosion of alternative,
cross-regional
erosion of the Third World
coalition on which so many hopes had been pinned in
activity

the

through

the Cold War

developing
solidarity'
Neorealism

combined
countries
of a more

with

a fear

of marginalization
and vulnerability,
pressed
Latin America
and the Middle East towards 'group
limited, regional character.
also brings out the extent to which regional economic
and security
created by relatively weak states remain contingent
upon the policies
arrangements
and attitudes of the major powers. Thus during the Cold War both superpowers
the strength of their res
favoured those regionalist
that reinforced
arrangements
alliance
clients. But where
systems or provided
support for important
pective
1970s,

in Africa,

interests it was firmly opposed,


as, for
regionalism went against their geopolitical
to sub-regional
in Latin America
in the
example, with US opposition
cooperation
for 'zones of peace' or nuclear-free
zones;
early 1950s, and to numerous proposals
and the Soviet ambivalence
towards European
much has
regionalism.
Although
changed as a result of the end of the Cold War, the neorealist would expect this
for example,
the success of sub-regional
will be
pattern to continue:
cooperation
or of the
upon the policies either of major powers acting unilaterally,
contingent
groupings which those powers will naturally come to dominate.
a vast amount of effort has been expended
in analyzing
(b) Hegemony.
Although
the general relationship
between hegemony
and cooperation,
links between hege
remain under-theorized.
mony and regionalism
Clearly the existence of a powerful
a
to construct
undermine
within
efforts
inclusive regional
may
hegemon
region
or
a
most
states
all
the
in
of
within
India's
arrangements
involving
region.
position
macro-regional

the sub-continent
Regional

and

Cooperation

the chequered history of the South Asian Association


for
a
But
illustration.
the
(SAARC) provides
powerful
picture is

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342

Andrew Hurrell

far more

than this. There are at least four ways in which


interesting and complex
stimulus to regionalism
and to the creation of
may act as a powerful
institutions.
regionalist
often develop as a response to the existence of an
First, sub-regional
groupings
actual or potential
power. Thus in many parts of the world there is a
hegemonic
to form as a means of improving the balance of
tendency for sub-regional groupings
or threatening
state. Although
varied in scope
power vis-?-vis a locally dominant
more
and
and character, ASEAN
the Gulf
Vietnam,
(against
recently China),
hegemony

Council
the Contadora
(against Iran), SADCC
(against South Africa),
Cooperation
Mercosur
the
cannot
the
Rio
and
United
be under
Group,
Group
(against
States)
stood except against the background
of their respective regional balances of power
and the policies of the regionally dominant
and/or threatening power.
can
as
an
to restrict the free exercise of
Second,
emerge
attempt
regionalism
the
creation
of
institutions.
power, through
hegemonic
regional
Many would see the
as
within
the
of
the
classic illustration of
Germany
European Community
position
to
this 'regionalist
and
the unavoidable
manage
entrapment',
mitigate
designed
was
If
of
German
preponderance.
European
pressed from outside
integration
impact
by the threat of the Soviet Union on the one side and by the hegemonic
leadership of
as a means
the United
States on the other, it was also explicitly promoted
of
the
German
division
of
the
fears
of
power. Although
managing
Germany mitigated
other Europeans,
it certainly did not remove them. Europe needed German
economic
recovery and German military
power to counter the Soviet
power to fuel post-war
as the
threat. Indeed the specific project of regional
integration arose precisely
means
rearmament and economic
of dealing with this problem: permitting
preferred
into an integrated network
rehabilitation
of
Germany
by tying a semi-sovereign
in both the economic field (EC) and the military
institutions
field (NATO/WEU).
cover
From Germany's
perspective, regionalism has provided the essential multilateral
recover
under which it could first of all re-establish
its position and
its sovereignty
its influence.26 In the Far East, by contrast,
the
and, more
recently, re-establish
of Japanese power was achieved by undermining macro-regionalism
containment
and
bilateral alliances with the USA.
relying instead on extra-regional
the end of the
Although
institutionalized
regionalism
effects of
tially disruptive
international politics of both

Cold War has altered the context,


the idea of using
as a means
of tying down or constraining
the poten
remains an important
in the
factor
power
unequal
In addition,
the relationship
Europe and Asia-Pacific.
between
institutions
and unequal power can serve as a plausible
starting point for
in the character of regionalism
in different parts of the
theorizing about variation
world. Consider,
the relatively highly
for example,
the contrast between
institu
on the one hand, and the loose character of APEC
tionalized structures of NAFTA
on the other. In both cases the United
States has had a clear set of economic
that it was only partially able to promote
objectives
(the inclusion
through GATT
within
'trade regimes' of rules on investment,
services and intellectual property
states of South America,
and the relatively weak
outright
rights). For Mexico
and
The
balance
of incentives
would
be
therefore
dangerous
opposition
costly.
26

On the multiple
Name.
Germany

uses
and

see Timothy
of the idea and institutions
of Europe
the Divided
Continent
(London: Vintage,
1994).

Garton

Ash,

In Europe's

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Explaining

343

regionalism

a rule-constrained
of major US
order in which
acceptance
hegemonic
more
secure
access
to
is
for
the
crucial
US
market
and in which
traded
objectives
of
will
levels
institutionalization
restrict
these states'
relatively high
(hopefully)
to the unilateral exercise of US power. In Asia-Pacific,
vulnerability
by contrast, the
resisted the USA's
far stronger states of the region have successfully
efforts to
as an alternative
formal vehicle for pressing
its foreign economic
promote APEC
a loose regional arrangement
is a way of keeping the
agenda. From their perspective
favours

at the same time


in the security of the region, whilst
involved
to
its
economic
its
press
agenda.
restricting
ability
is often closely linked to a third possibility,
This kind of behaviour
namely the
to
states
of
weaker
seek
accommodation
with
the
local
tendency
hegemon
regional
in the realist jargon).
in the hope of receiving
special rewards ('bandwagoning'
is most
Neorealist
theory predicts that this kind of behaviour
likely when power
are very great, when
to accom
differentials
there are few external alternatives
United

States

the hegemon,
and when
the small state is in close geographic
or
actual
such a strategy
prompted by
potential vulnerability,
proximity. Although
of material
offers the smaller state the possibility
benefits.
in a
Participation
for
most
coalition
be
the
viable
may,
military
example,
great-power-dominated
means
of acquiring modern
the more
the
weapons
systems. Clearly
prepared
more
dominant power is to accept a rule-constrained
the
order,
accept
hegemonic
able is a strategy of bandwagoning
for the weak states.27
seek to become
the hegemon
itself may
involved actively
in the con
Fourth,

modation

with

of regional institutions.
the logic here is at variance with the
Interestingly
that the emergence
of cooperation
and the creation of international
argument
are linked with hegemonic
at
institutions
almost exclusively
ascendancy.
Looking
struction

theorists of hegemonic
institutions,
non-regional
stability argued that the creation of
institutionalized
very heavily on unequal
power and the
cooperation
depends
is in an extremely dominant
existence of hegemony. Yet, if the hegemon
position,
the very extent of that power may make
institutions
and, in this case, institu
or at best marginal. Declining
tionalized
how
regionalism unnecessary
hegemony,
to
towards the creation of common
institutions
ever, may well press the hegemon
to solve common problems and to generate
pursue its interests, to share burdens,
international
support and legitimacy for its policies. A still marked
inequality but
to the
conducive
particularly
declining overall levels of power may be a combination
to provide
creation of regionalist
the core state is strong enough
arrangements:
effective leadership and, if necessary, coercion, but this is balanced by the perception
ever more necessary.28
that declining power makes cooperation
27

On

in which
states will always be fearful of unequal power,
traditional
realist accounts
will be an exception.
However,
argues, states seek to balance
if, as Stephen Walt
bandwagoning
threats rather than simply power, and if factors such as ideological
and
commonality
a less anomalous
with the hegemon
institutionalization
becomes
play a role, then accommodation
of traditional
logic, see The Origins of Alliances,
policy. For Walt's modification
balance-of-power
1. For a restatement
of the view that states will always balance
especially
chapter
unequal power

Kenneth
28

Waltz,

'The Emerging

Structure

of

International

Polities',

International

Security,

see

18, 2 (Fall

1993).
in relation to the Asia-Pacific
has recently been made
'Does
Crone,
argument
region by Donald
of the Pacific Political
Matter?
World Politics
The Reorganization
45, 4 (July
Hegemony
Economy',
see Andrew
'Latin America
and the New World Order:
Hurrell,
1993). In relation to Latin America
A Regional
Bloc in the Americas?',
International
68, 1 (January
Affairs,
1992).

This

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344

Andrew Hurrell

or regional economic integra


Neorealism,
then, has little interest in regionalization
to be ultimately determined
tion, believing so called 'autonomous market processes'
of major
system and the policies
by the structures of the international
political
states. Regional cohesion is indeed possible, but as the result either of the power of a
of material
interests and incentives.
regional hegemon or of a sustained convergence
is given to the notion of regional awareness. Within
its own limits,
Little weight
a
us
to
has
deal
tell
both
the
neorealist
about
of
still
theory
good
importance
and about
the importance
of hegemony.
'outside-in' pressures
It is helpful
in
structure
in
the
which
external
constraints
and
the
of
the
inter
ways
unravelling
national system shape the regionalist options of all states, but especially of relatively
the logic of strategic interaction when the
weak states. It is also good at explaining
nature
actors
the
of
their
interests is known and well understood.
of
the
and
identity
once
little
about
the
character
of regional cooperation
Neorealism,
however, says
and the ways in which the habits of sustained cooperation may involve
structures very different
from the traditional
idea of a coalition,
institutional
or
The
traditional
international
of such institutions
alliance,
workings
organization.
new
a
new
to
to
of
and
definition
of
lead
self-interest,
may
perhaps
conceptions
established

also says very little about the impact of domestic


factors. It talks
'self. Neorealism
a great deal about states as self-interested
actors competing
in an anarchical world,
or
but leaves the identity of the 'self and the nature of the interests unexplained,
are
if
there
limitations regarding both domestic
factors
simply assumed. Moreover,
on the
there are also major difficulties
and the workings
of regional institutions,
we
now
turn.
to
these that
external side, and it is
One of the most
and globalization:
consistent
and
interdependence
of the international
telling criticisms of neorealism has been its mischaracterization
but neorealism
system. On this view systemic factors are extremely
important,
account of the nature of the system and one that
provides a grossly oversimplified
neglects the ways in which the competitive dynamics of the system change over time.
In particular,
its picture of the international
system misses out entirely the ways in
and the consequent
and economic
which both the nature of political
competition
definition
of state interests are affected by changes in the global economic
system.
of this kind grew out of the work in the 1970s on interdependence
and
Criticisms
such as Joseph Nye, Robert Keohane
and
associated with writers
modernization
Edward Morse. Yet the structural or systemic focus of this work became blurred
shifted to the links between
(and all too often disappeared
entirely) as attention
and to the nature and role of regimes for
and state power,
interdependence
within a specific issue area;29 and as the initial concern
interdependence
managing
2. Structural

actors was replaced by a strongly state-centric


and non-state
on
the
focus
issue-specific
regimes is undoubtedly
perspective.
significant,
as a systemic or
it is also extremely important to revive the idea of interdependence
and to set contemporary
structural phenomenon
against what many see
regionalism
as powerful
trends towards ever-deeper
and
interdependence
globalization.

with

transnationalism

Although

29

and
in Power and Interdependence,
which
Keohane
Thus
largely set the agenda for this scholarship,
which focused
using a conception
of interdependence
Nye
'sought to integrate realism and liberalism
on bargaining'
and Joseph S. Nye, Power and Interdependence,
Robert O. Keohane
(my emphasis).
and Company,
2nd edn, (Glenview:
Scott, Foresman
1989), p. 251.

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Explaining

regionalism

345

has become an important theme of the post-Cold War discussion


'Globalization'
of the nature of international
order. Although
rarely tied to any very clearly
a very powerful metaphor
for the sense that a
articulated
theory, it has become
increased interconnection
and
number of universal processes are at work generating
common
states and between
societies. The increasingly
between
interdependence
the
image is of a global flood of money, people, images, values, ideas overflowing
old system of national barriers that sought to preserve state autonomy. The result is
are becoming
that traditional
that territorial boundaries
important,
decreasingly
are
undermined
and
that
of
individual
being
sovereignty
regions
understandings
are well captured
must be viewed within a broader global context. Such perspectives
as the 'borderless world' or the 'end of geography'.30
by such catch-phrases
rest on some com
in favour of globalization
Most
contemporary
arguments
a dramatic increase in
bination of the following arguments. First, we are witnessing
techno
the 'density' and 'depth' of economic
Second, information
interdependence.
an
are
in
revolution
critical
role
and
the
information
playing
diffusing
especially
logy
create the material
these developments
and ideas. Third,
knowledge,
technology
of societal interdependence.
for the strengthening
infrastructure
This, together with
influence of market
facilitates
increased
the integrating and homogenizing
forces,
and ideas, and increases the ability of like-minded
of values, knowledge
across
to
national
civil society
boundaries,
groups
creating a transnational
organize
communities
and
transnational
that includes both transnational
social move
policy
ments. Fourth,
of
and growing consciousness
this is leading to an unprecedented
a
as
to
environmental
and
of
(such
global
change)
belonging
'global problems'
flows

'human community'.
The answer
is complex
how do these ideas relate to regionalism?
and
are
a
one
number of ways in which globalization
works
side, there
ambiguous. On
In the first place, increasing
levels of eco
against the emergence of regionalism.
new
nomic interdependence,
global issues (such as environ
together with the rise of
to humanitarian
mental degradation,
disasters), create powerful
refugees, responding
single
But

international
'demand' for non-regionally
institutions designed
based, issue-specific
to solve common
the many new sources of friction to
and to manage
problems
increased concern with
which
gives rise. Indeed it was precisely
interdependence
that transcended any single region that persuaded many
patterns of interdependence
to turn their attention
to a
of those involved in the study of regional integration
broader

stage.31

and the growth of political,


Second, the expansion of economic
interdependence
across the OECD world has created powerful
economic
and security cooperation
elements of 'Western' rather than specifically
these
regional cohesion. Although
structures have been diffuse
the
institutional
institutions;
(the Bretton Woods
OECD;
together
30

the Group
they have

of Seven;
represented

transatlantic

and transpacific
to represent)

(and continue

security systems), taken


an important constraint

31

The End of Geography


Global Financial
O'Brien,
(London: Pinter for RIIA,
Integration:
The Borderless World
Fontana,
Ohmae,
1991). For a healthy dose of
1992); Kenichi
(London:
see Robert Wade,
Economic
of
and Its Limits: The Continuing
'Globalization
Importance
scepticism
or Diversity? National
in Suzanne Berger and Ronald Dore
Nations
and Regions',
(eds.), Convergence
in a Global Economy
Models
and Distribution
(Ithaca: Cornell U.R,
of Production
forthcoming).
Richard

and Nye, Power and Interdependence,


pp. 247-51;
Institute of International
Integration
Theory
(Berkeley:

See Keohane
Regional

and Ernst Haas, The Obsolescence


Studies,
1975).

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

of

346

Andrew Hurrell

on the growth of coherent


the balance between
the
Third,
regional groupings.
of economic
and regionalization
activity is a complex one. Although
globalization
towards regionalization,
there has been some shift in the balance
there is much
are
in
the
data
and
there
forces,
powerful
integrative
ambiguity
especially when
in
and in global
trends in trade are placed alongside
finance
developments
global
structures involving state/firm alliances that cut across regions.32
production
there are also a number of ways in which globalization
Nevertheless
may act as a
In the first place, ever-deepening
stimulus to regionalism.
integration creates prob
lems which demand collective management
and, more
specifically, particular forms
and regulation
that bite ever more deeply into the domestic affairs
of management
to the extent
of states. This is a stimulus to regionalism
and sovereign prerogatives
such institutions at the regional rather
that it is politically more viable to construct
of culture, history, homogeneity
of
than the global level. On this view, commonality
of political
and security interests, and the
social systems and values, convergence
all make
character of domestic
coalitions
it far easier to accept the necessary
levels
in terms of standard-setting
and regulation,
of intrusive management,
and even
more

of enforcement

and effective implementation.


the
there
Second,
'global' character of many issues is often exaggerated. Although
as
or
are undoubtedly
issues
climate
the
loss
of
(such
global
genuinely
change
as
the
and
other
of
environ
issues
(such
problems
biodiversity)
although many
a global issue when aggregated,
mental
their effects
refugees) do indeed constitute
on
a regional,
are likely to be felt most directly within particular
and
it
is
regions,
a
the
and
is likely to
level that
balance of interests
incentives
rather than
global,
an
some
states
to
in
abstract sense the
seek
press
policy response. Thus, although
towards globalism,
there are powerful
may point
logic of cooperation
practical
to solving global problems, or
in favour of regionally based contributions
arguments
of globally agreed standards or measures.
of the regional enforcement
that regionalism
there is the related argument
Third,
represents the most viable
to reconcile
the integrative market
and technological
level at which
pressures
on the one hand, and the equally visible
and integration
towards globalization
on the other. Liberals recognize the strains
trends towards fission and fragmentation
as a necessary
see
to new
this process of reconciliation
involved but
adjustment
run
in the long
which will
enhance
global welfare.
technological
opportunities
the extent to which the general shift
Radical
theorists, on the other hand, highlight
is driven by the changing corporate
in authority from states to markets
strategies of
transnational
capital.33 They argue that the reduction in the domestic regulatory role
of the state and its replacement by politically weak international
institutions at both
for the balance of wealth
the regional and global levels have important implications
and across
and power
of
social groups within
among
regions. The politics
are therefore centrally about issues of
regionalism
and perhaps most
Fourth,
global
importantly,
32
33

inequality
integration

and redistribution.
may

have

acted

as a

Globalization
and World
Economic
in Fawcett
See Andrew Wyatt-Walter,
Order',
'Regionalization,
in World Politics.
and Hurrell
(eds.), Regionalism
on the NAFTA,
Conference
Mexico
See, for example,
'Papers from the International
City, March
25, 4 (December
1993', Review
1993). For arguments
of Radical Political Economics,
linking
see Stephen Gill,
to 'a crisis of global economic
Global
Politics:
order',
'Restructuring
regionalism
Trilateral
September

Relations

and World

Order

"After"

the Cold War'

(York University,

CISS Working

1992).

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Paper,

Explaining

regionalism

347

stimulus to economic
by altering and intensifying patterns of
regionalism
powerful
in technology,
in communications,
in
mercantilist
economic
competition.
Changes
in the growth of global systems of production,
have
the operation of global markets,
have defined the
certainly had a profound
impact on the ways in which governments
two most

and political
important goals of foreign policy?economic
development
the range of acceptable
trade-offs between them. On the one hand,
means
that states are facing powerful pressures
towards the homo
globalization
to
attract
in
of
order
investment
and techno
economic
policies,
foreign
genization
an
ever
more
to
in
linked
and
These
compete
closely
marketplace.
logy
systemically
autonomy?and

driven

liberal policies have increased the importance of


at both global and regional levels. On the
and
trade
liberalization
export expansion
other hand, the nature of competition
presses towards the formation of larger units,
to bargain
both for economic
efficiency and to ensure the political power necessary
over
that
world
It is very
the
rules
and
institutions
the
govern
economy.
effectively
a
cease
states
to
to
note
within
such
be
the
that,
important
only important
picture,
pressures

towards market

actors. Economic
regionalization
ences of transnational
companies,

is driven

increasingly by the policies and prefer


and the politics of regional economic
integration
in terms of a convergence
of interest between state ?lites and
needs to be understood
firms in response to structural changes in the world economy.
Thus, for example, whilst at one level it may be true to say the relaunch of
and of
European
integration in the 1980s was promoted by fears of 'Euro-sclerosis'
in
with
the
behind
the
States
and
battle
United
falling
Japan, this
competitive
to
too
is
We
need
what
in
the
from
ask
the
1960s to
picture
simple.
changed
period
economic
the 1980s that made previous
viable.
The
foreign
policies decreasingly
answer cannot be gleaned from the parsimonious
barren
world
of
neorealist
yet
in Europe. Changes
theory nor from theories which focus on internal developments
in the global economy
and production
the
systems, but especially
(in technology
and the second industrial revolution) meant that
technologies
impact of information
of national
and the promotion
national
industrial policies
'champions' were no
had undermined
the
longer considered
adequate. A changing global environment
to the challenges
of successful national-level
of international
responses
possibility
as well as putting
in doubt the reliance on Keynesian
and welfarist
competition,
on
which domestic political bargains had so heavily depended. As a result
policies,
we have seen the growth of European-level
of technological
programmes
develop
the promotion
of European
and a complex
ment,
pattern of de
'champions',
regulation,

Regionalism

collaboration

and strategic

alliances.34

and interdependence

In contrast to these 'outside-in' approaches which start with the system as a whole,
a second cluster of theories sees a close link between regionalism
and regional (as
34

in the world economy


On the importance
of changes
for understanding
the 1992 process
in Europe
see Wayne
Sandholtz
and John Zysman,
'1992: Recasting
the European
42,
Bargain', World Politics,
1 (October
and the Dynamics
of Integration',
in
1989). See also Margaret
Sharp,
'Technology
William Wallace
(London: Pinter for RIIA,
(ed.), The Dynamics
of European
Integration
1990).

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348

Andrew Hurrell

as a
to global)
The first two variants view regionalism
interdependence.
opposed
functional
created by regional interdependence,
response by states to the problems
in fostering
and stress the critical role of institutions
and developing
regional
on
in the liberal camp with
their emphasis
cohesion.35 They
stand four-square
welfare

rationality,

and their generally


goals and scientific and technical knowledge
on the
international
The
third
society.
lays greater emphasis
and
between material
of
interdependence
understandings
identity and

view

pluralist
relationship

of

community.

a central,
1. Neofunctionalism:
has played
Neofunctionalism
much
although
of
role
in
the
theories
of
criticized,
development
European
integration.36 Neo
that
and
levels
of
set in
would
functionalists
rising
argued
high
interdependence
an ongoing process of cooperation
to political
motion
that would
lead eventually
institutions were seen as the most
of
effective means
integration.
Supranational
common
with
technical
and
non-controversial
issues,
solving
problems, beginning
but 'spilling over' into the realm of high politics and leading to a redefinition
of
the
around
unit.
group identity
regional
was that integration would become
of neofunctionalism
The central prediction
was
and
the
that of 'spill-over'. There were two
central metaphor
self-sustaining,
sorts of

spill-over, each of which would deepen


integration by working
through
and ?lite socialization.
there was
First,
pressure, public opinion
interest-group
functional
road
spill-over whereby partial small initial steps down the integration
that could only be solved by further cooperation.
would create new problems
Partial
of
integration represented an unstable half-way house, and the increased complexity
meant
in one area would
to
that cooperation
force governments
interdependence
their cooperative
endeavours
into further areas. Second,
there was political
set in motion
the existence of supranational
institutions would
spill-over, whereby
a self-reinforcing
On this view the management
process of institution-building.
of complex
technocratic management.
Once
requires centralized
interdependence
of their own (hence the great
institutions
created,
generate an internal dynamic
to the role of the Commission
in articulating
attention
and
goals, proposing
brokering bargains).37 The end result would be a shift in loyalties. For Ernst Haas,
integration was:
expand

the process
loyalties,
possess

whereby

expectations,
or demand

Neofunctionalism

actors

in several

and

political
over
jurisdiction

therefore

distinct

national

activities

towards

the pre-existing

are persuaded
to shift
settings
a new centre whose
institutions
national

laid great emphasis

their

states.38

on the unintended

consequences

35
Most

of this work has focused on economic


For a discussion
of regional
interdependence.
strategic
see Barry Buzan, People, States and
of regional
and the concept
interdependence
security complexes
2nd edn, 1991), chapter 5.
Fear (London: Harvester
Wheatsheaf,
36
The classic texts are Ernst B. Haas, The Uniting
Social and Economic
Forces
of Europe: Political,
The Political Dynamics
Stevens,
1958); and Leon N. Lindberg,
(London:
of European Economic
Stanford UP.,
1963).
Integration
(Stanford:
37
on the dynamics
More
of legal integration
and
recently there has been a good deal of attention
J. H. H. Weiler,
idea of legal
Destination:
See, for example,
'Journey to an Unknown
spill-over'.
of the European
and Prospective
Court of Justice in the Arena
of Political
Retrospective
38

Journal of Common Market


Integration',
Haas, The Uniting of Europe, pp. xv-xvi.

Studies,

31,4

(December

1993).

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the
A

Explaining

regionalism

349

of previous (and often small) decisions; on the idea of learning how to adapt to new
inter-bureaucratic
of the EC; and on the
situations; on the extensive
penetration
officials to provide leadership. Yet, as the EC developed
in
capacity of supranational
of the theory, criticisms grew:
ways that were often at variance with the predictions
that the theory failed to predict the evolution of the EC; that it underestimated
the
of the nation-state
and of loyalties at the national
level; that it ignored the
great differences between matters of 'low polities', which may be subject to techno
cratic management,
and matters
of 'high politics' that remain essential to national
that
the
it
sovereignty;
ignored
changing role of external factors, political, economic
and security (and also the influence of shifts in the economic cycle); and that it was
resilience

technocratic
and apolitical with
little ability to explain the
overly deterministic,
nature of power-political
states and the
and distributional
conflicts between member
choices between different means of managing
them. Yet the core idea, that enhanced
are essentially
res
inter-state cooperation
and moves
towards formal integration
an
to
increased
and
economic
has
im
social
remained
ponses
interdependence,
in
momentum
the
and
the
renewed
element
of
portant
European debate,
integration
in the late 1980s prompted a reconsideration
of the relevance of the theory.39
its influence on the theory and practice of European
its
Despite
regionalism,
is
relevance to contemporary
elsewhere
rather
less
clear.
In
the
first
regionalism
to say about the ongoing
has always had more
role of
place, neofunctionalism
institutions
than about the factors that explain the birth of regionalist
schemes.
state
its
about
the
role
of
in
to
the
relation
central
Second,
expectations
declining
seem radically at variance with the very heavily statist orientation
institutions
of
neo
most
contrast
to
outside
the
EC.
both
Third,
arrangements
(in
regionalist
neo
liberal
institutionalism
and Deutsch's
of security
concept
community)
as
to
functionalism
views institutions
and is thus difficult
fundamental
relate to the
found in many regionalist
schemes. It is,
relatively low levels of institutionalization
that neo-functionalist
however, possible
insights may become more relevant in the
future as regional cooperation
deepens and regional institutions become more firmly
or the
inMercosur
established. Thus, for example, recent institutional developments
and often highly technical provisions of NAFTA may lead to the kinds
wide-ranging
of social and political
to neofunctionalist
that have been so central
processes
about European
the process
of institutional
thinking
integration:
growth and
sectors; the leading role for technical ?lites and inter
spill-over across different
national bureaucracies;
the institutionalized
structure of
and the extent to which
the complex negotiating
process opens the way for transnational
interest-group
mobilization.
has been the most
in
Neoliberal
institutionalism
institutionalism:
to the recent study of international
fluential
theoretical
approach
cooperation
and represents a highly plausible
and generalizable
the
theory for understanding

2. Neoliberal

39

in the European
A
'Preferences
and Power
See, for example, Andrew Moravcsik,
Community:
Liberal
Journal of Common Market
Studies,
31,4
(December
1993),
Intergovernmentalist
Approach',
and Stanley Hoffman,
'Conclusions:
pp. 474-80; Robert O. Keohane
especially
Community
politics
inWallace
and institutional
change',
(ed.), Dynamics
Integration-, and Jeppe
of European
or Obsolete?
'Neo-functionalism:
Obstinate
A Reappraisal
in the Light of the
Tranholm-Mikkelsen,
New

Dynamism

of

the EC, Millennium,

20,

1 (1991).

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Andrew HurrelI

350

base their analysis on a number of core


of regionalism.40 Institutionalists
of interdependence
In
levels
the
first
generate increased
arguments.
place, increasing
are
as purposively
Institutions
viewed
'demand' for international
cooperation.
to
kinds
of
action
solutions
different
collective
problems. As Robert
generated
it:
Keohane
puts
resurgence

Institutionalists do not elevate international regimes to mythical


states:

are established
such regimes
the contrary,
and collaboration
dilemmas
of coordination

on

Facing

demand

governments

international

institutions

states

by
under

to enable

positions of authority over

to achieve

conditions

their
of

to achieve

them

purposes.

interdependence,
their interests

through limited collective action.41


are generated
because
institutions
they help states deal with
because
enhance
welfare.
and
they
problems
is heavily statist, concerned with ways in which
institutionalism
Second, neoliberal
states conceived of as rational egoists can be led to cooperate.42 In contrast to the
the state is viewed as the effective
pluralist networks stressed by the neofunctionalist,
rules

Norms,
common

and

and international.
the domestic
Indeed, this approach empha
gatekeeper between
of common problems strengthens
sizes how the successful collaborative management
institutionalism
has
strand of rationalist
the role of the state. Thus the dominant
to
not
to
but
that
do
retain
neo-realist
argue
they
sought
assumptions
preclude
of power,
The aim is to analyze and isolate the particular constellations
cooperation.
interests and preferences
likely to explain the sources and constraints of cooperative
behaviour.
Third, institutions matter because of the benefits that they provide, and because
of the players and the ways in which states define
of their impact on the calculations
of information,
the pro
their interests. They achieve this through the provision
of
and
the
transaction
of
reduction
motion
costs, the
transparency
monitoring,
use of
and
facilitation
of
the
of
convergent
productive
expectations,
development
to
the
of
attention
is
number
Particular
players; the
paid
strategies.
issue-linkage
extent to which states are involved in an ongoing process of cooperation
(the idea of
or
of the
the
of
the
shadow
and
'iteration'
importance
lengthening
repeated games
to
is
of
mechanisms
effectiveness
and
the
discourage
cheating (it
cheating or
future);
to cooperation
obstacle
rather than, as
the main
that is considered
defection
conflict and concern for relative gains).
neorealists
argue, distributional
on the ways in which
Institutionalist
theories, then, concentrate
strategic inter
in a given area of international
action may lead to the emergence of cooperation
to
trend in the 1970s and 1980s was
relations. As noted earlier, the dominant
apply
40

41

this approach

to non-region-specific

is enormous.

questions

(mainly

in the economic

and

Institutions
for example, Robert O. Keohane,
International
and State
in the World
and Discord
1989); Keohane,
Cooperation
After Hegemony.
and
Princeton
Political Economy
U.P,
1984); David A. Baldwin
(ed.), Neorealism
(Princeton:
Neoliberalism
U.P,
(ed.), Regime Theory and
1993); Volker Rittberger
(New York: Columbia
'International
of Cooperation
International
Relations
(Oxford: OUP,
1993); Helen Milner,
Theory
44 (April 1992).
World Politics,
and Weaknesses',
Strengths
Among Nations:
The

literature

See,

Power

(Boulder: Westview,

Robert

and the Realist Challenge


O. Keohane,
'Institutionalist
Theory
and Neoliberalism,
p. 274.
(ed.), Neorealism
it takes states as central this is often seen as a realist theory

Baldwin
42
Because

to the Study of the EC). Unlike


realism,
Approaches
to institutions
that sustained
and accepts
cooperation

After

the Cold War',

in

(for example by Hix,


a major
institutionalism
accords
however,
is possible.

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role

Explaining

regionalism

351

institu
fields, but with some emphasis on security regimes). However,
to the EC, highlighting
the extent
tionalists have increasingly turned their attention
to which even institutionally
rest on an evolving set
complex regional arrangements
to the
of inter-governmental
between
the
and pointing
states,
bargains
major
national governments
after the early moves
reassertion of the control of European
in the direction
of supranationalism
and the creation or strengthening
of inter
environmental

governmental
practices and institutions.43 The major difficulty with these approaches
is that extensive regionalization
and sustained regional cooperation
may work to
undermine
the monolithic
character of the state, leading to the creation of cross
to multi-level
bureaucratic
and multi-player
alliances,
games, and to
governmental
the formation of new forms of identity both above and below existing territorially
states?all
that are hard to incorporate
into the rational
developments
and state bargaining perspectives
that dominate US institutionalist writing.44
to other examples of regionalism,
institutionalist
seek to
theory would
Applied

defined
choice

in which
of regionalization
and regional economic
processes
identify the ways
and
what
has called
material
Richard
integration create, first,
problems
Cooper
that require collective management;
'international policy externalities'
and, second,
incentives for reducing transaction costs and facilitating
intra-regional
linkages.45 It
is expected
that both
lead to the expansion
of formal or informal
inter-state
cooperative institutions.
in the NAFTA
Mexico

for example, the choice facing the United


States and
was
move
not
to
to
whether
closer
each
process
other, but
rather whether
the management
of the increasingly complex and dense economic,
and societal interdependencies
that had emerged over the past forty
environmental
or left to ad hoc political bar
be
and
formalized
institutionalized,
years should
on political
for institutionalist
gaining. Equally,
theory, the increased emphasis
Thus,

in Asia-Pacific
regionalism
economic
interdependence
recently
The

reflects the need to 'manage' the increased


levels of
that have grown up across the region. As Peter Petri has

argued:
of

importance

a particular

partner

in a country's

transactions

to be

is likely

closely

related to the country's investments in linkages with that partner. It is thus not surprising
that

a wide

of regional
initiatives
have
recently
emerged
an analytical
East
Asian
From
generated
by
interdependence.
can be seen as attempts
to reduce
costs
in regional
transaction
and marshal
economic
forces
trade frictions,
regional
against
array

to address

the new
these

perspective,
trade, manage
external

economic

issues
initiatives

intraregional
challenges.46

an institutionalist
the emergence of regional security regimes
perspective,
as
or
the
ASEAN
CSCE
Forum, or the network of confidence
(such
Regional
measures
not be viewed in terms of the balance
in
South
should
America)
building
From

43

and Stanley Hoffmann


See, for example, Robert O. Keohane
(eds.), The New European
Community.
and institutional
change (Boulder: Westview,
1991).
Decisionmaking
44
case see Wallace,
For a discussion
of these trends in the European
Transformation
of Western Europe.
45
in Cooper, Economic
in
Richard N. Cooper,
and Co-ordination
of Policies',
Policy
'Interdependence
an Interdependent
in World Economics
World: Essays
Press,
1986).
(Cambridge: MIT
46
in Jeffrey A. Frankel
Peter A. Petri,
'The East Asian Trading Bloc: An Analytical
and
History',
Miles Kahler
in Pacific Asia (Chicago:
and Rivalry. Japan and the United States
(eds.), Regionalism
on Petri,
comment
of Chicago
Press,
1993), pp. 42-3. See also Stephan Haggard's
University
pp. 48-52.

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352

Andrew Hurrell

of power or alliance formation. Rather


they have been created, and will survive,
because of the benefits
communication,
information,
they provide: by facilitating
threat perceptions
and worst-case
transparency;
by reducing mutual
thinking; and
the self-fulfilling
that lie at the heart of the security
by undercutting
prophecies
cohesion
would
dilemma.
emerge, on this view, not from grand
Finally
regional
new
to
structures
create
federal
but
from the way in which
individual or
proposals
comes
an
to
form
dense
network
where
increasingly
issue-specific
cooperation
cooperation

on each new

issue becomes

in a larger and more

embedded

complex

whole.

3. Constructivism:
Constructivist
theories focus on regional awareness and regional
on
sense
to a particular
the
shared
of belonging
and
regional community,
identity,
on what has been called 'cognitive regionalism'.
They stress the extent to which
regional cohesion depends on a sustained
trust and high
mutual
responsiveness,

and durable sense of community


levels of what might
be called

based

on

'cognitive

interdependence'.
There are two main

variants that are relevant to the study of regionalism.47 The


first derives very centrally and directly from Deutsch's
original work on integration.
It involves a view of evolving community
that stresses two central ideas. First, the
character of inter-state
for Deutsch,
relations
(or more
accurately
inter-societal)
can (and should be) understood
such a community
in terms of a sense of
'we-ness', mutual
community,
sympathy, loyalty and shared identity. This in turn is
held norms
and common
likely to be based on shared principles,
collectively
on
or
a
rather
than
of short
temporary
understandings,
expediency
conjunction
term interests. And
the process by which
such a community
is
second,
emerges
to the compatibility
in some way
of major
related
societal values
(especially
and to processes of social communication
based
capitalism and liberal democracy),
on an increase in the level of transactions between two or more societies (hence the
label 'transactionalism').
The second variant rejects the rigidity of the linkage in Deutsch's
work between
transactions
and identity and the behaviouralist
that underpinned
it,
methodologies
but upholds
the fundamental
the processes by which
importance of understanding
new communities
are created and sustained.48 This involves a number of central
ideas: first, that, in contrast to rationalist theories, we need to pay far more attention

within

to the processes
in which

ways

language
47

by which

both

interests and identities

interact with

self-images
and discourse
through which

are created

material

changing
these understandings

and evolve, to the


incentives, and to the
are expressed;
second,

Onuf used the term 'constructivism'


in his study of rules in international
Nicholas
relations, World
Rules and Rule in Social Theory and International
Relations
of Our Making.
(Columbia:
University
South Carolina
Press,
1989). Its more general use has arisen out of critique of both Waltzian
structural
realism and rationalist
theories of cooperation.
For a particularly
of
clear account
see Alexander
constructivism
'Collective
and the International
Wendt,
State',
Identity Formation

Political
Science Review,
distinction
between
88, 2 (June 1994). See also Keohane's
rationalist
and reflectivist
'International
Institutions:
in International
Two Approaches',
approaches:
Institutions
and State Power (Boulder: Westview,
1989), chapter 7.
48
For a discussion
of the weaknesses
of Deutsch's
views and the contemporary
relevance of the
see Emanuel Adler
and Michael
'Pluralistic Security
Barnett,
concept of 'security community'
1 (University
Communities:
Past, Present and Future', Working Paper Series on Regional
Security,

of

American

Wisconsin,

1994).

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of

Explaining

353

regionalism

how
that it matters
'where they belong'

actors interpret the world and how their understandings


of
are formed; and third, that both interests and identities are
and cultures, by domestic
factors and by ongoing
shaped by particular histories
states.
with
of
interaction
other
processes
Instead of focusing
the
incentives, constructivists
solely on material
emphasize
of shared knowledge,
and
forces, and normative
learning, ideational
importance
structures. They claim that understanding
structures
institutional
inter-subjective
allows us to trace the ways in which
interests and identities change over time and
can emerge. As Wendt puts it:
new forms of cooperation
and community
are

Constructivists
take

a more

have

argued

historically

interested

sociological
that states
contingent

than
are not

in the construction

of

identities

and

interests,

to systemic
approach
theory.
or
given but
structurally
exogenously

economic

On

and,
this

constructed

as

basis,

such,
they

by

interactions.49

To their neorealist and rationalist critics, however, they overestimate


the importance
of regional
of regions and region-building.
identities and the discourse
Instead
neorealists
repeatedly point out that violent conflict has often occurred within highly
the malleability
of
integrated communities
sharing values and beliefs, and highlight
identity and the fluidity of regionalist rhetoric.
The revival of interest in such approaches
reflects a strong belief that the constant
and confused
claims to identity has become more
im
eddying of contemporary
portant and more contentious,
thereby providing perhaps the most productive point
of contact
between
the study of contemporary
and postmodern
regionalism
to
On
this
view
the
international
relations.
difficulties
present
approaches
facing
in Europe need to be set against the erosion of the apparently solid and
regionalism
In Europe,
the EC was born and developed.50
durable myths
around which
the
to
and Asia,
of
have
become
central
the
Americas
questions
identity
regional
course
of
of
the
existence
of
national
different
politics
regionalism,
complicated
by
of the region, and by deep conflicts over the geographical
scope of the
conceptions
to
is
held
and
the
values
which
it
region
represent.51

Domestic-level

theories

third cluster of theories focuses on the role of shared domestic


attributes or
characteristics.
Such an emphasis
is not new. Those seeking to define regions have
of commonalities
of ethnicity,
often highlighted
the importance
race, language,
a
common
consciousness
of
Writers
such as Karl
heritage.
religion, culture, history,
stressed the importance
of 'the compatibility
Deutsch
of major
values relevant
A

49
'Collective
Wendt,
p. 385. As
Identity Formation',
seen as a systemic
of a
perceptions
theory. Whilst
identity, it is constructivism's
analysis of strategic
the regional
relevant for our purposes.
that ismost
50
see Tony Judt, The
For an excellent
Past
example
51

can be
indicates, constructivism
'other' can indeed reinforce regional
and cognitive
within
interdependence

this quotation
non-regional
interaction

is Another
in
and Memory
Country: Myth
Postwar Europe', Daedalus,
121, 4 (Fall 1992).
Ole Waever,
French and Russian',
'Three Competing
International
66, 3
Europes: German,
Affairs,
on European
and Identity', paper for EUPRA
Conference
(1990), and 'Territory, Authority
Identity,
8-10 November
1991.
Florence,

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354

Andrew Hurrell

to political
in the emergence
of security communities.
Neo
decision-making'
on certain
of the 'spill-over' depended
believed
that the dynamics
functionalists
nature of modern
above all the pluralist
domestic
industrialized
prerequisites,
interests on a broader
societies and the particular role played by ?lites in redefining
than national basis. There are three broad ways in which domestic
factors can be
related to contemporary
regionalism.
to the
1. Regionalism
and state coherence: Regionalism
is often seen as an alternative
state or as a means of going 'beyond the nation-state',
and it has been common
(and
too
commentators
and
in
rather
for
academic
enthusiasts
easy)
perhaps
regional
or
to
the
of
the
talk
about
end
of
national
unimportance
Europe
sovereignty
and state
(conveniently
forgetting the overriding
importance of boundaries
most
in
of
Central
the
Balkans
and
Yet
the
of
Europe).
sovereignty
possibilities
are
on
to
and
the
very heavily
integration
likely
depend
regional
cooperation
a truism that
and viability of states and state structures. It is becoming
coherence
not from the
most
of
the
War
world
result
of
the
serious
many
problems
post-Cold
lack of legitimacy between states, but from the still greater lack of legitimacy within
frontiers

In many

the post-colonial
world,
political
instability, civil war,
to undermine
and
environmental
interact
the
degradation
mismanagement
to erode the economic
of state structures,
base and social fabric of
cohesion
a deadly downward
states, and to produce
many weak
spiral leading towards
them.

parts

of

economic

and anarchy.
disintegration
The absence of viable states

state apparatuses
effective
and
the
of
process
mutually
accepted
region-building
to the
if not impossible. These problems already stand as major obstacles
difficult,
in
of
the
Middle
East
and
of
effective
many parts
Africa,
development
regionalism
no
most
that
elaborate
Asia.
It
coincidence
the
of
South
is, therefore,
examples
in
have
occurred
where
ASEAN, Mercosur)
regions
(the EC, NAFTA,
regionalism
state structures remain relatively strong and where the legitimacy of both frontiers
territorial disputes might
and regimes is not widely called into question
(although
over
to the creation of new
to exist). Whilst
time
lead
continue
regionalism may
territorial

(in terms of both


makes
boundaries)

and state strength do not stand in


of political
organization,
regionalism
to
states
the
essential building-blocks
with which
each
other
and
remain
opposition
forms

regionalist

arrangements

are

constructed.

A great deal of theoretical attention has been


2. Regime
type and democratization:
the importance of domestic
devoted over the past few years to re-evaluating
factors
This has formed part of the
and democratization.
and the impact of democracy
on the overriding
and its emphasis
of
broader attack on neorealism
importance
momentum
has
and
Substantial
theoretical
dynamics.
systemic pressures
developed
that democracy
does indeed make a fundamental
around the proposition
difference
war
not
to
with
each
Much
of this
in
that
do
other.52
democracies
and,
go
particular,
52

'The
The literature
is expanding
Small and J. David
very rapidly. But see especially Melvin
Singer,
1 (1976);
The Jerusalem
Journal of International
War Process of Democratic
Relations,
Regimes',
on Violence Within
R. J. Rummel,
and Between Nations',
Journal
'Libertarian
of
Propositions
two
and Foreign Affairs',
29 (1985); Michael W. Doyle,
'Kant, Liberal Legacies,
Conflict Resolution,
and Bruce Russett,
'Normative
and Public Affairs,
12, 3 & 4 (1983); Zeev Maoz
parts, Philosophy
87
of Democratic
American
Political
Science Review,
and Structural
Causes
Peace,
1946-1986',
Peace
the Democratic
Princeton
U.P,
(Princeton:
1993).
(1993); and Bruce Russett,
Grasping

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Explaining

355

regionalism

of liberal states.
about the behaviour
is concerned with general propositions
cross
to
'liberal
zones'
that
would
seek
regions
identify
geographical
Equally, many
area in Deutsch's
classic study, or Daniel Deudney's
and John
(the North Atlantic
across the OECD world, or Anne
cooperation
Ikenberry's picture of continued

work

the
Burley's analysis of the legal dynamics of liberal zones).53 Nevertheless,
unions
is
of
of
existence
clearly
major potential
importance
regional pacific
possible
the dynamics of contemporary
for understanding
Indeed, as Raymond
regionalism.

Marie

of the link between democracy


and peace within
argues, the robustness
states
that
been
and
able to fight each
of
have
clusters
historically
willing
regional
other is central to assessing the overall theory.54
in the early phases of the
The importance of democracy was easy to overlook
to
Whilst
the
commitment
European Community.
multi-party
democracy was an
success
of
in West
of
of
the
democratization
the Treaty
Rome,
explicit feature

Cohen

that the founding


fathers could accept a common
and Italy meant
Germany
as
a
to democracy
commitment
given, and theorists could relegate pluralist demo
this situation was not to last and
factors. However,
cracy to a range of background
the difficult
issue of the political criteria for
each round of enlargement has made
in
admission ever more pressing. In part these questions have to do with confidence
in the would-be member
consolidation
states.55 In part
the processes of democratic
they have to do with more diffuse, volatile, but very powerful questions of bound
and of identity (what is it to be European?).
aries (who is European?)
They also
a problem
that has become
central to the
reinforce and complicate
increasingly
elsewhere, namely the question of democracy
European debate but remains marginal
the EC itself. Liberal theorists of integration
(indeed liberal
legitimacy within
a
more
had
view
of
what
economic
integration
generally)
deeply apolitical
thought
involved. From the perspective of the mid-1990s,
however, it is clear that any theory
to the relationship
between
of integration has to pay far greater attention
the
states have sought to manage
institutions by which
and
issues
of
interdependence
and

and political
accountability
legitimacy.
representation,
There are certainly cases where the wave of democratic
transitions
that swept the
in
in the 1980s can be plausibly
revival
world
the
of
implicated
regionalism.
For example, moves
in South America
towards sub-regional
occurred
cooperation
a
shift
from
the
of
and
bureaucratic
away
region-wide
against
background
military
authoritarian
regimes. Yet it is also clear that the relationship between regionalism
is complex. Thus even in cases where democratization
and democracy
did play a
role, its relative weight needs to be assessed with some precision and on the basis of
more detailed studies than have yet been undertaken.
In Latin America,
for example,
in
there are numerous
that have been
other factors
the
revival of
important
which
of
neorealism.
there are
many
support
cooperation,
sub-regional
Equally,
53

et al., Political
in the North Atlantic Area (Princeton:
Princeton
U.P.,
Community
'The Logic of the West', World Policy Journal,
and G. John Ikenberry,
10, 4
1957); Daniel Deudney
'Law among Liberal States: Liberal
Internationalism
and the
1993/94); Anne-Marie
(Winter
Burley,
92 (December
Act of State Doctrine',
Columbia Law Review,
1992).
54
A Reappraisal
of the theory that "Democracies
'Pacific Unions:
do not go toWar
Cohen,
Raymond

55

K. W. Deutsch

with each other"


Studies,
',Review of International
20, 3 (July 1994).
treatment of this issue see Laurence Whitehead,
For a comparative
for Admission',
'Requisites
Peter H. Smith (ed.), The Challenge
(New Brunswick
Europe and the Americas
of Integration.
London:
Transaction
Publishers,
1992).

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

in
and

356

Andrew Hurrell

in which democracy
has
important
examples of contemporary
regionalism
role: the creation of NAFTA
is one; another is the
clearly not played a facilitating
in which
of cooperation
within ASEAN,
intensification
increased regional
inter
in
both
the
and
action and institutional
economic
has
security
spheres
deepening
can be considered demo
member
occurred despite the fact that only one ASEAN
other

liberalism and democracy.56


cratic and despite the explicit rejection of Western-style
of
these
connections
will
involve paying more atten
the
Unravelling
complexity
issues: the precise meaning
of 'liberal democracy',
tion to a number of difficult
'liberal regimes' and the ways in which different components
of democracy might
of a democratic
in different ways to the creation and maintenance
contribute
peace;
to regional peace or whether
it is political democracy per se that contributes
whether
on the underlying
factors or prerequisites
that sustain
analysis should concentrate
forms of government
and pacific foreign policies;
the relationship
both democratic
to the em
and regional peace (as opposed
between processes
of democratization
on
the
behaviour
of
consolidated
in
the
literature
democracies);
fully
phasis
existing
and forms of social violence
between democratization
and finally the relationship
and instability that fall short of formal inter-state war. Yet, however these issues are
are likely to remain of
and regionalism
resolved, the links between democratization
interest.
theoretical
and
great
practical
the dynamics of regional
in terms of converging
economic
integration
cooperation
domestic policy preferences
among regional states. Thus revisionist writings on the
the political mythology
of European
the extent to which
EC have emphasized
Integration was not pursued as part of a grand
integration was deeply misleading.
but rather as the best means
of
'beyond the nation-state',
project of moving
a
or protecting
domestic
project built around Keynesian
sheltering
particular
3. Convergence

theories: Convergence
and especially
regional

theories

understand

social arrangements.
social welfare and corporatist
therefore
Integration
emerged from the pursuit of quite narrowly focused national policies and parochial
not weaken
rather than internationalist
visions, and could result in strengthening,
in the
ing, the role of the state.57 Similarly, the revival of integrationist momentum
can be seen in terms of the convergence
of national
economic
mid-1980s
policy
liberalization
and deregulation.58
centred around economic
preferences,
been an important factor in the
has undoubtedly
Domestic
policy convergence
shift in the developing world
the widespread
resurgence of regionalism,
especially
and export expansion.
towards market-liberal
policies that stress trade liberalization
a vehicle for the external
in some cases, regional
Moreover,
integration becomes
economics,

of market-liberal
for example,
the importance
of
reinforcement
policies. Thus,
NAFTA
for Mexico
did not rest on trade liberalization
(much of which had already
that the treaty would
lock Mexico
taken place) but on the expectation
into a
particular

set of market-liberal

domestic

economic

policies,

insulating

its economic

56

in societal
factors may still have played an important
role: changes
In both cases, however,
domestic
of shared
towards the United
States in the case of Mexico;
increased awareness
values and attitudes
in the case of ASEAN.
and political
values
social, economic
57
unless this neo-mercantilism
'domestic policy was not in the end sustainable
As Alan Milward
writes,
The European
Rescue
could be guaranteed
(London:
of the Nation-State
by its Europeanization'.
58

1992), p.
Routledge,
See Hix, Approaches

134.
to the Study

of

the EC,

pp. 7-8.

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Explaining
reforms
political

the vagaries of
power of those groups
from

regionalism

the Mexican
system and
political
that have benefited from reform.

cementing

357
the

Conclusion

are deeply
argued that debates over the revival of regionalism
the broader theoretical debates
that have dominated
international
is to be gained by exposing and exploring
the nature of
relations, and that much
It has also argued that the theories of regional integration
these connections.
that
have dominated
the analysis of the EC provide only a partial and incomplete guide

This

article

connected

has

with

to understanding
It has analyzed three separate clusters
contemporary
regionalism.
on
of theories
three levels of analysis: the systemic, the regional and the domestic.
relations more generally, a great deal hangs on how
Yet, again as in international
are
to
to
be related
each other. There are three broad strategies.59
these levels
In the first place, the theorist can claim that primacy should be given to one level
of analysis. Neorealists,
for example, argue for the primacy of the international
system. Their claim is not that systemic or structural theory can explain
political
everything, but that, as Kenneth Waltz argues, it explains a small number of big and
important things.60 Other theories can be left to fill in the rest of the picture, to
explain 'residual variance'. Similarly, institutionalist
theory focuses on intra-regional
the importance
of both domestic-level
factors and the
downplaying
context. Much
is to be gained from such bold claims to primacy,
particularly when theory is used to map the political
landscape, to raise important
schemes, and to illuminate historical develop
questions about individual regionalist
ments. But there are two difficulties. First, it is far from clear that even the main
can be plausibly
lines of any historical
understood
example of regionalism
by
interactions,

geopolitical

argues,
focusing on a single level of analysis. And second, as Andrew Moravscik
are
in
about
other
levels
of
often
and
analysis
assumptions
smuggled
surreptitiously
to explain anomalies
in the theory.61
then modified
A second path is therefore to explore the nature of the interaction between
the
we
see
con
at
in
different
that
work
Thus
logics
contemporary
regionalism.
structivism provides a theoretically
rich and promising way of conceptualizing
the
interaction between material
and interests of the actors
59

incentives,
(although

structures and the identity


inter-subjective
there remains a considerable
gap between

see R. B. J.Walker,
:
of the 'levels of analysis' problem
Inside/outside
as Political
CUP,
Theory
1993), especially pp. 130-40; and
(Cambridge:
Andrew Moravscik,
'Introduction.
International
and Domestic
of International
Theories
Integrating
in Peter B. Evans, Harold K. Jacobsen
and Robert D. Putnam
(eds.), Double-edged
Bargaining',
of California
Press, 1993).
Diplomacy
(Berkeley: University
60
'A Response
to my Critics',
in Robert O. Keohane
See Kenneth Waltz,
and Its
(ed.), Neorealism
Critics
(New York: Columbia,
1986), p. 329.
61
is Stephen Walt's modification
of neorealist
Moravscik,
'Introduction',
pp. 6-17. A good example
For relevant
International

discussions
Relations

that states seek to balance


theory, noted earlier (see n.27). His argument
against threats and
is certainly plausible. However,
intentions
rather than unequal power
into such
enquiring
to an analysis of domestic-level
leads unavoidably
and cognitive
factors,
perceptions
political
thereby
the much-vaunted
of neorealist
vitiating
parsimony
theory.
alliance

perceived

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358

Andrew Hurrell

and empirical
are in
Liberal
theorists
sophistication
application).
ideas about inter-state cooperation
with
seeking to link institutionalist
rooted theories of preference
formation.62 And finally much greater
domestically
attention
needs to be given to the tradition of dependency
and radical political
economy which has long stressed the need to unpack the 'state' and to examine the
changing domestic political coalitions and 'state-society
complexes' on which many
new
come
to
of
the
have
examples
regionalism
rely.
one can adopt a phased or 'stage-theory'
to understanding
Thirdly,
approach
conceptual
creasingly

somewhat unsatisfying,
it is historically
often
regionalism. Although
theoretically
it
be
that
the
of
very plausible. Thus,
might
argued
early phases
regional co
a
common
the
be
of
the
existence
of
result
enemy or powerful
operation may
but
been
thrown
different
power;
that, having
hegemonic
together,
logics begin to
or
or
the
functionalist
stressed
develop:
logic
problem-solving
by institutionalists,
the logic of community
Thus, neorealists may be
by the constructivists.
highlighted
to
stress
the
of
the
context
in the early stages of
importance
right
geopolitical
and
to
in
the
which both
informal
yet wrong
European
unity,
degree
ignoring
and
successful
institutionalization
the
altered
of
integration
dynamics
European
international
relations over the ensuing forty years. This kind of 'staged' approach
our understanding
has a great deal to offer in sharpening
of the moves
towards
case
in
economic
the
of the evolving pattern of cooperation
of NAFTA,
integration
or of the growth of sub-regional
within ASEAN,
in South America.
cooperation

62

For

an

important

move

in this direction

see Moravscik,

'Preferences

and Power'.

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