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May 2016
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Oilfield Review
Authoritative. Relevant. Informative.
16-OR-0002
EDITORIAL
Oilfield Review
May 2016
Volume 28, Number 2
ISSN 0923-1730
www.slb.com/oilfieldreview
Executive Editor
Charlie Cosad
Senior Editors
Tony Smithson
Matt Varhaug
Rick von Flatern
Editors
Irene Frgestad
Richard Nolen-Hoeksema
Contributing Editors
David Allen
H. David Leslie
Ginger Oppenheimer
Design/Production
Herring Design
Illustration
Herring Design
Pennebaker
George Stewart
Printing
RR DonnelleyWetmore Plant
Advisory Panel
Hani Elshahawi
Shell Exploration and Production
Houston, Texas, USA
Gretchen M. Gillis
Aramco Services Company
Houston, Texas
Roland Hamp
Woodside Energy Ltd.
Perth, Australia
Dilip M. Kale
ONGC Energy Centre
Delhi, India
George King
Apache Corporation
Houston, Texas
Michael Oristaglio
Yale Climate & Energy Institute
New Haven, Connecticut, USA
John Thorogood
Drilling Global Consultant LLP
Aberdeenshire, UK
Publishing
Oilfield Review is published and
printed in the USA.
2016 Schlumberger.
All rights reserved.
Articles
4Marine
Imaging in Three Dimensions:
16
Hydraulic Fracturing Insights from
Microseismic Monitoring
Microseismic monitoring is used for evaluating hydraulic stimulation operations in
unconventional reservoirs. Advanced techniques and new technologies are allowing operators to use microseismic data for effective well
placement and manage stimulations in real time.
34
CorrosionThe Longest War
Oil and gas operations often provide ideal environments for corrosion to develop and grow. In
spite of the challenges created by corrosion, anticorrosion practices in use today help operators
maintain equipment integrity and safely produce
hydrocarbons.
50
Slide DrillingFarther and Faster
A surface-mounted torque-oscillation system
provides consistent weight transfer to the bit,
improving rate of penetration and directional
control during sliding operations.
Departments
1
Editorial
Schlumberger and Cameron: A Meeting of
Minds and Technologies
57
Looking Back
Birth of La Pros: The 90th Anniversary of the
first Schlumberger Company
60
64
Looking Back
Origins of the Technique of Wireline Logging
On the cover:
Cameron specialists with a seven-cavity TL* offshore ram-type blowout preventer (BOP)
stack at the Cameron facility in Berwick, Louisiana, USA. Cameron became part of
Schlumberger in March 2016. Although the company is most well-known for BOPs, the
first designed in 1922 by company founder Harry Cameron, the portfolio includes a
complete range of rig, wellhead, production and process equipment and services as well
as valves; OneSubsea provides subsea production and processing systems.
An asterisk (*) denotes a mark of Schlumberger.
Article Summaries
Slide DrillingFarther
and Faster
Directional wells allow operators to
efficiently access reservoirs and
maximize wellbore exposure to productive zones. In many such wells,
directional drillers use steerable
mud motors to kick off the well,
build angle, drill tangent sections
and maintain trajectory necessary to
hit target zones.
When using mud motors, drillers
alternate between rotating and sliding
modes of drilling. In rotating mode, in
addition to the downhole motor, the
drilling rigs rotary table or topdrive
rotates the entire drillstring to transmit power to the bit. During slide
drilling, the drillstring does not rotate,
and the bit is turned by the mud
motor alone. As a consequence, less
weight is transferred to the bit, and
slide drilling is less efficient than
rotary drilling.
An automated torque control system alternates torque direction to
rock the drillstring, which increases
ROP through better transfer of weight
to the bit while in sliding mode. This
weight transfer also helps control toolface orientation. In addition, it helps
minimize the number of downhole
motor stalls and increases bit life by
preventing weight from being transferred to the bit suddenly. Page 50.
Correspondence
Oilfield Review
5599 San Felipe
Houston, TX 77056
United States
(1) 713-513-3760
E-mail: oilfieldreview@slb.com
Anatoly Aseev
Moscow, Russia
Sandeep Kumar Chandola
Low Cheng Foo
PETRONAS Carigali Sdn Bhd
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Chris Cunnell
Malcolm Francis
Shruti Gupta
Peter Watterson
Gatwick, England
Michelle Tham
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
Oilfield Review 28, no. 2 (May 2016).
Copyright 2016 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Thomas
Ajewole, M. Nabil ElKady, M. Faizal Idris, Satyabrata Nayak
and M. Iqbal Supardy, PETRONAS Carigali Sdn Bhd, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia; and Richard Coates, Houston, Texas, USA.
Dynel 2D, IsoMetrix and Q-Marine are marks of
Schlumberger.
1. Christie P, Nichols D, zbek A, Curtis T, Larsen L,
StrudleyA, Davis R and Svendsen M: Raising the
Standards of Seismic Data Quality, Oilfield Review 13,
no. 2 (Summer2001): 1631.
2. Robertsson JOA, Moore I, Vassallo M, zdemir K,
vanManen D-J and zbek A: On the Use of
Multicomponent Streamer Recordings for Reconstruction
of Pressure Wavefields in the Crossline Direction,
Geophysics 73, no. 5 (SeptemberOctober 2008):
A45A49.
3. For more on full-azimuth seismic surveying and imaging:
Brice T, Buia M, Cooke A, Hill D, Palmer E, Khaled N,
Tchikanha S, Zamboni E, Kotochigov E and MoldoveanuN:
Developments in Full Azimuth Marine Seismic Imaging,
Oilfield Review 25, no. 1 (Spring 2013): 4255.
4. Inline is in the direction the seismic vessel travels and
acquires data; crossline is in the direction perpendicular
to vessel travel.
5. For more on the Q-Marine system: Christie et al, reference 1.
For more on the 3C seismic MEMS accelerometer unit:
Paulson H, Husom VA and Goujon N: A MEMS
Accelerometer for Multicomponent Streamers, paper
WeP606, presented at the 77th European Association of
Geoscientists and Engineers Conference and Exhibition,
Madrid, Spain, June 14, 2015.
Hydrocarbon exploration requires that geoscientists understand the geology of prospective reservoirs often located beneath complex rock layers.
From the geophysicists perspective, the overburden acts as a defective lens, distorting seismic
images of deeper geologic structures. As a result,
targets appear indistinct, distorted, out of place or,
in extreme cases, completely obscured. The geophysicists challenge has been to devise methods
for peering through the overburden and bringing
the underlying geology into focus.
Make-or-break decisions on project viability
often hinge on how well prospective reservoirs can
be imaged, a key factor determining exploration
risk. Operators need accurate images of reservoirs
to help them place exploration wells where they
effectively test the prospect, conduct field planning
and place development wells. In addition to imaging
reservoirs, geophysicists must correctly image the
overburdenthe layers above the reservoirto
reduce drilling risks from operational challenges
such as maintaining a stable wellbore and
controlling formation pressure.
The value that seismic data adds to the
exploration process depends on the quality of
the image produced and the cost incurred in
acquiring such data. Cost-effective seismic
acquisition requires surveying large areas
quickly without compromising data quality and
while minimizing operational and environmental
exposure. Fast acquisition helps shorten the
time frame between the decision to evaluate a
play and the decision to drill.
High-quality data enable exploration teams to
attain a clear understanding of the geology from
the seafloor to the target prospect and then to
decide whether to test and appraise the prospect.
The acquired data must also be suitable for use in
advanced processing, imaging, inversion and
interpretation workflows. These workflows provide vital inputs for geomechanical, reservoir and
basin models.
IsoMetrix marine isometric seismic technology
and full waveform inversion processing are
enabling imaging of complex structures in frontier
areas. The IsoMetrix technology allows for fullbandwidth imaging of fine-scale structures in the
subsurface in all directionsinline, crossline and
verticalfor detailed imaging from seabed to
reservoir. Full waveform inversion results in a
model of seismic velocities, which is used with the
seismic data to form an image of the geology from
the surface to the targets of interest.
This article describes surveys acquired using
IsoMetrix technology in offshore Malaysia and
the North Sea. The survey results demonstrate
the benefits of IsoMetrix technology for overcoming a challenging acquisition environment
and increasing spatial bandwidth and of applying
full waveform inversion for determining overburden and reservoir properties, specifically seismic velocities.
Improving Data and Image Quality
Good seismic imaging requires a chain of factors:
a good acquisition system, optimal survey geometry and accurate processing algorithms and
workflows. More than 15 years ago, Schlumberger
geophysicists embarked on a program to move
from conventional seismic acquisition toward discrete sensor technology. The technology includes
improvements in receiver sensitivity and positioning accuracy, steerable streamers, increased
source control and point-receiver acquisition,
which records traces from individual receivers to
provide consistently repeatable high-quality data.1
These capabilities are evolving. New measurements of the crossline and vertical gradients
Oilfield Review
10 m
x
P
Crossline direction
Multichannel Reconstruction
Crossline direction
variations with distanceof the pressure wavefield enable the signals received from a marine
seismic shot to be processed as a full 3D wavefield rather than as a collection of 2D profiles.2 In
addition, a newly developed, calibrated, broadband marine seismic source provides improved
low-frequency signal content; no source notches,
or missing frequencies, below 150 Hz for all directions within a 20 cone from the vertical; and
cancellation of the source ghosta delayed
reflection of the source from the sea surface.
These acquisition improvements have been
complemented by innovations in marine
surveying geometriesfor example, multivessel
shooting and full-azimuth source-receiver
configurations. Together, these technologies
make it possible to illuminate targets of interest
previously obscured by folded or faulted
sediment, overlying salt layers or other complex
geologic bodies.3
Seismic acquisition and survey geometry are
only the starting points for seismic imaging.
Accompanied by onboard processing capabilities,
data reliability has vastly improved. In addition,
the application of robust seismic inversion and
imaging techniques, such as full waveform inversion and reverse time migration, allow geophysicists to deliver sharper images and estimate rock
properties for explorationists and reservoir
May 2016
Survey vessel
Streamers
line
Inli
Cross
ne
Seismic dataset
Figure 2. Marine seismic acquisition via conventional versus IsoMetrix technology. Conventional
surveys (left) are acquired using streamers of closely spaced hydrophones. The resultant seismic
dataset consists of a set of parallel vertical sections. Surveys acquired with IsoMetrix technology (right)
use streamers of closely spaced multisensor receiver units. The multiple components enable
interpolation between streamers, and the resultant dataset is a true 3D grid.
Oilfield Review
Fault
Average dip
~40 to 50
acc
60
ess
area
30
Average dip
~25
0
Structural dip, EW direction
Major faults, NS direction
Figure 3. Geologic structure. In the time structure map of the horizon of interest (left), the contour
interval is 100ms two-way traveltime. The black area is a major fault surface that dips to the east.
The white quadrilateral is the survey area, and a no-access area is west of it. The fault is 5 to 8km
[3 to 5mi] wide, has a NS strike and a throw of about 2.5s two-way traveltime. The horizon map on
the rightthe surface area at the prospective reservoir levelshows structural dips that have been
estimated from legacy seismic data. The dips are aligned along a WE trend.
Scenario 1
Scenario 2
6 km
m
5
km
Strik
km
Strik
6k
1
Dip
Dip
vey
Are
0 km
Enti
ur
re S
Ma
rve
n Su
y Ar
ea
ea
r
ss a
ea
rea
y Ar
ss a
urve
acce
ch S
No-
Pat
0 km
e
Zon
ault
in F
a
M
acce
No-
May 2016
Average dip
~7
N o-
Figure 4. Acquisition options. The survey was restricted by a no-access area on its western
boundary. The company geophysicists considered two options for acquiring the seismic data. In the
first option (left ), the acquisition vessel would sail the main survey area in the dip direction and then
reconfigure the streamers and sail the patch survey area, adjacent to the no-access boundary, in
the strike direction. In the second option (right ), the entire survey area would be acquired by sailing
in the direction of geologic strike and would parallel the no-access boundary. The company chose
the second option and elected to use IsoMetrix technology, which allows for reconstruction of the
wavefield sampled equally in both inline and crossline directions, to acquire the data.
5 km
5 km
10 100 m spread
6.25 6.25 m binning
5 5 m sampling
Figure 5. Seafloor features. Bathymetry data (left) were acquired using a multibeam echo sounder; the black arrows indicate features such as sand dunes,
waveforms, mounds and pockmarks on the seafloor. A map of the seafloor surface (right) from the seismic data, which were acquired using IsoMetrix
technology, showed similar features.
Control Swath
Production Volume
1s
1s
5s
5s
Figure 6. Comparing acquisition directions. Both seismic sections (left and right) are from identical
locations but resulted from perpendicular acquisition directions. The section on the left was from
the control swath acquired in the dip, or crossline, direction and stacked in the strike, or inline,
direction. The section on the right was from the production volume and acquired in the strike direction
but stacked in the dip direction. Except for subtle differences, the sections show similar results
and indicate that the IsoMetrix technology yields similar quality data regardless of the acquisition
direction. The magenta ovals indicate structures, or features, that appear different from one another
as a result of acquisition in the strike direction rather than in the dip direction.
Oilfield Review
W
0.5 s
Bjrnyrenna
fault complex
Hoop
fault complex
Bjrnyrenna
fault complex
A
A
Hoop
fault complex
Loppa High
5.0 s
N
0.5 s
Asterias
fault complex
Asterias
fault complex
B
B
Variance
Low
5.0 s
High
Reflection amplitude
Figure 7. Fault system. This seismic time slice (left) at 1,100ms is through
the Loppa High; the seismic attribute is displayed to emphasize the variance
in seismic reflectivityareas of high variance values are colored from
black to red and yellow. Three major fault systems, which show up as areas
of high variance, affected the Loppa High. The WE striking Asterias fault
complex crosses the Loppa structure in the south; the southern portion of
the SWNE striking Hoop fault complex cuts across and forms the narrow
May 2016
Loppa High graben and the Bjrnyrenna fault complex separates the
Loppa High from the Bjrnya basin (not shown) on the west. SectionsA
and B (right top and bottom) display grabens associated with the fault
systems. The northern portion of the Loppa structure is in the center of
SectionA. SectionB shows graben structures in the north associated with
the Hoop fault complex and in the south associated with the Asterias fault
complex, which separates the Loppa High from the Hammerfest basin.
W
0.5 s
5 km
5.0 s
Reflection amplitude
BCU
Seafloor
Tertiary
Upper Triassic-Jurassic
Lower-Middle Triassic
Late Carboniferous to
Permian carbonates
Carboniferous postrift
Evaporites
Carboniferous synrift
Pre-Carboniferous
basement
Figure 8. East Loppa regional seismic section. The seismic section (top) runs from the Loppa Ridge
in the west toward the Ottar basin in the east. The interpretation (bottom) is a balanced section,
which was modeled using the Dynel 2D restoration and forward modeling tool. This section shows
extensional rifting and synrift and postrift sediment deposition during the Carboniferous period.
During the Late Carboniferous to Permian, a carbonate platform developed and evaporate was
deposited. During the lower to middle Triassic uplifting and tilting of the Loppa High, karstification
of the carbonates and sedimentation of shales occurred. The upper Triassic and Jurassic periods
were characterized by high clastic sedimentation rates and floodplain development from rivers and
deltas. Rifting occurred again during the upper Jurassic to lower Cretaceous; the base Cretaceous
unconformity (BCU) defines the transition from synrift to postrift sedimentation. Finally, Tertiary
sediments occur above the BCU to the seafloor.
10
Loppa High area contains three major fault complexes.10 The Asterias fault complex forms the
southern boundary, which separates the Loppa
High from the Hammerfest basin to its south. The
southern portion of the Hoop fault complex
strikes SWNE and cuts across the Loppa structure as a narrow graben. The Bjrnyrenna fault
complex separates the Loppa High from the
Bjrnya basin on the west. Broadband seismic
images make it possible to delineate the fault
patterns and establish the regional structural
framework within the East Loppa Ridge survey
area. The structural framework influences local
petroleum systems.
The Gohta and Alta oil discoveries were in
reservoirs located in carbonates of the Gipsdalen
Group, which were deposited in warm, shallow
marine environments during the Late
Carboniferous to Permian periods and, since
then, have been altered by dolomitization and
karstification (Figure 8).11 Additional petroleum
systems elements in the Loppa High area include
reservoir prospects in Triassic sandstones, source
rocks in Carboniferous synrift and postrift sediments and in Permian and Triassic sediments
and seals formed by Triassic and Cretaceous
shales.12 The broadband East Loppa Ridge seismic dataset offers an opportunity for detailed
interpretation of the complex geology in the
Loppa High area.
The upper Paleozoic carbonates have been
the most promising stratigraphic level for Loppa
High exploration (Figure 9). Broadband seismic
data facilitate detailed mapping, analysis and
interpretation of the carbonate morphology,
which has polygonal ridges characteristic of modern carbonate platforms.
Oil has been discovered in the upper Triassic
Snadd Formation but at locations with low reservoir quality. Within the Snadd Formation, the
broadband seismic data reveal the fluvial system and aid automated mapping, which should
reduce the uncertainty of locating higher quality reservoir sands. The data show complex
Oilfield Review
Figure 9. Carbonate reservoir. The seismic time horizon of the top surface of
the Late Carboniferous to Permian-age Gipsdalen Group is shown in map
(left ) and perspective (right ) views. These views show a seismic attribute
that emphasizes edges on the surface. The surface in both views displays
polygonal ridges that are reminiscent of polygonal oceanic reef systems
observed in modern carbonate platform environments (inset).
May 2016
Variance
Low
High
11
12
Oilfield Review
high-frequency reverse time migration (RTM) performed directly in the natural shot domain after
GMP.23 The velocity model from FWI sharpened the
image of the control channel embedded into the
overburden of the initial velocity model and
highlighted additional channels (Figure 12).
1,700 m/s
2,025 m/s
1,625 m/s
2,225 m/s
2,500 m/s
1,500 m/s
2,025 m/s
1,700 m/s
2,025 m/s
1,625 m/s
2,225 m/s
2,500 m/s
1,500 m/s
Figure 12. Comparing models before and after full waveform inversion (FWI).
Both seismic sections (left top and bottom) show the same geology to a
depth of 1,200m [3,940ft] below sea level. The depth sections are the result
of Kirchhoff depth migration (KDM); the sections are overlain by the velocity
model (colors) that was used as input to KDM. The top section resulted
from KDM using the initial velocity model. The control channel is in the top
center and was given a higher velocity than its surroundings. The bottom
May 2016
2,025 m/s
section resulted after using the velocities output after completion of FWI.
The control channel is in better focus, and the velocities of other channels
are evident. The velocities of the overburden units have become more
defined. The images on the right are depth slices at 158, 278 and 844m
[518, 912 and 2,770ft] below sea level. Compared with the before FWI
processing results, geologic features (yellow arrows) have become better
defined after FWI processing.
13
1,700
1,500
Onla
Two-way traveltime, ms
1,600
1,800
1,900
2,000
2,100
1,600
1,700
1,800
1,900
2,000
2,100
Heimdal sandstone
1 km
n
trusio
-like in
Wing
Two-way traveltime, ms
1,500
Heimdal sandstone
1 km
Heimdal sandstone
Heimdal sandstone
Figure 13. Modeling results. A clear progression of improvement occurs from the legacy velocity
model and Kirchhoff depth migration (KDM, top) to the revised KDM using FWI model (middle) to the
high-resolution reverse time migration (RTM) also using the FWI model (bottom). The progression
demonstrates improved imaging of the steep dips and signal-to-noise characteristics in the reservoir
section, discriminating the Heimdal injectite, or intrusion, features (circled) from the background Lista
shales. The inset shows conceptual sketches of how the sandstone bodies or intrusions might have
become incorporated into the Lista shales above the Heimdal formation. (Inset adapted from Huuse
et al, reference 24.)
14
Oilfield Review
IsoMetrix Survey
1.7 km
Figure 14. Comparing images from ocean bottom cable (OBC) and IsoMetrix technologies. Both images
are seismic depth sections to a depth of 1,700m [5,600ft] below sea level. They show the same
geology extracted from datasets that have been processed using similar workflows through FWI
and prestack depth migration; in each case, the color overlay is the P-wave velocity model that
results after processing. For the 2008 OBC survey (left), the FWI processing was completed to a peak
frequency of 10 Hz before migration using KDM. For the 2012 survey using IsoMetrix technology (right),
the FWI processing was completed to a peak frequency of 5 Hz, followed by migration using highresolution RTM. Despite some differences in the two workflows, both used a 2.5Hz peak frequency for
the first FWI updates. After processing, the velocity model result from IsoMetrix technology has the
same, or better, resolution in the shallow overburden as the model result from the OBC survey.
Contributors
Anatoly Aseev, based in Moscow, was a Seismic
Interpreter for Schlumberger Multiclient seismic
projects from 2014 to 2016, with focus on the
Norwegian Continental Shelf area. He began his career
in 2006 as a geologist with Rosneft in Krasnodar,
Russia, and worked on exploration projects in
the Ciscaucasia basin. He joined Schlumberger
PetroTechnical Services (PTS) in 2011 and served
as a geologist and then senior geologist working on
exploration projects in the Timan-Pechora, West
Siberia, Barents Sea and West Black Sea basins.
Anatoly holds an MSc degree in petroleum geology
from the North-Caucasus Federal University, Stavropol,
Russia. He is pursuing a PhD degree in regional
geology from Lomonosov Moscow State University.
Sandeep Kumar Chandola is a Custodian of
Geophysics with PETRONAS Carigali Sdn Bhd in
Kuala Lumpur. He served with Oil and Natural Gas
Corporation, the Indian national oil company, for
more than 20 years before joining Petronas Carigali
in 2005. His work has supported the design of 3D
acquisition geometries and the introduction of new
geophysical technologies to the company. He has a
masters degree in physics from Hemvati Nandan
Bahuguna Garhwal University, Sringar, Uttarakhand,
India, and a specialized diploma in petroleum
geophysics from the Indian Institute of Technology
(IIT) Roorkee, Uttarakhand. He is a member of the
SEG, the European Association of Geoscientists and
Engineers and the Society of Petroleum Geophysicists
(India), an SEG Honorary Lecturer and an adjunct
lecturer at Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, Malaysia.
Sandeep has authored more than 50 publications and
is a recipient of the National Petroleum Management
Programme Award for Excellence from the government
of India.
Chris Cunnell leads Technical Sales and Marketing
of IsoMetrix* for WesternGeco in Gatwick, England.
Chris, who has more than 20 years of geophysics
experience, joined Schlumberger in 1997 and has
May 2016
15
Jol Le Calvez
Raj Malpani
Jian Xu
Houston, Texas, USA
Jerry Stokes
Mid-Continent Geological, Inc.
Fort Worth, Texas
Michael Williams
Cambridge, England
Oilfield Review 28, no. 2 (May 2016).
Copyright 2016 Schlumberger.
For help in preparation of this article, thanks to Julian Drew,
Perth, Western Australia, Australia; Tony Probert and
Ian Bradford, Cambridge, England; and Nancy Zakhour,
Callon Petroleum, Houston.
CMM, ECLIPSE, Mangrove, MS Recon, NetMod, Petrel,
ThruBit, UFM, VISAGE, VSI and VSI-40 are marks of
Schlumberger.
1. Seismic waves convey energy by means of the particle
motion of solid materials.
2. For more on fracture diagnostic techniques: Bennett L,
Le Calvez J, Sarver DR, Tanner K, Birk WS, Waters G,
Drew J, Michaud G, Primiero P, Eisner L, Jones R,
Leslie D, Williams MJ, Govenlock J, Klem RC and
Tezuka K: The Source for Hydraulic Fracture
Characterization, Oilfield Review 17, no. 4
(Winter 2005): 4257.
3. A tiltmeter measures minute rotationschanges of
inclinationof the ground in which it is embedded.
16
Operators producing from unconventional reservoir plays face many challenges. Fluid flow
through unconventional reservoir rocks is limited by matrix permeability, which is generally
several orders of magnitude smaller than that of
conventional reservoir rocks. Preexisting faults
and fracture networks often provide pathways
for the flow of hydrocarbons and play an important role in increasing reservoir drainage volumes. Hydraulic fracture stimulation treatments
can often connect the wellbore to existing natural fracture networks; however, effective stimulation requires knowledge of the distribution of
those networks.
Well completion engineers use geomechanical and fracture models to plan where to initiate
hydraulic fractures and predict their propagation
through the reservoir. These models require calibration and validation. Microseismic monitoring
has proved to be a viable means for calibrating
the models and for providing empirical data
about the effectiveness of stimulation operations.
Microseismic monitoring is a technique that
records and locates microseismic eventscollectively referred to as microseismicitywhich
are small bursts of seismic wave energy generated by minute rock movements in response to
changes of the in situ stresses and rock volume
such as those that occur during fracture stimulation operations.1 During these operations, fractures are created by injecting fluid at high
pressure. These fractures propagate and are then
held open using a solid proppant. Mapping the
spatial and temporal pattern of these events has
proved successful for monitoring the progress of
Oilfield Review
May 2016
17
Treatment well
Monitoring well
Microseismic event
Sensors
Reservoir
Stimulated volume
Anchoring
arm
Shaker
Three y
component x
accelerometers z
Isolation
spring
Coupling
contacts
Shaker
z
x
18
Oilfield Review
May 2016
19
7,200
17:00
19:00
20:00
Time, hr:min
18:00
Z-axis
Depth, ft
21:00
22:00
8,000
7,120,000
Y-axis SN, ft
7,130,000
8,400
North
Figure 2. Microseismicity and effective stimulated volume. Located events (circles, color-coded
according to time) were generated during the stimulation of a horizontal well (red line) in the Barnett
Shale in Denton County, Texas. Analysts built 3D cells in a model of the monitored volume of the reservoir.
They counted the number of events that exceeded a predetermined threshold in each cell and calculated
the resulting stimulated volume within the cells. The green envelope gives the effective stimulated
volume, estimated here at 180millionft3 [5million m3]. Yellow and blue disks on the horizontal well
mark perforation clusters for stimulation Stages 1 and 2, respectively. Isolated events shown outside
the green envelope are not considered hydraulically connected to the stimulated volume. (Adapted from
Le Calvez et al, reference 59.)
20
Oilfield Review
May 2016
21
Line 3
1,000 ft
Line 4
Line 7
Line 2
Downhole array
Well M
Well 1H
Well 3
Line 5
Well 4
Well 5
Line 1
Line 6
Well 2
Well 1
Shallow well
2D patch
Well 2H
Depth, ft
Treatment well
Well M
1,000 ft
Well 1H
Well 2H
Figure 4. Fayetteville Shale MSM operation. The map view (top) shows the sensor network layout
for a Fayetteville Shale stimulation. The 4,100-channel surface seismic array consisted of five radial
lines (red, Lines 1 through 5) offset and emanating from the treatment wellhead, two crosslines (red,
Lines6 and 7) and three areal 2D patches (green squares). Data were also acquired using sensors
deployed in a deep horizontal borehole (yellow), in one deep monitoring well (green) and in five vertical
shallow wells (blue circles).The vertical section view (bottom) shows well trajectories used for the MS
monitoring. The trajectories of treatment Wells 1H and 2H are shown in gray and yellow, respectively.
WellM (green) is shown along with the vertical monitoring wells (blue). (Adapted from Schilke et al,
reference28.)
22
8,000ft [915, 1,520 and 2,440m] from the treatment wellhead. Time synchronization between
all recording systems ensured that the same MS
events could be identified on all monitoring systems (Figure 5).27
Data from this comprehensive test allowed
analysts to compare the effectiveness of nearReview
surface and Oilfield
downhole
hydraulic fracture moniMAY 16
toring. Analysts observed that surface array line
Microseismic Fig 4
segments canORMAY
mitigate16
surface-wave
MCSMC 4 noise from a
known source, such as treatment wellhead
pumps, but are less effective against distributed
or moving sources of noise, which may be dominant in areas covered by the array.28 Surface
patches2D arrays of closely spaced sensors
can effectively remove noise coming from multi-
Oilfield Review
MSM wells
Vertical
array
Horizontal array
MSM Wells
Figure 5. Data record from one microseismic event. A microseismic event was detected across the
downhole, near-surface and surface sensor arrays during a test in the Fayetteville Shale. The modeled
waveforms (top, purple) from the event are shown along with sensor positions (green). Waveforms
propagate from the events hypocenter, the location of which was estimated from the data. Recorded
waveforms from the event are shown from the vertical seismic array (middle left), the array in the
horizontal monitoring well (bottom left ) and the 3C arrays in the five shallow vertical MSM wells
(middle right). Five stacked traces from the vertical component waveforms recorded on the five
surface radial lines are also shown (lower right ). (Adapted from Peyret et al, reference27.)
May 2016
23
24
18
16
14
Production, %
Es = 0.5 (s / ) Mo.
12
R 2 = 0.80
10
8
6
4
2
0
400
500
600
700
800
900
1,000
ESV, 1,000 ft 3
879,000
878,000
Production
data
Y-axis, ft
Mo D A.
877,000
Monitoring well
876,000
1,538,000
1,539,000
1,540,000
1,541,000
X-axis, ft
Figure 7. Eagle Ford Shale effective stimulation. The map view (bottom)
shows MS events (colored dots), effective stimulated volume (ESVs, colored
opaque envelopes) and production log results (dashed red lines) for the
stimulation of a horizontal well (dashed blue line) in the Eagle Ford Shale in
Texas. The ESVs were calculated based on the density and magnitude of MS
events for each perforated interval. The length of the bisecting red lines from
the production data are related to the contribution of individual perforation
clusters to the total flow of hydrocarbons. Engineers observed a definite
correlation (top) between production contribution from individual perforated
intervals (red circles) and the ESV derived from the hydraulic fracture model
analysis. For the plotted data, R2 is a linear regression measurement related
to the quality of curve fitting. A value of 0.80 indicates a good fit. (Adapted
from Inamdar etal, reference33.)
Oilfield Review
MAY 16
Microseismic Fig 7
ORMAY 16 MCSMC 7
Oilfield Review
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
25
0.8
30
1.1
45
7,800
40
35
1.2
50
40
7,600
Pump rate
35
7,400
30
7,200
Proppant concentration
7,000
25
Cumulative moment
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
20
6,800
15
6,600
10
6,400
10
6,200
0.1
6,000
20
Event rate
1 am
2 am
3 am
4 am
15
1.4
1.3
55
8,000
45
8,200
50
1.6
1.0
Pressure
55
1.8
1.2
60
8,400
60
2.0
0.4
0.3
0.2
5 am
Time of day
Figure 8. Cumulative seismic moment. Engineers plotted cumulative seismic moment (black) along with the MS event rate (gray
vertical bars) and pumping parameters to help them understand fracture stimulation job performance during the treatment of a
well in the Eagle Ford Shale. The pump rate (blue), surface pressure (red) and proppant concentration (green) are shown. Analysts
use these plots to identify the time-dependent response of MS events to the stimulation. An abrupt increase in cumulative seismic
moment indicated that deformation increased significantly about halfway through the planned pumping schedule. By comparing
multiple treatments, engineers can determine how microseismicity changes in response to adjustments to the pumping schedule
and whether it is consistent across stages. (Adapted from Downie et al, reference34.)
May 2016
Engineers may compare time series of cumulative moment and stimulation treatment data to
better understand the stimulation process
(Figure 8). An increase in cumulative moment
over time indicates progressive deformation.
Maps of final values of cumulative moment indicate the spatial distribution of seismic deformation observed during the stimulation. Because
large, detectable events contribute significantly
more moment than numerous, small, undetectable events, cumulative moment provides a measure of stimulation response that is less sensitive
to monitoring bias than is an ESV based on event
locations alone. Using 3D mapping of seismic
moment or cumulative moment provides insight
Oilfield Review
MAY 16
the SPETight Gas Completions Conference, SanAntonio,
Microseismic
Texas, November
23, 2010.Fig 8
ORMAY
16D,MCSMC
34. Downie R,
Xu J, Grant
Malpani R 8
and Viswanathan A:
Utilization of Microseismic Event Source Parameters
for the Calibration of Complex Hydraulic Fracture
Models, paper SPE 163873, presented at the
SPEHydraulic Fracturing Technology Conference,
The Woodlands, Texas, February 46, 2013.
35. Seismic sources are formally treated as displacement
discontinuities to describe the difference in motion of
material on opposing faces of fracture surfaces. This
motion need not be parallel to the surfaces.
25
1.0
Magnitude of completeness, Mc
Cumulative frequency
Gutenberg-Richter relationship
log10 N = a b M.
0.1
Events
0.01
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
Moment magnitude
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
2.0
2.5
log10 (C (l))
3.0
Oilfield Review
MAY 16
Microseismic Fig 9
ORMAY 16 MCSMC 9
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
log10 (l)
Figure 10. Plot of D-values. The D-value is estimated from the slope of the
line of event locations during a stimulation in the Barnett Shale in Denton
County, Texas. The cumulative distribution of interevent distances, C(l), is the
total number of MS events (purple circles) that have hypocenters separated
by a distance of l meters or less. The circles represent measured data
and show a good match with the modeled data (dashed black line), which
corresponds to D=1.86. This D-value indicates a near-planar distribution
of event locations for a range of intermediate distances around the event.
The closer and more distant events trend away from straight-line behavior.
(Adapted from Williams et al, reference 61.)
26
Oilfield Review
May 2016
Perforation
cluster
Well
Expansion
Opening
Slip
Figure 11. Source mechanism expansion, opening and slip. The estimated moment tensor for
each event detected during a well stimulation stage (top) has been decomposed into expansion,
opening and slip components and displayed as glyphs. For reference, the well (magenta) is shown
with perforation clusters (red disks). A glyph is composed of two disks and a wireframe sphere
superimposed over them (bottom). The wireframe sphere represents expansion if red or contraction
if blue. The thickness of the disks represents opening, and their relative displacement represents the
degree of slip. The glyphs central plane, which is parallel to the disks planar surfaces, is oriented
with respect to the strike and dip of the fracture plane activated or caused by the event. (Adapted from
Leaney et al, reference47.)
27
Data
Product
Seismic
Structure
Natural fractures and faults
Rock properties
Stress variations
Microseismic Monitoring
Event processing
Interpretation
Visualization
Real-time Treatment
Modification
Modify pump rate
Modify proppant schedule
Continue or abort job
Model
Logs, Cores
and Petrophysics
Natural fractures
Rock properties
Stress profile and anisotropy
Reservoir properties
Completion and
Stimulation
Perforation locations
Stage sequence
Treatment data
Flow
Production logs
Production data
Earth Models
Velocity model
1D or 3D MEM
Geologic model
Reservoir model
DFN
Reservoir
Simulation Models
Reservoir model calibration
conductivity distribution
strategy
Reservoir Simulation
Production profile
Hydrocarbon recovery
Drainage architecture
Figure 12. Workflow for completion and stimulation design and field development applications
of microseismic mapping. Using seismic data, well logs and core data along with treatment and
production data (left), engineers build a series of earth models and discrete fracture network (DFN)
models (middle). They use these models to generate hydraulic fracture predictions for the fracture
geometry and conductivity distribution resulting from stimulation operations. They also use MS event
locations and deformation to calibrate the earth and fracture models. Reservoir engineers are then
able to predict fracture network geometry and conductivity and generate reservoir performance
simulations (right). (Adapted from Cipolla et al, reference 39.)
the stimulated fracture network development the UFM unconventional fracture model can then
be used to predict the fracture geometries that
and control reservoir productivity.50
Hydraulic fracturing creates a tensile frac- result from the stimulation.54
ture that opens slowly, and most of the rock
Modelers can use treatment data such as pump
deformation occurs aseismically at much lower pressure, fluid volumes and proppant loadings as
frequencies than the typical MS signal band.51 inputs to the numerical calculations and then use
Shear deformation occurs in the process zone MS data to constrain the results. These UFM simuaround the fracture tip, in the vicinity of the frac- lations yield predictions of stimulated fracture
ture face as a result of leakoff into preexisting geometry and conductivity distributions. Analysts
natural fractures and at doglegs and other geo- iteratively calibrate the model by adjusting the
metric deflections. In contrast to the aseismic input parameters to the UFM simulation to achieve
nature of tensile dilation, shear deformation a match between fracture geometry predictions
often emits sudden, high-frequency, audible seis- and observed MS event locations and deformation,
Oilfield Review
or seismic moments (Figure 14). Adjustable
mic energy.
MAY 16
Reservoir engineers have developedMicroseismic
a variety parameters
Fig 12 include horizontal stresses and propORMAY 16 MCSMC
12 DFN and fracturing fluid. Analysts use
erties of the
of approaches to characterize poststimulation
fracture networks (Figure 12).52 In one approach, volumes of fluids pumped and stresses to constrain
analysts use information from seismic reflection the fracture model to reduce the set of possible
surveys, well logs and cores to build a DFN, which solutions. They conduct sensitivity analyses to
they combine with a set of earth models to determine how much the answer changes as input
describe the reservoir and surrounding forma- parameters are varied and to ensure that non
tions.53 Fracture information may often be unique multiple solutions give results that are
derived from resistivity or ultrasonic image logs reasonable in terms of predicted production.
(Figure 13). Hydraulic fracture models such as
28
Oilfield Review
0
330
Start
30
300
Observations: Logs,
seismic data and natural fractures
60
DFN Realization
90
270
240
150
210
180
Microseismic Events
Comparison
Match?
No
Yes
1,000 ft
Output
fracture
model
May 2016
Figure 14. Flowchart for calibrating UFM processing and DFN simulations.
Analysts build a DFN model (top right, light gray lines) based on geologic,
geophysical, well log and core data. Preexisting discrete fractures
directly affect the hydraulic fracture system. The UFM simulations predict
fracture geometry (middle right, heavy blue lines) based on treatment
parameters and an earth model that includes the estimated stress field.
The stress field can be calculated with a 3D geomechanical simulator
using wellbore measurements as calibration points. Analysts compared
the fracture geometry predicted from UFM processing with maps of the
observed MS event pattern (bottom left, red dots), taking into consideration
the deformation represented by the seismic moment obtained from MS
monitoring. The engineers then executed an iterative calibration loop,
adjusting UFM processing inputs for multiple DFN realizations (bottom
right ) to arrive at the best overall agreement between the modeled fracture
geometries and the observed deformations. (Adapted from Cipolla et al,
reference54.)
Oilfield Review
MAY 16
Microseismic Fig 15
ORMAY 16 MCSMC 15
29
Monitor Well C
Stimulation stage
Geophones
1
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Well plug
Treatment Wells
A and B
Austin Chalk
Eagle Ford
Shale
Buda
Limestone
6,000
6,400
6,800
Depth, ft
7,200
Major fault
7,600
8,000
Oilfield Review
MAY 16
Microseismic Fig 16
ORMAY 16 MCSMC 16
8,400
0
8,80
1H
3H
40
0
ft
2H
Figure 16. Trajectories of three wells to be stimulated in the Barnett Shale in relation to a fault system
mapped from 3D surface seismic data. Proximity of faults can influence the local stress field, affecting
induced fracture propagation and associated microseismicity. The well stimulation plans for these
operations included a buffer zone containing no perforations in Wells1H, 2H and 3H near a major fault
(aqua surface). The colored disks represent the perforation intervals for the stimulation stages; no
stimulation stages were attempted south of the fault in Wells1H and 3H. (Adapted from Le Calvez et al,
reference 59.)
30
Engineered Completions
The Eagle Ford Formation, an upper Cretaceous
marl in South Texas, is a target for oil and gas
development. Because the formation is highly
laminated and has ultralow permeability, effective completion designs are required to maximize
production. In September 2013, an operator
tested MSM as a method for guiding hydraulic
fracture operations and evaluating fault interactions during stimulation.
The operator drilled two horizontal lateral
wells in the gas-condensate window of the Eagle
Ford Shale trend in Karnes County, Texas. These
wells, which were drilled parallel to each other
and approximately 330ft [100m] apart, crossed
a major fault. After the operator drilled the wells,
measurements of petrophysical and geomechanical properties were acquired using the ThruBit
through-the-bit logging services.55 Using the
Mangrove engineered stimulation design module
in the Petrel platform, engineers developed a
completion design for one of the two laterals.56
Oilfield Review
May 2016
Well 1H
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
1H
2H
3H
Well 2H
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Y-axis, ft
Well 3H
Stage 1
Stage 2
Stage 3
Stage 4
Stage 5
400 ft
400 ft
X-axis, ft
Maximizing Recovery
In 2011, engineers and geoscientists with Teleo
Operating, LLC and Eagleridge Energy, LLC conducted a multistage, multilateral stimulation in
the Barnett Shale in Denton County, Texas. The
operators drilled three parallel horizontal wells
into the lower Barnett Shale. Well trajectories
were about 500 ft [150 m] apart; the central well
was landed about 80 ft [25 m] shallower than the
outside laterals. Because of lease boundary constraints, the wells had to be placed in the vicinity
of several large faults. The lateral sections of the
Oilfield
Review
wells were drilled away
from
the major fault and
MAY(Figure
16 16). Fault throws
through a smaller fault
16 MCSMC
18 T,
55. For more on ThruBitORMAY
services: Aivalis
J, Meszaros
Porter R, Reischman R, Ridley R, Wells P, Crouch BW,
Reid TL and Simpson GA: Logging Through the Bit,
Oilfield Review 24, no. 2 (Summer 2012): 4453.
56. For more on the Mangrove service: Ajayi B, Aso II,
Terry IJ Jr, Walker K, Wutherich K, Caplan J,
GerdomDW, Clark BD, Ganguly U, Li X, Xu Y, Yang H,
LiuH, Luo Y and Waters G: Stimulation Design for
Unconventional Resources, Oilfield Review 25, no. 2
(Summer 2013): 3446.
57. For more on determining reservoir and completion
quality: Slocombe R, Acock A, Fisher K, Viswanathan A,
Microseismic Fig 18
31
Fault
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
3H
1H
30
2H
20
10
0
100
Fault
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
3H
10
1H
2H
Figure 18. Geomechanical modeling using finite element analysis. The stimulation of the Barnett
Shale Well3H, Stage5, was near a major fault. The fault plane projections (olive green) are shown
intersecting Wells1H (blue), 2H(green) and 3H(yellow). Simulations were run for materials near the
fault that had equivalent high stiffness (top) and low stiffness (bottom). The fault properties affect the
extent of the region perturbed by fracturing in the simulations. Analysts consider the region perturbed
by fracturing to be similar to the region where microseismicity occurs. In this case, failure and
microseismicity are expected to be limited in the region near the fault. The colored volumes show only
the simulation elements where the stresses are perturbed toward failure by the stimulation. The colors
correspond to the minimum in situ effective stress; purple is low compression, showing the region
where tensile failure is most likely to occur, and red is high compression. (Adapted from Williams et al,
reference 61.)
During zipper fracturing of Wells 1H and 3H, of the target depth interval. Observations
interpretation of MS event location trends indi- revealed downward fracture growth and alerted
cated the hydraulic fracture azimuth, N5055E, the operator to stop pumping to avoid fracturing
was consistent with the expected maximum hori- into the water-bearing Viola Limestone below the
zontal stress direction; however, the extent of the zone of interest. During another stage, engineers
microseismicity varied from stage to stage. The recognized that the planar alignment of MS
MS locations for the early stages, near the toe of events indicated slip along a fault and were able
Review
to stop pumping for that stage and bypass a
the wells, extended farther from the Oilfield
wellbore
MAY
16
faulted zone before resuming stimulation.
than those observed during later stages,
toward
Microseismic Fig 19
the heel of the wells. These later stages were Microseismic monitoring allowed the operator to
ORMAY 16 MCSMC 19
closer to the main fault and displayed a more modify the stimulation program during the ongocompact microseismicity pattern and shorter ing job operation.59
fracture wings away from the wellbore.
Postsurvey modeling and data integration
The MS locations observed in these later provided a more complete explanation of the
stages overlapped with those observed in some stimulation and MS responses.60 Analysts conearly stages. Several later stages near the heels of structed a complete history of the treatment
the wells displayed microseismicity that was out
32
using a range of analytical techniques and incorporated summary statistics of MS event attributes within the workflow. Event attributes
included seismic moment and moment magnitude. From these parameters, analysts determined summary b-value statistics and inferred
relative stress magnitudes for each stimulation
stage.61 They used D-value estimates to extract
fracture planes from the clouds of microseismic
eventsD-values near two indicated planar
alignmentsand then used the planes for DFN
construction. Monitoring geometries that can
provide full MTI offer an additional means to constrain DFN construction and modeling but were
not available in this study. Additional input to the
analysis included earth model parameters such
as the rock mechanical properties of layers and
natural fracture geometries along with stimulation data such as well geometry, flow rates, fluid
types and surface pumping pressures.
Engineers combined the Mangrove, UFM and
VISAGE software to model the hydraulic fracturing process, the interaction of induced and natural fractures and the stress field.62 These models
predicted the chronological development of the
interconnected fracture network and were calibrated iteratively using the observed evolution of
MS activity. They tested fracture propagation scenarios by matching time-distance relationships
within the microseismicity pattern and then
iteratively improved the interpretation by updating the location and properties of the natural
fractures. Engineers constrained the simulation
using material balance, which reconciled the
fracture volume opened during stimulation with
the volumes of pumped fluid and proppant and
the volume of fluid estimated to have leaked off
into the formation. The simulation provided a
description of proppant placement together with
a prediction of which natural fractures might
59. Le Calvez J, Xu W, Williams M, Stokes J, Moros H,
Maxwell S and Conners S: Unconventional Approaches
for an Unconventional Faulted ReservoirFrom Target
Selection to Post-Stimulation Analysis, paper P336,
presented at the 73rd EAGE Conference and Exhibition,
Vienna, Austria (May 2326, 2011).
60. Williams MJ, Le Calvez JH and Stokes J: Towards
Self-Consistent Microseismic-Based Interpretation of
Hydraulic Stimulation, paper Th 01 15, presented at
the 75th EAGE Conference and Exhibition, London,
June 1013, 2013.
61. Williams MJ, Le Calvez JH, Conners S, Xu W:
Integrated Microseismic and Geomechanical Study in
the Barnett Shale Formation, Geophysics 81, no. 3
(MayJune 2016): 113.
62. In the Barnett Shale case study, Schlumberger
engineers used Mangrove software with the UFM
complex fracture simulator to model fracture interaction
and the VISAGE simulator to model stress.
63. For more on modeling of faulted rock masses: PandeGN,
Beer G and Williams JR: Numerical Methods in Rock
Mechanics. Chichester, New York, USA: John Wiley
and Sons Ltd., 1990.
Oilfield Review
large values of fault-related stiffness. By simulating all stages and varying fault-related stiffness,
modelers demonstrated that the interaction with
the fault was consistent with microseismicity
that was more compact in the stages toward the
heel than in those toward the toe. The understanding of fault interaction gained from this
case study should benefit reservoir engineers
planning future refracturing operations in these
wells or stimulation treatments in nearby wells.
Challenges and the Future
As operators develop unconventional resources,
determining the optimum well spacing and completion strategies that maximize ultimate recovery is critical. To help operators achieve these
objectives, MSM provides key data for constraining and calibrating models used to help geoscientists with data interpretation and integration.
Microseismicity is induced as the reservoir and
adjoining formations respond to stimulation
treatments. Models used to predict how these formations should respond to stimulations must
simulate and faithfully reproduce the observed
microseismicity. Challenges for geoscientists are
the accurate measurement of MS events and
extracting of maximal information from them.
Contributors
Jol Le Calvez is a Schlumberger Geophysics Advisor
and Microseismic Domain Expert in Houston. He works
on development and commercialization of microseismic
and borehole seismic products while heading a team
of geophysicists, geologists and stimulation engineers
working on various plays around the world. He has managed the Microseismic Services Answer Product Center
and the borehole seismic processing and crosswell seismic groups in Houston since 2014. His main responsibilities are the processing and interpretation of data for
geologic, geophysical and geomechanical applications.
He also works with product centers defining and testing
software programs and with research centers on defining and testing of algorithms. Jol joined Schlumberger
in 2001, and after several years in the field acquiring
and processing seismic data, he led the microseismic
processing and interpretation team in Dallas from 2008
until 2011. He then moved to Houston to manage the
North America microseismic processing and interpretation center. He earned a BSc degree in mathematics and
physics and an MSc degree in geology and geophysics,
both from the Universit de Nice Sophia Antipolis,
France; a Diplme dEtudes Approfondies in tectonophysics from the Universit Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris;
and a PhD degree in geology from The University of
Texas at Austin, USA.
Raj Malpani is a Senior Completions and Production
Engineer with Schlumberger Technology Corporation
in Houston. For the past 10 years, he has been a part
of integrated teams that address technical challenges
pertaining to unconventional reservoirs. His interests
May 2016
include hydraulic fracture treatment design and evaluation, production data analysis, reservoir simulation,
geomechanics, microseismic monitoring, restimulation,
multiwell pad development and weak interface modeling. Raj holds a BTech degree in petrochemical engineering from Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological
University, Lonere, Maharashtra, India, and an
MSdegree in petroleum engineering from Texas A&M
University, College Station.
Jerry Stokes is the President and Owner of MidContinent Geological, Inc. in Fort Worth, Texas. He has
been a certified petroleum geologist with the AAPG for
more than 35 years. Since 1987, he has been involved
in oil and gas exploration, geologic consulting and sales
and marketing of geologic projects throughout Texas
and nearby states. As a geologist for Panhandle Eastern
Pipeline, Jerry was responsible for the early development of underground gas storage fields in Kansas,
Louisiana, Illinois and Michigan, USA. He then worked
for Rust Oil Corporation as the exploration manager
for the Permian basin. He is a member of the Society of
Independent Professional Earth Scientists and the Fort
Worth Wildcatters. Jerry has a BSc degree in geology
and geophysics from Texas Tech University, Lubbock.
Michael Williams is a Principal Reservoir Engineer in
Geophysics at Schlumberger Gould Research (SGR),
Cambridge, England. Since 2008, he has worked in the
area of interpretation of microseismicity, specifically
the accurate recovery of statistical information from
detection-limited microseismic data, and the application
of microseismic interpretation to reservoir simulation
33
Nausha Asrar
Bruce MacKay
Sugar Land, Texas, USA
ystein Birketveit
Marko Stipanicev
Bergen, Norway
Joshua E. Jackson
G2MT Laboratories, LLC
Houston, Texas
Alyn Jenkins
Aberdeen, Scotland
Denis Mlot
Total
Paris, France
Jan Scheie
Stavanger, Norway
Jean Vittonato
Total
Pau, France
Oilfield Review 28, no. 2 (May 2016).
Copyright 2016 Schlumberger.
DS-1617 is mark of M-I LLC.
Hastelloy is a registered trademark of
Haynes International, Inc.
Inconel and Monel are trademarks of
Special Metals Corporation.
34
Oilfield Review
According to the US Federal Highway Administration, the approximate annual direct cost of
corrosion for the US in 2015 was an estimated
US$500 billion, representing around 3.1% of
the nations gross domestic product.1 This figure
amounts to six times the average annual cost of
weather-related disasters for the US, which was
about US$87 billion in 2011.2 Unlike weather
events, corrosion can be controlled or at least
managed; scientists estimate that 25% to 30% of
corrosion costs could be avoided if good corrosion
management practices and preventive strategies
were employed.3
Throughout the ages, and despite an early
lack of understanding concerning the fundamental mechanisms involved, humans have attempted
to control corrosion. In ancient times, corrosion
resistance was sometimes imparted to materials
as a matter of circumstance rather than design
(Figure 1).4 Early corrosion control methods
included the use of bitumen and lead-based
paints by the Romans in the first century. Around
500BCE, Chinese sword makers used copper
sulfide coatings to inhibit corrosion on bronze
swords. Centuries later, the copper sheathing
used on British sailing vessels to reduce biofoulingfouling of underwater surfaces by organisms
such as barnacles and algaeand increase speed
accelerated the corrosion of nails that held the
ships together.5
1. Koch GH, Brongers MPH, Thompson NG, Virmani YP and
Payer JH: Corrosion Costs and Preventive Strategies in
the United States, Washington, DC: US Department of
Transportation Federal Highway Administration,
Publication FHWA-RD-01-156, March 2002.
Jackson JE: Corrosion Will Cost the US Economy over
$1 Trillion in 2015, G2MT Laboratories, http://
www.g2mtlabs.com/corrosion/cost-of-corrosion/
(accessed January 6, 2016).
Papavinasam S: Corrosion Control in the Oil and Gas
Industry. Waltham, Massachusetts, USA: Gulf
Professional Publishing, 2014.
2. The US$ 87 billion cost of weather-related disasters in
2011 was the highest on record. The average annual cost
has been closer to US$ 10 billion in recent years. For
more on the cost of weather-related disasters: Smith AB
and Katz RW: U.S. Billion-Dollar Weather and Climate
Disasters: Data Sources, Trends, Accuracy and Biases,
Natural Hazards 67, no. 2 (June 2013): 387410.
3. Chillingar GV, Mourhatch R and Al-Qahtani GD: The
Fundamentals of Corrosion and Scaling for Petroleum
and Environmental Engineers. Houston: Gulf Publishing
Company, 2008.
4. Kumar AVR and Balasubramaniam R: Corrosion Product
Analysis of Corrosion Resistant Ancient Indian Iron,
Corrosion Science 40, no. 7 (July 1, 1998): 11691178.
Balasubramaniam R: Story of the Delhi Iron Pillar. Delhi,
India: Foundation Books Pvt. Ltd, Cambridge House, 2005.
5. Groysman A: Corrosion for Everybody. Dordrecht, The
Netherlands: Springer Science+Business Media, 2010.
6. Ahmad Z: Principles of Corrosion Engineering and
Control, 1st ed. Burlington, Massachusetts: ButterworthHeinemann, 2006.
7. Kermani MB and Harrop D: The Impact of Corrosion on
the Oil and Gas Industry, SPE Production & Facilities 11,
no. 3 (August 1996).
May 2016
PA
S
KI
TA
C H I N A
NEP
AL
New Delhi
BANGLADESH
I
Mumbai
0
0
km
500
miles
SRI LANKA
500
Figure 1. Delhi pillar. This iron pillar is located in the Qutub Complex in New Delhi, Delhi, India (inset).
It is about 9.1m [30ft] tall and weighs approximately 6,000kg [13,200lbm]. Erected in 400CE, the
pillar is essentially free of the typical rusting that would be expected to take place over 1,600years
of exposure. Reasons for the lack of corrosion include New Delhis low humidity but are primarily
attributed to the high concentration of phosphorus in the iron.
Michael Faraday was one of the most important contributors to the early understanding of
corrosion; in the early 1800s, he established a
quantitative relationship between the chemical action of corrosion and electric current.6
Although much more is known about the subject
today, scientists continue to study the mecha-
Oilfield Review
MAY 16
Refining
Corrosion
Fig 1 Distribution
3.7
ORMAY 16 CRSSN 1 5.0
Production
1.4
Storage
7.0
Tankers
2.7
Pipelines
7.0
35
Anodic reaction
Fe0 Fe2+ + 2e
Cathodic reaction
H2O + 2e 0.5 O2 + 2OH
Fe2+ + 2OH Fe(OH) 2
OH
OH
Water
OH
Fe 2+
Fe0
Fe(OH) 2
Anode
Fe(OH) 2
Fe 0
Cathode
Electron flow
Fe0
Fe 0
Steel
Figure 3. Corrosion cell. When steel in water rusts, several reactions take
place simultaneously. At the anode, steel [Fe0] goes readily into solution to
form ferrous iron [Fe2+] and ferric iron [Fe3+] (not shown) ions, and electrons
move to the cathode. Electrons at the cathode react with water [H2O] to
form oxygen [O2] and hydroxyl [OH] ions. The OH ions combine with the
solubilized Fe2+ to form iron hydroxide [Fe(OH)2].
36
Iron can also react with CO2 to form iron carbonate [FeCO3] and with H2S to form iron sulfides
[FexSx]. In the absence of O2 but the presence of
CO2 and H2S, the cathodic reaction can generate
hydrogen gas.
These reactions can occur rapidly, but if the
reaction rate can be reduced, the overall corrosion rate will also be reduced. Many factors influence the reaction rate. These include the type
and quality of metal, electrolyte compositions,
pH, temperature, pressure, presence of dissolved
gases, liquid velocity, water salinity, application of cathodic protection and the presence of
microbes.11 To manage corrosion and corrosion
rate, knowledge of the metallurgy of the materials to be used and the environments in which
they will operate is important.
If CO2 comes into contact with water in the
producing or transportation system of an oil and
gas operation, areas typically affected include
well internals, gathering lines and pipelines. In
CO2 corrosion of iron, the products of reaction
are carbonic acid, iron carbonate [FeCO3] and
hydrogen gas [H2].12 For CO2 corrosion to occur,
the partial pressure of the gas can be as low as
21kPa [3 psi]. To prevent this type of corrosion,
operators commonly use organic films that act as
barriers and inhibitors that neutralize the acidity
of the carbonic acid generated in the corrosion
process. Operators may also use corrosion resistant alloys (CRAs), which are resistant to general
and localized corrosion, in environments that are
corrosive to carbon and low-alloy steels.
Hydrogen sulfide is often found in produced
fluids or as a result of MIC.13 Although H2S is not
corrosive, it becomes corrosive in the presence
of water.14 Sour corrosion from H2S can affect
any part of the producing system, including well
internals and oil and gas gathering lines. Oilfield
fluids are considered sour if the produced gas contains more than 5.7mg of H2S per m3 [4parts per
million (ppm)] of natural gas or produced water
has greater than 5ppm H2S.15 At the anode, the
H2S reacts with the iron to form several variants of iron sulfide [FexS] such as mackinawite
[(Fe,Ni)(1 + x)S], pyrrhotite [Fe(1 - x)S] and troilite
[FeS].16 These iron sulfide species precipitate and
can form localized microgalvanic corrosion cells.
The corrosion cells formed during sour corrosion cause pitting, sulfide stress cracking (SSC)
and hydrogen embrittlement.17 Stress corrosion
cracking is a result of tensile stress combined
with a wet environment and often causes shallow, round pits that have etched bottoms accompanied by branching cracks that can lead to rapid
failure. Hydrogen embrittlement occurs when
H2S and H2 diffuse into metal, recombine with
Oilfield Review
May 2016
30
25
20
15
O2
CO2
10
H2S
50
100
150
200
100
200
300
400
250
300
350
400
450
500
600
700
800
900
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Hydrogen sulfide
Gas concentration in water phase, parts per million
Figure 4. Corrosion rates. The relative rates of corrosion in milli-inches/year (mpy) of carbon steel
show pronounced differences when the steel is exposed to varying concentrations of O2, CO2 and H2S.
At a concentration of 5ppm, O2 is almost three times more corrosive than is H2S and 30% more
corrosive than is CO2. Photographs near each curve show the effects of these corrosion agents on
metal surfaces.
37
Water
Flow
Anode
Cathode
Steel
General or Uniform
Galvanic
Crevice
Water
Steel
Force
Pitting
Intergranular
Stress
Corrosion Cracking
Corrosion Fatigue
Figure 5. Generalized categories of corrosion. Corrosion can be categorized by appearance and the
agent of causation. These eight corrosion types cover most of the observed corrosion mechanisms
for metals.
that caused it. Although not an exclusive list, corrosion usually falls into one or more of the following categories: general or uniform, localized,
galvanic, erosion or flow induced, crevice, pitting,
under deposit, cavitation, intergranular, stress
cracking and corrosion fatigue (Figure5). Other
types of corrosion include environmental, top-ofline and microbial. Based on the observed characteristics of the corrosion, engineers can adopt
appropriate preventive and mitigationmeasures.
Uniform corrosion is typical of low-alloy
steels and may be observed over an entire
exposed area. Initial evidence of uniform corrosion is surface roughness. The metal becomes
thinner as the corrosion progresses, and it will
eventually fail from internal pressure or external
forces. Because this type of corrosion is linked to
surface exposure, it may be prevented by properly protecting the surface. Uniform corrosion
may occur in equipment used for oilfield operations such as hydraulic stimulation andacidizing.
Localized corrosion occurs at specific sites
rather than over a generalized area and may be
more dangerous than some other types of corrosion because of its unpredictable nature and
38
the potential for rapid growth. Localized corrosion, of which even CRAs such as stainless steels
are susceptible, can be subdivided into pitting,
crevice and under deposit corrosion. Pitting ultimately can cause holes in metal components and
is one of the primary causes of failure in oilfield
hardware, including tubing, casing, sucker rods
and surface equipment.
Crevice corrosion occurs in constricted areas,
wherein the metal at the crevice becomes anodic
and the rest of the metal serves as the cathode.
The crevice can form where two dissimilar metals
come into contact or be created by microgalvanic
cells that may occur in certain steel alloys.
Pitting corrosion rates are often much higher
than those of other types of corrosion. Inhibitors
Oilfield
may be applied
to theReview
surface to prevent initiaMAY 16
tion, but once Corrosion
a pit has formed
Fig 5 the inhibitors are
often unable toORMAY
slow its16
growth.
CRSSN 5
Under deposit corrosion occurs when sand,
corrosives or porous solids adhere to the metal
surface. Although the area underneath the
deposit is resistant to inhibitors and can corrode
quickly, this type of corrosion can often be man-
Oilfield Review
Pipe
Wet gas
Condensate
Monoethylene glycol
Anodic
Magnesium
Zinc
Cadmium
Aluminum
Steel
Chromium steel
Stainless steel
Lead
Tin
Nickel
Inconel
Hastelloy
Brasses
Copper
Bronzes
Monel
Chromium steel
Silver
Titanium
Graphite
Gold
Platinum
Cathodic
May 2016
Oilfield Review
MAY 16
Corrosion Fig 6
39
Separator Tank
Sidestream
Emulsion
Water outlet
Oil outlet
Water
Oil layer
Corrosion
inhibitor film
Iron sulfide
particle
Oilfield Review
MAY 16
Corrosion Fig 9
ORMAY 16 CRSSN 9
40
Oilfield Review
May 2016
Galvanic DC current
milliamp
Electrolyte
Cathode
Anode
Backfill
nailsled to the corrosion. Davy and his assisBecause the direct current (DC) is extertant carried out a number of experiments on cor- nally applied, this type of corrosion managerosion prevention techniques; that assistant was ment is referred to as impressed cathodic
Michael Faraday, who would later establish the protection. It is most frequently used for cases
relationship between the chemical action of cor- in which the electrolyte resistance is high, such
rosion and electric current.
as in soil or freshwater, and where a constant
In the oil field, CP was first applied to land24. Stipanicev M: Improved Decision Support Within
based pipelines, and the first documented use
Biocorrosion Management for Oil and Gas Water
Injection Systems, PhD thesis, Institut National
was by Robert J. Kuhn in 1928.29 He established
Polytechnique de Toulouse, France (2013).
a negative 850 mV potential between the steel 25. Madigan MT, Martinko JM, Bender KS, Buckley DH,
Stahl DA and Brock T: Brock Biology of Microorganisms,
pipe of a pipeline and a copper-sulfate electrode.
14th ed. San Francisco: Benjamin Cummings, 2014.
This example became the foundation of modern
Oilfield Review
26. Sessile refers to fixed or immobile organisms.
CP technology, although for many years the
effecMAY
16 27. Lehmann JA: Cathodic Protection of Offshore
Structures, paper OTC 1041, presented at the
tiveness was met with scientific skepticism.
Corrosion Fig 10
First Annual
ORMAY
10 Offshore Technology Conference, Houston,
Today, CP uses sacrificial elements
made 16 CRSSN
May 1821, 1969.
from aluminum, zinc and magnesium to protect 28. Davy H: On the Corrosion of Copper Sheeting by Sea
Water, and on Methods of Preventing This Effect; And
the steel of large structures and piping. These
on Their Application to Ships of War and Other Ships,
dissimilar metals create the galvanic coupling
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London 114 (January 1, 1824): 151158.
that establishes a current path between the
Baeckmann W: The History of Corrosion
anode and the cathode, and, over time, the 29. von
Protection, in von Baeckmann W, Schwenk W and
Prinz W (eds): Handbook of Cathodic Corrosion
sacrificial anode rather than the protected
ProtectionTheory and Practice of Electrochemical
structure experiences metal loss. Appropriate
Protection Processes, 3rd ed. Houston: Gulf Professional
Publishing (1997): 126.
placement and distribution of the anodes is crucial to ensure that all parts of the structure are 30. Amani M and Hjeij D: A Comprehensive Review of
Corrosion and Its Inhibition in the Oil and Gas Industry,
sufficiently protected.30
paper SPE 175337, presented at the SPE Kuwait Oil
and Gas Show and Conference, Mishref, Kuwait,
October 1114, 2015.
41
Water
Water
Oil
Oil
CH 3
Alkyl
chain
CnH 2n
N+
Polar head
group
Metal surface
Figure 11. Film formers. Although they vary in composition and avenue of
protection, film formers create barriers between corrosive elements (water
and oil, top) and metal surfaces. Inhibitors may be adsorbed on the surface
(alkyl chains, middle) or form a strong bond by sharing charges with the
metal (polar head group, bottom). When molecules of the polar head group
of film formers attach to the surface of the metal, a portion of the molecule
extends into the fluid. This usually oil-soluble tail is hydrophobic, repelling
water away from the metal surface.
source of current is readily available. The use is to interrupt the electrochemical process by
of solar panels in remote locations has greatly which the corrosion cell forms between the metal
increased the potential applications of impressed and the liquids in and around the equipment.
Inhibitors can be a flexible and cost-effective
cathodicprotection.
In the impressed CP technique, current of method of fighting corrosion, and the inhibiseveral amps from a low-voltage rectifier passes, tor application can be altered when conditions
or is impressed, from an inert anode (for exam- change. Although acquiring and delivering the
ple, graphite or iron) to the structure being pro- inhibitor incur an ongoing cost, the lower costs
tected, which acts as the cathode. The anode associated with using less corrosion resistant
is attached to the positive terminal of the DC low-carbon steels usually more than make up
source, and the cathode is attached to the nega- thedifference.
Inhibitors fall into four main categories: scavtive terminal. The anode and cathode are often
some distance from each other, separated by engers, reactive agents, vapor phase and film
formers. Oxygen scavengers are frequently used
anelectrolyte.
To counteract corrosion, sufficient current in operations in which oxygen poses a corrosive
density must be supplied to all parts of the pro- threat. These agents not only reduce oxidizing
tected structure and the current density must corrosion, but also control the growth of microbes
always exceed what would be the measured cor- that require oxygen to thrive. Examples of oxygen
scavengers used in the oil and gas industry are
rosion rate under the same conditions.Oilfield
If theReview
corrosion rate increases, the impressed MAY
current
16 sodium sulfite, sulfur dioxide, sodium bisulfite,
Corrosion
11 metabisulfite and ammonium bisulfite.
sodium
density must be increased.31 Although the
initial Fig
ORMAY
CRSSN 11 bisulfite and sodium bisulfite are
equipment cost may be higher for impressed
CP 16Ammonium
than it is for sacrificial protection, this technique commonly used in seawater injection systems. To
may be less expensive over the long term because speed reaction rates, a catalyst may be included
sacrificial anodes do not need to be replaced. in the chemical.
Hydrogen sulfide scavengers reduce the
Impressed CP also has the advantage of providing information to the operator about the extent level of H2S in the flow stream. Examples of H2S
of corrosion over time.
scavengers are amines, aldehydes and zinc carboxylates. Common forms of amines are monoCorrosion Inhibitors
ethanolamine (MEA) and monomethylamine
Another line of defense against corrosion is (MMA) triazine. In some situations, operators
inhibitors, of which there are a variety of types may be able to regenerate MEA and MMA for
and applications. The primary goal of inhibitors reinjection and reuse.
42
Oilfield Review
May 2016
Use of corrosion
inhibitor recommended
Rotating Cylinder
Electrode Test
Kettle Test
Autoclave Test
Recommend and
implement corrosion
inhibitor addition
Sidestream Test
Analyze field
trial results
Make final
recommendation
Review
MAY 16
Corrosion Fig 12
ORMAY 16 CRSSN 12
43
Rack
Thermometer
Voltage potential, mV
Gas sparge
Steel electrode
Heating mantel
Voltage
Corrosion rate
Current
Current, mA
Stir bar
Figure 14. Kettle test. To perform kettle tests, or linear polarization resistance
tests, technicians use a test fixture (left) and control the pressure and
temperature. They submerge electrodes inside the fixture into the fluids
expected downhole and then measure electrical properties of the
electrodes. The tests are performed by controlling the voltage potential
44
and measuring the current then controlling the current and measuring
the voltage. The electrolyte can be agitated using the stir bar. Gas can be
injected into the test fixture, a process referred to as sparging. From the
slope of the polarization resistance curve (right ), the corrosion rate can
becomputed.
Oilfield Review
Cape Lopez
Cathodic protection station
Section 1
Section 2
Section 3
Tchngue
Cathodic protection station
AT LA N T IC O CEAN
GABON
Batanga
Cathodic protection station
Figure 15. Corrosion in a pipeline from the Rabi field to Cape Lopez. A
three-section, 18-in. pipeline carries oil from the inland Rabi field in Gabon
to Cape Lopez on the coast. Cathodic protection stations are located along
the pipeline. Because the incoming oil is hot (around 60C), Section 1 of the
pipeline (red and dark blue) is exposed to a higher temperature than is the
remainder of the pipeline. The elevated temperature led to the disbondment
May 2016
thermal stability
emulsification tendency
foaming tendency
metal compatibility
elastomer compatibility
compatibility with other chemicals used in the
same stream.
Application methods should be evaluated as well.
Injection may be continuous, batch or squeeze.
The rate of film removal is a key concern when
determining the optimal application mode.
Corrosion in the Oil Field
A recent example of pipeline corrosion from
Gabon illustrates the need for thorough testing
and understanding of the corrosion process.37 A
pipeline transports oil from the Rabi field to Cape
Lopeza distance of approximately 234km
[145mi]. The 18-in. pipeline comprises three
sections: Section1 from Rabi to Batanga, 105km
[65mi]; Section2 from Batanga to Tchengu,
45
BURKINA FASO
BENIN
FPSO vessel
NIGERIA
COTE
GHANA
DIVOIRE
Niger Delta
field
Gulf of Guinea
CAMEROON
GABON
Subsea
wellheads
Flowlines and
umbilicals
Figure 17. Niger delta subsea operations and a floating production, storage, and offloading (FPSO) vessel. Production from subsea wellheads (yellow) at a
field in the Niger delta off the coast of Nigeria (inset) is sent to an FPSO. Oil is transferred to tankers, and natural gas is piped directly to the mainland.
46
Oilfield Review
May 2016
Inhibitor
Uninhibited
Corrosion Rate, mpy
Inhibited
Corrosion Rate, mpy
Protection, %
DS-1617 inhibitor
10
173.01
4.18
97.58
DS-1617 inhibitor
20
156.43
0.98
99.37
Inhibitor
Protection, %
None
71.04
DS-1617 inhibitor
20
1.16
98.37
Figure 18. Corrosion testing of the DS-1617 inhibitor. Technicians conducted kettle tests with fluids
representative of field conditions to evaluate the effectiveness of the DS-1617 inhibitor (top). They
also performed autoclave testing at high temperature (bottom). The corrosion rate is in milli-inches of
penetration/year (mpy).
6.0
Low-pressure separator A
Low-pressure separator B
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
Time, hr
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
6.0
Figure 19. Corrosion monitoring at a production facility. The operator injected DS-1617 inhibitor into
the flowlines of producing wells using underwater umbilicals. The corrosion rate of the flowlines was
monitored at the low-pressure separator A (blue), low-pressure separator B (red) and the bulk oil
treater (green) as well as at three other locations (not shown). The corrosion rate dropped below the
target level (black) established by the operator. Corrosion rates remained below the threshold at all
test sites for the duration of the testing period.
47
Anode
Water Depth, m
Weight Loss, %
13
13
73
31
116
25
116
39
Figure 20. Anode corrosion after eight years of service in the North Sea.
Figure 21. Cathodic protection on a North Sea platform. Anodes were recovered
after eight years of service from a North Sea platform. After the anodes were
cleaned and weighed, technicians were able to determine the effectiveness of
the anodes at protecting the structure.
48
Oilfield Review
Contributors
Nausha Asrar is the Manager for Materials Support
and Failure Analysis at the Schlumberger Houston
Pressure and Sampling and Formation Evaluation
Centers in Sugar Land, Texas, USA. He began his
career with Schlumberger in 2005 as a senior materials scientist. He previously worked for Shell Global
Solutions in the US, the Saudi Basic Industries
Corporation Technology Center and Saline Water
Conversion Corporation, both in Saudi Arabia, and
as principal corrosion engineer at the Research and
Development Center for Iron and Steel for the Steel
Authority of India, Ltd. A NACE certified material
selection and design specialist, Nausha is a member
of NACE, ASM and SPE as well as a life member of the
Indian Institute of Metals; he is the author of more
than 60 technical papers and reviews on corrosion,
phase diagrams, composite materials and failure cases.
He received an MS degree in chemistry from Aligarh
Muslim University, Uttar Pradesh, India, and a PhD
degree in materials science and engineering from the
Moscow State University.
May 2016
49
Mud flow
Wear pad
3.00
2.77
Protective
housing
2.89
2.38
2.77
Effective
bend
2.60
2.89
3.00
Stator
Rotor
Figure 1. Typical mud motor. The bent housing of the mud motor (left) is the key to building wellbore
deviation and controlling wellbore trajectory while the rotor turns the bit. The bend in the housing is
dialed in at the drill floor when the drilling crew makes up the bottomhole assembly; here, the bend has
been set at 2.89 degrees (middle). By selecting a larger bend, the driller is able to obtain curve having
a smaller radius. The motor, installed immediately above the bit, consists of an eccentric rotor within
an elastomer stator (right ). As drilling mud flows through the stator, it displaces the helical rotor shaft,
causing the shaft to rotate within the stators protective housing, which turns the bit.
50
Oilfield Review
Kickoff 1
Build section, 3/100 ft
Tangent section
Marker bed
Kickoff 2
Build section, 3/300 ft
Lateral section
Reservoir
Gauge hole
Bent housing
Kickoff
Build section
Rotary
mode
Sliding
mode
Increased diameter
caused by outward
tilt of bit
May 2016
Figure 3. Directional drilling trajectory. After the well is drilled vertically to the specified kickoff point,
the mud motor is used to build angle while slide drilling. When the target angle is achieved, a straightline tangent section may be drilled in rotary mode. While the BHA maintains inclination and azimuth,
the driller resorts to sliding mode only when the drilling direction deviates from the planned trajectory.
In some fields, a stratigraphic marker bed above the reservoir can be detected by LWD tools,
prompting the driller to initiate a second slide section to land the well horizontally within the reservoir.
51
sufficient ROP and maintain trajectory to the target. Such problems frequently result in increased
drilling time, which may adversely impact project
economics and ultimately limit the length of a lateral section.
The capability to transfer weight to the bit
affects several aspects of directional drilling. The
driller transfers weight to the bit by easing, or
slacking off, the brake; this transfers some of the
hook load, or drillstring weight, to the bit.2 The
difference between the weight imposed at the bit
and the amount of weight made available by easing the brake at the surface is primarily caused
by drag. As the horizontal departure of a wellbore
increases, so does the longitudinal drag of the
drillpipe along the wellbore.
Controlling weight at the bit throughout
the sliding mode is made even more difficult
by drillstring elasticity, which permits the pipe
to move nonproportionally. This elasticity can
cause one segment of drillstring to move while
other segments remain stationary or move at
different velocities.3
Poor hole cleaning may also affect weight
transfer. In sliding mode, hole cleaning is less efficient because there is no pipe rotation to facilitate
turbulent flow; this condition reduces the drilling
fluids ability to carry solids. Instead, the solids
accumulate on the low side of the hole in cuttings beds that increase friction on the drillpipe,
making it difficult to maintain constant weight on
bit (WOB).
Differences in frictional forces between the
drillpipe inside of casing versus that in open hole
can cause weight to be released suddenly, as can
hang-ups caused by key seats and ledges. A sudden transfer of weight to the bit that exceeds
the downhole motors capacity may cause bit
rotation to abruptly halt and the motor to stall.
Frequent stalling can damage the stator component of the motor, depending on the amount of
the weight transferred. The driller must operate
the motor within a narrow load range to maintain
an acceptable ROP without stalling.4
At the drillers console, an impending stall
might be indicated by an increase in WOB but
with no corresponding upsurge in downhole pressure to signal that an increase in downhole WOB
has actually occurred. At some point, the WOB
indicator will show an abrupt decrease, indicating a sudden transfer of force from the drillstring
to the bit.5
Increases in drag impede a drillers ability
to remove torque downhole, making it more difficult to set and maintain toolface orientation.6
Toolface orientation is affected by torque and
Topdrive
Maximum
surface-applied
torque
Rotating
only
S li d
in g
s
am
plu
Dyn
to
ic
fri
ti o
no
pd
f ro
et
tat
o rq
Point of interference
Mud motor
ue
ion
Sliding only
Static friction
Dynamic friction
52
Bit
Oilfield Review
2,000
Depth of twist, ft
4,000
6,000
No
8,000
fric
tion
red
uct
ion
React
ive to
10,000
rque
12,000
0
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
Surface applied torque, ft-lbf
5,000
6,000
7,000
Figure 5. Torque versus depth plot. Surface-applied torque will tend to twist the drillstring to a certain
depth depending on the drag encountered over the length of the pipe and on pipe thickness and
weight. In this model, 2,000 ft-lbf of torque applied at the surface will cause the pipe to twist to a depth
of 6,400 ft. (Adapted from Maidla et al, reference 5.)
May 2016
53
Weight on Bit
1,000 lbf
Differential Pressure
psi
Rotary Torque
lbf
100 0
Rotary Speed
rpm
800 0
Hook Load
1,000 lbm
20,000
150 0
Toolface
degree
360
300 0
Rate of Penetration
ft/h
50
Rotating Mode
Manual Mode
Slider Mode
Figure 6. Comparison of rotating and sliding drilling parameters. Rate of penetration (ROP) and toolface
control depend largely on the drillers ability to transfer weight to the bit and counter the effects of
torque and drag between rotating and sliding modes. The best ROP is achieved while rotating (top);
however, toolface varies drastically, as there is no attempt to control it (Track3). Hook load (Track2)
and weight on bit (WOB) remain fairly constant while differential pressure (Track1) shows a slight
increase as depth increases. To begin manual sliding (middle), the driller pulls off-bottom to release
trapped torque; during this time, WOB (Track1) decreases while hook load (Track2) increases. As
drilling proceeds, inconsistencies in differential pressurethe difference between pressures when
the bit is on-bottom versus off-bottomindicate poor transfer of weight to the bit (Track1). Spikes
of rotary torque indicate the directional drillers efforts to orient and maintain toolface orientation
(Track2). Toolface control is poor because of trouble transferring weight to bit, which is also
reflected by poor ROP (Track3). Using the automated Slider system (bottom), the directional driller
quickly gained toolface orientation. When the WOB increased, differential pressure was consistent,
demonstrating good weight transfer (Track1). Weight on bit during a Slider operation is lower than
during a manual sliding operation. Left-right oscillation of the drillpipe is constant through the slide
(Track2). Average ROP is substantially higher than that attained during the manual slide, and toolface
orientation is more consistent (Track3).
54
transfer weight downhole to the bit, thus eliminating the need to come off-bottom to make
toolface corrections (Figure 6). This results in an
efficient drilling operation and reduced wear on
downhole equipment.
System Hardware
Slider system hardware consists of a compact
package that houses the circuitry and sensors
needed to interact with the rigs topdrive control system. An interface plug is installed on the
control panel for the topdrive, and the system
is mounted at the drillers console. Installation
typically takes less than two hours with no
interruption to the drilling process. The Slider
systems connections require no alterations to
the drilling contractors topdrive mechanism or
modifications to the drilling rig. The system is
entirely surface mounted and has no downhole
equipment that might become lost in the hole. To
ensure operational safety, the system is designed
to allow manual intervention at any time.
The directional drillers interface consists of
a ruggedized notebook computer with a display
configured to enable the driller to command
the Slider system while monitoring surface and
downhole parameters (Figure 7). The Slider
system takes input such as MWD toolface angle,
surface torque and standpipe pressure from measurements already available at the rig. The MWD
toolface measurement is used to determine the
amount of correction needed to restore the toolface to the angle needed to drill the prescribed
trajectory. Surface standpipe pressure provides
an indicator of reactive torque. The Slider
software processes these inputs to determine
whether additional torque should be applied
to the drillstring to maintain the toolface angle
andROP.
To begin slide drilling, the driller can activate the Slider system and initiate the automatic
rocking action, which alternately applies torque
to the right and the left. The transfer of weight is
controlled by varying surface torque to compensate for changes in reactive torque. Corrections
in toolface angle are achieved through additional torque pulses during the rocking cycles.8
For every torque cycle to the left or right, a corresponding differential pressure peak occurs,
indicating that the weight is being transferred
to the bit. To adjust the toolface orientation, the
driller can control the magnitude and frequency
of torque pulses during a rocking cycle.
Oilfield Review
Field Experience
Slider technology has been instrumental in
developing unconventional plays throughout
North America. Wattenberg field, one of the more
prolific fields in the Denver-Julesburg basin, is
located in Weld County, Colorado. There, a leading operator in the area used the Slider system to
drill horizontal wells in the Cretaceous Niobrara
gas play (Figure 8).
One of those wells, spudded in February
2016, was drilled vertically to its kickoff point,
then drilled in a westerly direction to its land8. Slider: New Level of Efficiency to Directional Drilling,
Drilling Contractor 11, no. 4 (JulyAugust 2004): 2831.
May 2016
left-hand torque (orange). Up-and-down keys allow the driller to set values
for left and right torque (upper left ). Brief torque increases above set values
can be added for one oscillation cycle by bumping left or right (middle left ).
The driller can immediately override the system by hitting the disable button
(upper right ).
Wyoming
Wattenberg
field
Colorado
Denver-Julesburg
basin
Nebraska
USA
Kansas
Figure 8. Wattenberg field. The prolific Wattenberg field lies in north-central Colorado, USA, within the
Denver-Julesburg basin.
55
Toolface
degree
Hook Load
1,000 lbm
Depth, Time,
ft
h:min 0
Weight on Bit
1,000 lbm
360 0
Rotary Torque
lbf
300 0
Rotary Speed
rpm
100 0
Rate of Penetration
ft/h
34.39 0
Pump 1
strokes/min
200
80 0
Standpipe Pressure
psi
12,000
300 0
Differential Pressure
psi
1,000
07:12
07:14
07:16
07:18
07:20
07:22
X,X25
07:24
07:26
07:28
07:30
07:32
X,X35
07:34
07:36
07:38
07:40
07:42
07:44
X,X47
07:46
07:48
07:50
Figure 9. ROP improvement. A drilling parameter display indicates that from X,X25ft to X,X35ft, the directional driller
was manually controlling the slide drilling operations. After taking 16 min to drill that interval (averaging 38ft/h ROP),
the driller activated the Slider automated system. Drilling from X,X35 to X,X47ft in 14min (averaging 51ft/h ROP), the
driller achieved a 34% improvement in ROP.
56
rocking system facilitates a longer horizontal section, which has less tortuosity, ultimately leading
to increased production.
MV
Contributor
Steven Duplantis is an Operations Manager for
Schlumberger in Houston, where he oversees day-to-day
operations, sales and development for the Slider automated surface rotation control system. Steven began
his oilfield career in 1994 and has held positions with
MD Totco, Noble Engineering and Epoch/Optidrill.
Since 2006, he has been focused on the Slider system,
working as a field coordinator and engineer involved
with Slider system testing and field trials along with
implementation and ongoing development of advanced
features for the Slider product line.
Oilfield Review
LOOKING BACK
But Paul Schlumberger, Conrad and Marcels visionary father, who had
another four childrenJean, Daniel, Maurice and Paulinewith his wife
Marguerite de Witt, redirected Conrad from factory life and tied him to his
brothers future.
Paul wrote, The scientific interest in research must take precedence over
financial interests. Marcel will bring to Conrad his remarkable competence
as an engineer and his common sense. Conrad will be the wise physicist. I
will support them. He offered a sum of 500,000 francs for theendeavor.2
In 1919, 500,000 francs represented 160 kg [5,100 troy oz] of gold. Unfortunately, the franc value was cut by a factor of five from 1914 to 1926, and LaPros,
which had engineers on four continents, soon had to learn how to manage
currency variations. The business invested in trucks and equipment and sent
people to other countries, some of which were not hospitable. These early
processes meant the company had essential cash flow needs.
The survival of the young company was based on three components: seed
money, innovation and sound management of intellectual property and
people. Success came about because the company built an invincible team
and instilled exceptional values.
1. Schlumberger AG: The Schlumberger Adventure: Two Brothers Who Pioneered in
Petroleum Technology. New York City: Arco Publishing, Inc., 1982.
2. Schlumberger, reference 1.
May 2016
57
Figure 1. Patents filed in France, Brazil, Mexico and Australia. The first
patent was filed in France on September 27, 1912 (top left); the illustration
(top right) is from the first patent. Conrad Schlumberger filed patents in,
among other countries, Mexico and Brazil (middle) although SPE did not
58
work in these countries until 1936 and 1945, respectively. The patent at the
bottom was filed in Australia. (Documents courtesy of the Schlumberger
museum in Crevecoeur, France, and Collections cole Polytechnique,
Palaiseau, France.)
Oilfield Review
Figure 2. Socit de Prospection lectrique founders and early employees. From left to right, Paul, Conrad and Marcel Schlumberger; Henri-Georges Doll;
and Eugene Leonardon, the first engineer hired by the brothers. Other early employees include Jacques Gallois and Roger Jost. (Photographs courtesy of
the Schlumberger museum in Crevecoeur, France, and Collections cole Polytechnique, Palaiseau, France.)
May 2016
responsibility and trust that are difficult to imagine in our era of instant
texting and emailing.
All the right components were finally available; Socit de Prospection
lectrique was thus incorporated in Paris on July 1, 1926, with 200,000
francs in capital divided in 2,000 shares. SPE was now the organization
overseeing all operations, personnel and premises that were previously held
loosely by the brothers. Conrad was president. Maurice and Albert Doll, who
was Paulines husband and Henri-Georges uncle, were scrutateurs, or treasurers. Jean, cofounder of La Nouvelle Revue Franaise or NRF, and
Mauricecofounder of the bank Neuflize Schlumberger Malletwere
named minority shareholders. The headquarters, at 30 rue Fabert in Paris,
consisted of a small, five-room apartment close to Place des Invalides.
In September 1926, Conrad left France for the US to further develop that
market. In October of that year, Paul Schlumberger passed away on one of
those drizzling autumn days well known to those living in Normandy. Conrad,
Marcel and Henri-Georgeswho contributed to the success of the mission
Paul had dreamed ofjoined the family patriarch in the cemetery of the village of Saint-Ouen-le-Pin, France, in 1936, 1953 and 1991, respectively.
Of the many Schlumberger companies, SPE is the oldest. In the US, the
Schlumberger Electrical Prospecting Method, defunct as the result of the
Great Depression, was replaced by Schlumberger Well Services Corporation in
1934 and by Schlumberger Technology Corporation in 1984. In 2016, SPE still
exists and recruits young engineers to send to the far corners of the globe.
Schlumberger currently operates in more than 85 countries and has
about 100,000 employees. Wherever the drill bit is turning in the search
for hydrocarbons, the Schlumberger name can be found. The startup company formed by a few industrious and adventurous engineers has become
one of the most recognized names in the oil and gas industry. Could Paul,
Conrad or Marcel have ever imagined the enterprise that today bears their
name? Schlumberger stresses its guiding values of people, technology and
profits. Although they differ from the original principles, they echo the
seed money, innovation and team concepts that formed the company
that would become Schlumberger; together, these ideas continue to guide
the company into the future.
59
Typical subsea field layout. Subsea trees positioned atop four wells contain pressure-control
valves and chemical injection ports. A jumper carries produced fluids from each tree to a subsea
manifold, which commingles production from the wells before sending it through flowline jumpers
to a subsea boosting pump station. The pump provides energy to send the produced fluids through
two pipeline end terminations (PLETs) and then through flowlines and up the risers to the
production deck of the floating production, storage, and offloading vessel (FPSO). An integrated
umbilical (green) from the FPSO supplies electric and hydraulic power for subsea tree or manifold
control functions along with chemicals to suppress the formation of scale and hydrates in the
production stream. On the seabed, the umbilical termination assembly (UTA) routes the chemical
and hydraulic fluids (white jumpers) to the manifold, which sends them to each tree. The UTA also
sends electric power to a distribution system which routes power lines (black leads) to the
manifold, boosting pump and trees.
FPSO
Production risers
Subsea tree
Manifold
Umbilical riser
Jumper
Electric power leads
Electric power
distribution unit
Subsea Infrastructure
Matt Varhaug
Senior Editor
To replace dwindling reserves from onshore fields or from offshore wells
drilled in shallow waters, many E&P companies are turning to their deepwater prospects. Exploration or production in deep and ultradeep waters is
carried out at water depths of 300 to 3,050 m [1,000 to 10,000 ft] or greater.
These depths dictate that most wells be completed subsea, with wellheads,
pressure-control equipment and production equipment placed at the seafloor.
From deepwater and ultradeepwater completions, produced fluids are
sent to a processing facility by way of a subsea production system. A subsea production system consists of the subsea infrastructure used to produce oil and gas from offshore reservoirs. It encompasses one or more
subsea wells and the subsystems necessary to deliver hydrocarbons to a
fixed, floating, subsea or onshore processing facility. These subsystems can
be divided into subsea trees, production controls, manifolds, jumpers, flowlines, risers, umbilicals and processing components. Injection of water or
gas back into subsea wells is also a function of the subsea production system. Generally, oil, gas and water produced from the reservoir will flow
from a wellbore to a subsea tree and through a jumper to a manifold and
subsea flowline. Today, many operators route the flowline to a booster
pump to energize the flow as it travels between the seafloor and a riser that
carries it to the surface for processing.
Oilfield Review 28, no. 2 (May 2016).
Copyright 2016 Schlumberger.
60
Seabed Equipment
The subsea wellhead, installed at the beginning of the drilling phase, provides the structural foundation for the well. The wellhead is also where the
subsea tree is mounted. In some configurations, the tree contains the production tubing hanger and accommodates hydraulic and electrical lines
used for managing downhole safety valves, completion valves and pressure
or temperature sensors. The function of the subsea tree is to control and
manage pressure and flow over the life of the well and enable any necessary
intervention. The tree is the primary mechanism for shutting in the well at
the seabed and serves as the interface for well reentry operations. A subsea
control module (SCM) attached to the tree contains the instrumentation,
electronics and hydraulics connections needed for safe operation of the
subsea tree valves, chokes and downhole valves.
Sections of pipe, known as jumpers, run between subsea structures to
serve as links through which fluids are transmitted. These pipe segments
range in length from a few meters to hundreds of meters. A jumper is often
installed to carry production downstream from the tree. The produced fluid
may be routed through a multiphase flowmeter to measure production
rates and volumes.
Where multiple wells produce in a subsea development, flowline jumpers
from individual wells send produced fluids to a subsea production manifold
(Figure 1). By routing produced fluids from multiple wells to the production
manifold, the operator can reduce the number of flowlines that must be
accommodated at the next step in the production chain. Upon reaching the
Oilfield Review
manifold, produced fluids from the various wells are commingled before they
are directed to a flowline that leads to the production platform. Injection
manifolds function similarly and are used to manage the distribution of
injected water, gas and chemicals to one or more subsea wells.
Some subsea installations have a pipeline end manifold (PLEM), which
connects a flowline with another subsea structure or joins a main pipeline
with a branch pipeline. The PLEM can incorporate tie-in points with other
components such as isolation valves, diverter valves and sensor arrays.
Some PLEM designs incorporate facilities for launching pipeline pigs
devices used to clean or monitor the inside of a pipeline.
When a reservoir does not have sufficient energy to produce the fluids
from one subsea component to the next, a subsea boosting pump may be
installed. Boosting pumps function as a seafloor artificial lift system, increasing both flow rate and recovery by reducing backpressure on the reservoir.
Other recent advances in subsea processing are used to enhance field
economics. Seafloor separation and reinjection of produced water can alleviate constrained topside water handling capacity while supplementing reservoir energy through waterdrive. Subsea gas compression, including wet
gas compression, can improve viability of certain marginal developments.
High-voltage cable
Electric cable
Chemical injection
fluid line
Fiber-optic cable
Outer plastic sheath
point that gas hydrates start to form. The change in fluid temperature
beyond the tree influences the operators thermal management strategy. At
some fields, chemicals such as methanol [CH3OH] or monoethylene glycol
[C2H6O2] are injected into the system to keep the wellstream flowing then
recovered on the surface and reused. Some operators use electrically heated
flowlines; others use foam-insulated pipe. Some operators bury the flowline
beneath the seafloor for insulation, but flowlines at certain fields require no
additional heat or insulation at all. The chemistry and rheology of the produced fluids ultimately dictate which methodology is adopted.
Production flowlines run from the manifold to structures that are linked
to risers that direct the flow to the production facility. Risers transport produced fluids from the seafloor to the surface production facility. Like flowlines, many risers are insulated against cold seawater temperatures. They
offer a measure of flexibility to withstand subsurface water currents or
movement of the floating facility.
Surface Lifeline
The surface processing facility provides power, control, communication and
chemical injection services back to the subsea production system. These
services are transmitted through a subsea distribution system using umbilicals. Multiple steel and thermoplastic conduits are often bundled together
with hydraulic lines, chemical injection lines, power conductors and fiberoptic cables to form a single integrated umbilical (Figure 2). These flexible
conduits require sophisticated materials and manufacturing techniques to
withstand deep-ocean currents, pressures and temperatures. Power conductors provide electricity for subsea equipment and system sensors.
Hydraulic lines are used to open and close subsea valves. Fiber-optic lines
instantly relay sensor information and control commands between the seafloor and the surface. Some umbilical lines pump chemicals into the production stream. Umbilicals directly or indirectly service nearly every component
in the subsea production system and are critical to operating the field. The
lines typically run from the surface processing facility to an umbilical termination assembly (UTA) on the seafloor, from which services are distributed throughout the field.
Upon reaching the surface, the produced fluids are separated and
treated by the processing facility. From there, an export pipeline transports
the product to a storage and offloading installation or to an onshore refinery
for further processing and distribution.
61
Geophysics
Richard Coates
Research Manager and Scientific Advisor
Geophysics is the study of the physics of the Earth, the propagation of elastic waves within it as well as its electrical, gravitational and magnetic fields.
Although the origins of geophysics can be traced to ancient times, it was not
until the early 20th century that scientists began applying geophysical concepts and techniques to the search for hydrocarbons and minerals and to
evaluate geothermal energy resources. Now, geophysics plays a critical role
in the petroleum industry because geophysical data are used by exploration
and development personnel to make predictions about the presence, nature
and size of subsurface hydrocarbon accumulations.
Unifying Characteristics
The challenges usually encountered in geophysics are posed in the form of
an inverse problem, such that a set of measurements and known physical
laws will permit a geophysicist to determine the Earths structure and characteristics that are consistent with those measurements. In geophysics, the
answers are almost always nonunique, meaning there is more than one possible solution that satisfies the measurements. Geophysicists attempt to
resolve this ambiguity by integrating complementary data acquired from
dissimilar methods or by adding supplemental knowledge such as wellbore
measurements to determine which solution is correct.
In addition to nonuniqueness, all geophysical methods exhibit a
decrease in the resolving power with distance from the measuring equipment. This concept is analogous to the difficulty of distinguishing objects
by sight at increasing distances. The characteristic is more pronounced
for some measurement methods than for others, but the result is that the
deeper the subterranean structures, the less precise are the images of
such structures.
Seismic vessel
Airgun array
Sea surface
Streamer with hydrophone sensor arrays, 6 to 12 m deep
Seabed
Sedimentary layers
Seismic Surveying
In the oil field, the dominant geophysical data acquisition method is the
seismic survey, whose history dates from the early 1920s. Seismic surveying
employs a sourcetypically an airgun or a vibrating truckto generate
vibrations, or seismic waves, that propagate into the Earth. The seismic
waves are refracted and reflected by subterranean strata and structures
(Figure 1). Some of the energy returns to the surface, where it is recorded
by sensors such as hydrophones or geophones. The distances between
source and sensor can exceed 15 km [9.3 mi].
Geophysicists process the survey data to form an image and to estimate
the physical characteristics of the subsurface. This requires two steps:
develop a 3D velocity dataset, or volume, to produce a smooth estimate of
the spatially varying velocity with which the seismic waves propagate in the
Eartha process called tomographythen, with the help of this velocity
dataset, locate the subsurface layers from which the seismic waves were
reflected, a process called migration.
The resulting 3D representation of the Earth is called a structural
image, or volume. The reflecting surfaces are interpreted as the interfaces
between rock layers, some of which may have been folded, cracked, faulted
or eroded over geologic time. It can be sliced vertically to obtain a cross
section or horizontally to map the depths of the rock layers beneath the
survey area. The operator can use these interpretations to help determine
suitable drilling targets. Modern seismic surveys routinely produce detailed
3D images of these reflecting surfaces to depths of 10 km [6 mi].
Additional information about the characteristics of the rocks can be
extracted from seismic data. For example, by studying the size, or amplitude, of the reflections and how the amplitude changes with the angle at
which the seismic waves hit the reflectors, geophysicists may be able to
determine whether the pores within the rocks contain gas, oil or water. This
step, known as amplitude versus offset (AVO), often has a higher level of
uncertainty than does structural imaging.
Although most seismic work uses active sources designed to create seismic waves, the detection of weak seismic waves generated during hydraulic
fracturing is of increasing interest. These faint signals are used to determine the locations of microseismic events, which can indicate the position
and extent of the hydraulic fractures.
62
Oilfield Review
Magnetic Surveying
Magnetic surveying is another type of subsurface prospecting. Unlike EM
methods, which rely on fields that fluctuate rapidly in time, magnetic surveying depends on the permanent magnetic properties of rocks, whose strength
and orientation are fixed at the time of their deposition and may be in contrast with those of the surrounding rock. Measuring these subtle anomalies
can help geophysicists map subsurface formations over large areas.
The advantage of magnetic surveying is that data can be collected from
aircraft or satellites as well as from land or by ship. Consequently, magnetic
surveys can inexpensively cover large geographic areas as well as sites that
are otherwise difficult to access. Because the strongest anomalies are produced by volcanic or metamorphic formations, magnetic surveys are widely
used for mineral exploration.
Gravimetry Surveying
Gravity measurements have been applied in the oil field since the 1920s.
The technique is based on recording spatial variations in the Earths gravitational field, caused by differences in the density of rocks below the survey
location. The size of these variations is typically less than 1/100,000th of
Earths gravitational fields nominal value of about 9.81 m/s2 [32.2 ft/s2].
Detecting such small variations requires extremely sensitive instruments and the application of multiple corrections. For example, the
Bouguer correction accounts for variations in gravity caused by local
topography and corrects for the influence of latitude and measurement
altitude that might otherwise mask the signal. Because the low density of
salt generates a large gravity anomaly, the most common oilfield application of gravity surveying is to help delineate salt domes. Gravity data are
May 2016
Air (resistive)
CSEM transmitter
Natural-source
magnetotelluric fields
Seawater (conductive)
Seafloor
(variable conductivity)
Salt, carbonates
and volcanics
(resistive)
Distance
Resistivity, ohm.m
10
Depth
Electromagnetic Methods
To reduce the interpretational uncertainty remaining after seismic surveying, geophysicists can choose from several techniques. The most common
are electromagnetic (EM) methods, which leverage the fact that some
important subterranean formations have strong EM signatures. For example, rocks saturated with hydrocarbons often have much higher electrical
resistivity than those containing water and is the basis of wireline resistivity
logging. Salt deposits have both a high seismic velocity and a high electrical
resistivity. Their high velocity makes seismic imaging beneath them problematic, but their high electrical resistivity makes them easy to detect using
EM surveys.
Geophysicists have two distinct methods for acquiring information
about the electrical characteristics of rocks at depth. They can use either a
high-powered EM source or fluctuations in the Earths magnetic field
induced by the solar wind as a natural EM source. In both cases, the
response of the Earth is detected via an array of receivers deployed on, or
near, the surface. The first technique is called controlled-source EM
(CSEM) and was developed in the 1980s. It is most commonly used in
marine settings, where anthropogenic noise, for example, radio signals or
power line noise, is less problematic than on land. The second EM technique, magnetotellurics (MT), was introduced in the 1950s. Some modern
systems can acquire CSEM as well as MT data when the controlled source is
not active (Figure 2).
Because of the frequency of the EM signal and the acquisition geometry,
MT surveys are best suited for basin-scale studies, while CSEM surveys are
more appropriate for detailed reservoir-scale targets and high-resistivity
anomalies. Consequently, the CSEM method is typically used to investigate
potential hydrocarbon reservoirs previously suggested by seismic images.
1 km
1 km
LOOKING BACK
Meanwhile, Conrad was playing with new ideas for his well logging. Realizing that oil was infinitely resistive to electricity, he
postulated that if a zone was oil bearing and reasonably thick, then
increasing the spacing between the wires measuring potential would
allow the logging tool to see deeper into the formation and record a
higher resistivity; the phenomenon was not observed in Pechelbronn
because the oil zones were too thin. In May 1930, he asked his field
engineers to try the idea and report back. Within a month, Marcel
Jabiol, the companys solitary engineer in northern Sumatra, sent
a telegram back confirming Conrads hypothesis. Electrical logging
could locate oil from the borehole.
Oilfield Review
Authoritative. Relevant. Informative.
Oilfield Review
Authoritative. Relevant. Informative.