Perspectives of CO2 Injection in Venezuela

E. Manrique 1,2, A. Ranson1, V. Alvarado1,3

(1) SDM Consultancy & Services
(2) Center for Energy and Technology of the Americas, FIU-Florida, U.S.A.
(3) Departamento de Engeharia Mecnica, PUC-Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Paper to be presented at the 24th Annual Workshop & Symposium, IEA Collaborative
Project on EOR, Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada, September 7-10, 2003

ABSTRACT

Venezuelas condensed and light and medium crude oil fields have been under exploitation
for more than four decades using water and gas injection. To date, the expected recovery
factors are about 30% and 45% of the OOIP for water and gas injection projects,
respectively. Given the maturity of these resources, IOR projects will be required, but they
have to be tailored to solve specific regional problems, such as the lack of hydrocarbon gas
(HG) for pressure maintenance in Western Venezuela.

Regarding gas injection recovery methods, several of the screening studies are based on
internal experience on HG injection, experiences of worldwide IOR projects and
experimental, analytical and numerical simulation studies. Results showed that Carbon
Dioxide (CO2), Nitrogen (N2) and Air Injection are emerging as options to HG injection in
several mature fields or to be considered for current and potential (Undiscovered)
developments. Design of N2 and air injection projects in light and medium crude oil
reservoirs are based on commercial technologies. However, given that natural CO2 sources
are insufficient, if any, CO2 injection will depend on industrial exhaust gases or planned
(coal fire) electric power generation stations in Western Venezuela.

This paper reviews worldwide CO2 injection projects and the use of Artificial Intelligence
(AI) to generate advanced screening criteria based on international experience. The paper
also discusses screening criteria used to identify similarities between international
successful and unsuccessful projects and potential Venezuelan projects (Reservoir

Analogs). This analysis will guide the evaluation of CO2 injection in a small reservoir
portfolio supported by experimental, analytical and numerical simulation studies. A global
view and distribution of CO2 emissions in Venezuela and the impact of lack of availability
of HC gas for power generation in the Western side of the country will be also presented.

INTRODUCTION

Carbon dioxide (CO2) injection is a successful EOR method applied in onshore fields. It is
important to mention that CO2 sources are coming mainly from natural reservoirs.
Currently, there are nearly 70 CO2 flooding projects in operation in the United States (US),
accounting for about 28% of total EOR production [1]. Additionally, planned project trends
suggest that demand of CO2 for EOR applications will growth in the next decade. Other
countries with reported CO2 projects are Canada (Joffre Viking and Weyburn), Trinidad
(Forest Reserve and Oropouche) and Turkey (Bati Raman Field).

In addition to the potential of increasing oil recovery in mature and water flooded fields,
CO2 has become the method of choice in EOR projects in the US because this gas is readily
available in large quantities at locations relatively close to the oilfields in which is used. For
example, in the West Texas and New Mexico Permian Basin, a large pipeline supply of
natural CO2 is available at low cost, compared to methane or natural gas and the pipelines
are being extended to more fields. The majority of the CO2 consumed in the West Texas
and New Mexico Permian Basin are from commercial CO2 reservoirs of Colorado (The
McElmo Dome and The Sheep Mountain Fields), New Mexico (The Bravo Dome Region)
and Wyoming (La Barge Field) [1-3].

Another important variable for CO2 flooding is the price factor. It is well known that crude
oil, CO2, and fuel prices affect most of the EOR projects. For example, CO2 flooding in
West Texas can be economically attractive at oil prices of 18$/bbl assuming that CO2 prices
remains less than 1$/Mscf. Additionally, fuel gas (natural gas) prices climbed to
16.23$/MMBtu affecting considerable the number of steamflood and hydrocarbon gas
injection projects during the last decade (Fig.1) [1].

Regarding countries without natural CO2 resources, the potential for CO2 flooding has been
evaluated considering the separation of CO2 from industrial emissions and reservoir
production gases. However, separation of CO2 and its transportation (even from natural
deposits) to the injection sites has been found to be too costly. On the other hand, concern
over greenhouse gas emission has renewed interest in the potential of CO2 flooding in
several countries (Canada, Norway, UK, US and Venezuela, among others). CO2
sequestration is leading to the introduction of new trading schemes, cooperation agreements
and potential changes in fiscal regimes that can contribute to an important expansion of
CO2 projects as a combined strategy for EOR and reduction of emissions to the atmosphere
[3-6].

CARBON DIOXIDE FLOODING IN VENEZUELA

Given that natural CO2 sources in Venezuela are insufficient, CO2 source targeted for EOR
projects will depend on industrial emissions and reservoir production gases with high
content of CO2.
Year 2002 inventory of greenhouse gases generated by PDVSAs operations in Venezuela
estimates a total of 42837 Gg/year of CO2 emitted to the atmosphere [7]. This amount of
CO2 does not takes in account the emissions generated by the aluminum, iron and steel
industries located in the southern part of the country (Bolvar State), neither those coming
from electric generation and cement plants, among others.

Concern over the greenhouse gas emission (specially CO2) and recognizing the lack of
natural gas availability for pressure maintenance and EOR/IOR projects in many reservoirs
around the country, has renewed interest in the potential of CO2 flooding in Venezuela. It is
important to recall that as part of a national review of the potential for CO2 flooding in
Venezuela, the Venezuelan oil industry screened and ranked over 600 reservoirs throughout
the country during the early 1990s. From this study, NIPA 100 field (Eastern Venezuela)
was identified as a favorable candidate due to its reservoir properties and CO2 supply [8].
However, this project was never executed. Regarding the CO2 source targeted for the NIPA

100 Field, this source was a waste stream from San Joaquin Plant (Cryogenic gas
processing), which treats natural gas containing 5-6% CO2.
Preliminary year 2002 results concluded that there were enough volumes of CO2 to develop
EOR projects in Venezuela. At least 300 of reservoirs from Venezuela were screened and
ranked based on artificial intelligence techniques and analytical simulation studies.
However, western Venezuela showed a lower potential to develop an integrated CO2
capture and injection (sequestering) system than the eastern region of the country (Table 1).
Major differences were highly dependent on the sources and capture options of CO2,
availability of infrastructure, transport distance and type of reservoir for CO2 floods.
Even eastern Venezuela, having a higher potential to develop an integrated CO2 capture and
injection system, capture of CO2 and its transportation (> 250 Km) to the injection sites has
been found too costly unless a cooperation agreement with an international environmental
agency or developed countries that have signed the Kyoto agreement is reached. For that
reason, to resolve the lack of availability of natural gas for pressure maintenance and EOR
projects efforts have been oriented to solutions such as:

Water Alternating Gas injection schemes to optimize gas utilization and recovery
efficiency [9,10].

High-pressure nitrogen injection [11].

Air injection in light crude oil reservoirs and re-injection of flue gases [12].

Additionally, the lack of availability of natural gas in the eastern region of the country
could be resolved or diminished in few years once the exploitation of the offshore gas
reservoirs at the Plataforma Deltana is started.

On the other hand, the current situation in Western Venezuela is more critical and difficult
because there are no sources of natural gas for pressure maintenance and EOR projects. The
lack of availability of natural gas has also created difficulties to meet the demand of energy
in the region during the last years because most of the electrical power generated in western

Venezuela was designed for natural gas and fuel liquids to a lesser extent [13,14].
However, convert existing gas power plants to liquid fuel have been found to be too costly.
Additionally, there are limitations to transmit hydroelectric power from the major central
hydroelectric complex (e.g. Guri) located in the southeast side of the country (Bolvar
State). For that reason, in the last five years many studies have been carried out to define
strategies to provide additional power generation as well as gas for EOR projects in mature
fields with steep production declines in the region. Some of the options that have been
considered and evaluated to satisfy the requirements of gas in western Venezuela are:

Import of natural gas from Colombia.

Nitrogen injection (Few cases can reach miscible conditions) [15-16].

Air injection and re-injection of flue gases or CO2 separated from production gases
[12,17].

Developing an integrated CO2 capture (from industrial emissions) and injection

system.

CO2 from a coal fired plant.

The three first options are under evaluation, however, it must be recognized that the first
two still need additional studies to support any decision as well as international investors
willing to invest in these projects. Additionally, the proposal for the nitrogen injection plant
( 500 MMScfd) must include a power generation plant if no gas is available or imported
from Colombia. Air injection in light and medium crude oils could be a solution for a
reduced number of reservoirs and can provide additional volumes of flue gases that can be
injected (continuously or in WAG mode) in the same or closer reservoirs. Finally, the
injection of CO2 coming from industrial emissions is in practice not feasible in the region.
However, it could be possible if PDVSA-Carbozulia (and its international partners) and the
Ministry of Energy and Mines (Ministerio de Energa y Minas) decide to build a coal-fired
power station (1000 MW) to meet the demand of energy in the region. It is important to
mention that the western region of the country (Zulia State) counts with the Carboniferous
Guasare Basin, which includes four premium coal mines (>3000 MMT).

Following sections of this paper will discuss the technical feasibility of CO2 injection
projects (assuming future availability of CO2) in a small portfolio of reservoir located in
Maracaibo Lake based on screening criteria CO2 floods using artificial intelligence
techniques as well as analytical simulation studies.

SCREENING CRITERIA FOR CO2 FLOODING

During the past 20 years, screening criteria have been employed to evaluate a number of
reservoirs for the applicability of different EOR/IOR processes in a simple way, before any
detailed evaluation is done. This is especially helpful when a large number of reservoirs
need to be analyzed. Screening criteria have evolved throughout the years and they are now
well established thanks to more field experiences as well as laboratory and numerical
simulation studies. Furthermore, several computer programs or analytical models have been
developed to select feasible IOR methods and predict their oil recovery performance based
on reported screening criteria [2,18,19].

Regarding the application of CO2 floods, different approaches have been reported to
generate screening criteria and rank reservoir candidates for CO2 injection. Reported
screening criteria are based on successful field experiences and include reservoir
performance prediction, binary comparison and parametric optimization [2,20,21]. Most
recently, the use of Artificial Intelligence (AI) based on data mining, machine learning and
space reduction techniques have been developed to generate advanced screening criteria
based on international experiences [18,19].

The information used to generate advanced screening criteria for CO2 flooding was
obtained from the TORIS and Oil & Gas Journal databases. The database used to generate
the results contains information from 58 successful CO2 projects carried out mainly in the
US, which would allow us to identify potential reservoir candidates (Reservoir Analogs)
for CO2 flooding in Venezuela. This analysis also will guide the evaluation of CO2
injection in a small reservoir portfolio. Crude oil properties and reservoir characteristics of
successful CO2 field projects reported in the TORIS database are given in Table 2. The data

shows that a fairly wide range of crude oil and reservoir properties can meet the
requirements for CO2 flooding. Table 2 also shows crude oil properties and reservoir
characteristics for the reservoir portfolio (22 fields) that will be analyzed in this study [22].

The first step after database collation and quality control are carried out, is to process the
data to generate a knowledge map. Although more than 15 variables were initially
considered, to be able to have a large number of records available for the analysis, 6
variables were selected to generate the maps. The selection was based on importance of
those variables to form well-defined clusters, but also reduction of redundant information,
based on correlation analysis. Figures 2 and 3 shows two examples of correlation of
different reservoir variables as well as the histograms of variables obtained from this type
of analysis. Based on the fairly good correlation between the temperature (T) and depth
(TVD), the exclusion of the reservoir temperature to generate the knowledge map was
decided (Fig. 2). However, in cases where poor correlations were obtained, such as the
crude oil gravity (API) with the crude oil viscosity (), both variables were considered to
generate knowledge maps (Fig. 3). The six variables selected to generate the knowledge
maps of international CO2 floods were: API, TVD, , average porosity (), average
permeability (k) and reservoir pressure (P) at the beginning of the CO2 project.
Figures 4 and 5 shows the projection of the different reservoirs that make up the
international CO2 projects database using different combination of the selected reservoir
variables to generate the knowledge maps. This type of projections does not intent to
represent two axes, as might be interpreted from a 2-D representation, but it instead is a
compact representation of a combination of four and five variables. After applying cluster
algorithm to the projection, three clearly defined clusters can be determined, representing
three mixed reservoir typologies, that is, each cluster is made out of different reservoirs to
which type of lithologies and CO2 floods have been developed (Continuous injection or
WAG mode). Reservoir lithologies was classified in three main groups: sandstones (1),
carbonates (2) and dolomites (3). Figure 4 shows the knowledge map (Realization 1) based
on four reservoir variables such as API, TVD, and k while figure 5 include the reservoir
pressure (P) in addition to the four previous variables (Realization 2). As it can be

observed, there are minor changes in the clusters when pressure is included in the
knowledge map. However, it can be noticed that the orientation of the cluster 1 and cluster
2 are more influenced by the reservoir pressure than the reservoir typology of cluster 3.

On the other hand, Figure 6 shows the knowledge map based on the six reservoir variables
(Realization 3), API, TVD, , k, P and crude oil viscosity at reservoir condition ().
Keeping the number of cluster constant in the projection, it can be observed that there are
major changes in the clusters when is included in the knowledge map. In this case, the
complexity of cluster definition is higher and more difficult to interpret than the previous
realizations (1 and 2). The projection shown in Figure 6 can be improved reducing or
increasing the number of clusters to generate a better definition of reservoir typologies.
However, the analysis of a small portfolio of oil reservoirs located in Maracaibo Lake will
be based on the projection (Realization 2) showed in Figure 5.

Finally, the methodology to obtain critical criteria for CO2 floods based in artificial
intelligence can be used as a fast screening and risk estimation for portfolios of reservoirs
under scenarios of limited information. Additionally, this methodology can be extended for
data generation (e.g. histograms of data for each reservoir type or cluster) and for the
identification of reservoir candidates for CO2 sequestering by incorporating key geological
information, among others.

PORTFOLIO ANALYSIS OF CRUDE OIL RESERVOIRS

PDVSA, the Venezuelan National Oil Company, and holds a long history of oil and gas
production, with all its E & P assets located in Venezuela. This history brings along a large
number of mature, near abandonment, reservoirs. PDVSA operates a variety of
accumulations, most of them in sandstone formations, with wide spread in API gravity,
from bitumen and heavy oils, to volatile oil and condensate reservoirs. Exploitation plans
have often yielded low recovery factors, that in average amount to 30% for waterflooding
and 40% for gas injection, and lower values for primary recovery in most cases [18].

In western Venezuela, PDVSA operates one of the most depleted and mature areas in the
country. Knowing that mature reservoirs have short life span, time is quite limited for the
decision-making process and huge efforts to expand production life of many assets need to
be done. Although some few EOR pilot projects are underway in the region, many
reservoirs lack enough financial performance to justify major investment for EOR projects
and more specifically CO2 coming from industrial emissions.
PDVSA operates in western Venezuela through three major Districts, Lagunillas,
Maracaibo and Tia Juana. In this study, a small portfolio of medium and medium heavy
crude oil reservoirs from Tia Juana District was selected to evaluate the technical feasibility
of CO2 injection projects. Tia Juana District has one of the major crude oil reserves in the
country. However, most of its reserves consist in sandstones reservoirs of medium to extra
heavy crude oils. In that sense, establish an EOR program have been a difficult task due to
its crude oil quality compared with the crude oil reservoirs operated by other Districts in the
country.

In our case study, an analysis of 22 sandstone reservoirs with crude oil ranging from
medium to medium-heavy oils has been carried out. It is important to remark that total
OOIP of the evaluated reservoir portfolio is close to 20 Billion barrels of oil (20
MMMSTB). Table 2 shows crude oil properties and reservoir characteristics for the
reservoir portfolio analyzed in this study [22]. However, a key issue in this reservoir
portfolio is current reservoir pressure. Only 4 of the 22 reservoirs currently are under
secondary recovery projects by water injection while the others are under natural depletion.
For that reason, current reservoir pressure of the majority of those fields are under 1100 psi
having reduced possibilities to develop any miscible CO2 flood based on field experiences
and minimum miscibility pressure estimated by empirical correlations.

Figure 7 shows a projection of the international database that includes Tia Juana portfolio
of reservoirs (light blue squares). As can be seen from the figure and as it was expected, Tia
Juana reservoir portfolio is located close to the cluster 1 which is dominated by CO2 floods
in sandstone reservoirs. Additionally, Tia Juana portfolio of reservoirs is located in a

specific sector at the top and left hand side of the knowledge map, which corresponds to
shallow, low gravity and low pressure reservoirs. From figure 7 it also can be observed
reported unsuccessful CO2 floods (brown squares) as well as three closer analogs, two
successful and one unsuccessful project. Figure 8 shows a closer look of the upper sector of
cluster 1, which contains the portfolio of reservoir of interest with three closer analogs, two
successful CO2 projects (Thompson Southeast and Wilmington) and a third one reported in
the literature as an unsuccessful project at Pewitt Ranch Field [1,23]. For instance,
Wilmington Field is a shallow sandstone reservoir of heavy crude oil where a successful
WAG-CO2 project has been developed even the reservoir is outside but closer of cluster 1
(Fig. 8). On the other hands, Thompson Southeast Field is a sandstone reservoir of medium
crude oil but with a higher pressure than most of the Tia Juana reservoirs. Regarding Pewitt
Ranch Field CO2 flood, the reason why this project have been reported as unsuccessful are
unknown for the authors. However and given its similarity, a detailed analysis of Pewitt
Ranch CO2 project, as well as the unsuccessful projects that are surrounding Tia Juana
portfolio of reservoirs is strongly recommended.

Additionally, notice that most of the current Tia Juana reservoir conditions are located on
the outside boundaries of cluster 1 (Fig. 8), mainly due to the lower reservoir pressure. The
latter means that by making operational changes such as increasing reservoir pressure by
developing water injection projects, if technically and economically feasible, reservoirs can
move into cluster 1. However, it seems that the window of opportunity to develop EOR
projects by CO2 injection in the evaluated portfolio of reservoir have been loosed based on
current state of depletion of most reservoirs and required investments. On the other hands,
experimental, analytical and numerical simulation studies in some of the evaluated
reservoirs, have shown low increase in recovery factors at current reservoir conditions. For
the case of analytical simulation studies, results showed that incremental oil recovery
factors were ranging between 4 and 10% if CO2 injection starts in year 2003.

10

CONCLUSIONS

A review of worldwide CO2 injection projects and the use of artificial intelligence to
generate advanced screening criteria based on international experience have been
developed. The proposed methodology requires limited reservoir information (4 or more
reservoir variables) to generate bi-dimensional maps that clearly show reservoir types,
which allowed us to evaluate the technical feasibility of CO2 floods in Venezuelan
reservoirs.

Given that natural CO2 sources in Venezuela are insufficient, if any, CO2 sources for EOR
projects will come from industrial emissions, cryogenic or produced gas processing or
planned coal-fired electric power stations.

A Tia Juana reservoir portfolio has been analyzed to evaluate the applicability of CO2
injection as a secondary and tertiary recovery method based on international field
experience. However, it seems that the potential to increase oil recovery factors by CO2
injection will be low based on current state of depletion of most reservoirs unless an
aggressive program to increase reservoir pressure by water injection is decided.

Regarding the potential of CO2 injection in Venezuela, eastern Venezuela shows a better
opportunity for EOR and CO2 sequestration based on the type of reservoirs and current
availability of CO2 than western Venezuela. However, CO2 injection in the country will be
only possible by CO2 trading schemes with developed countries, international oil
companies willing to invest and with the necessity to increase its oil reserves or changes in
fiscal regimes, among others.

Finally, the next ten years will be technically very challenging in Venezuela. We believe
that international collaboration for the execution of EOR projects and especially CO2 floods
will be critical for PDVSA to implement a nation wide EOR strategy under adverse
economic conditions.

11

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4.

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Robaina, R. EOR Strategies in Monagas North. Presented at IEA Collaborative

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10.

E. Escobar, R. Robaina, M. Vargas, I. Ymez, V. Matamoros, A. Araya, V. Tassotti.

WAG Process at Furrial Field: Two Pilot Tests With Different Objectives.
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Prosperi, N. Desarrollo de un modelo para predecir el factor de recobro en procesos

de inyeccin de aire en yacimientos de crudos livianos y medianos. Tesis de
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ENELVEN / ENELCO supply and demand reports and personal communication.

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Richard Lynch. An Energy Overview of Venezuela. U.S. Department of Energy

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Jimnez, J. C. Estudio paramtrico de inyeccin de nitrgeno en un crudo de

naturaleza voltil. Tesis de Especializacin en Gerencia Integrada de Yacimientos,
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Pereira, C. Ajuste de la ecuacin de estado de Peng-Robinson para simular el

comportamiento de un crudo de Ceuta en presencia de nitrgeno. Tesis de
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Van Waeyenberghe, A. Modelaje analtico para evaluar procesos de recuperacin

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V. Alvarado, A. Ranson, K. Hernndez, E. Manrique, J. Matheus, T. Liscano, N.

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14

TABLES

Table 1. Summary of CO2 injection potentialities by region

Critical Factors

Eastern Venezuela

Western Venezuela

High volumes (up to 400

Low and disperse volumes from

MMScfd) available in Jose

Source of CO2

Complex and areas with

production gases with high CO2
content (>5%)

CO2 injection

different types of industries

(Cement, power generation plants,
refinery and petrochemical plants)

Wide range (40 - 400 Km)

High (100 300 Km)

Gas flooded, depleted and mature

Water flooded, depleted and

onshore fields of light crude oils

mature offshore fields of light and

and condensate reservoirs

medium/heavy crude oil reservoir

(> 30API)

(16 to 28API)

sites distance

EOR Target

Table 2. Intervals of crude oil properties and reservoir characteristics of CO2 flooding
reported in the TORIS database and a small reservoir portfolio in Maracaibo Lake.
Properties

CO2 Projects (TORIS)

Ta Juana Portfolio(a)

Porosity, %

6 30

11,6 30,1

Permeability, md

0,5 1200

12 3000

Depth, ft

2050 14000

2350 5900

Pay ratio

0,245 1

0,115 0,730

Temperature, F

75 305

120 190

Oil gravity, API

16,9 46,4

17 25,7

Crude oil viscosity, cp

0,20 35,56

0,98 160

Pressure, psi

200 6350

535 2634

(a) Interval of crude oil and reservoir properties of 22 reservoirs

15

FIGURES
Number of projects

140
120
100

Steam Injection

80
60

HG Injection
CO2 Injection

40
20
0
1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
Years

Figure 1. Evolution of US active EOR [1].

o1
Labels
= ( "TVD" )

o2
Labels
= ( "Temp" )

R2 corr( X , Y) 2 = 0.783

y1 and XY

Residual Plot

400

100

300

50

200

100

50

0
0

5000

1 .10

1.5 .10

2 .10

100
0

o2
Labels
= ( "Temp" )
PDF

0.005

50

100

150

200

1.5 .10

2 .10

Histogram

0.01

1 .10

5000

250

300

350

30
27
24
21
18
15
12
9
6
3
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

Figure 2. Correlation between reservoir depth and temperature and reservoir temperature
distribution of the international CO2 floods.

16

Labels

o1

R2 corr( X , Y) 2 = 0.337

= ( "API" )

Labels

y1 and XY

o2

= ( "Viscosity" )

Residual Plot

2
1
1
0
0
1

1
2

10

20

30

40

Labels

50

o1

10

20

PDF

20

30

50

40

50

Histogram
30
27
24
21
18
15
12
9
6
3
0

0.05

10

40

= ( "API" )

0.1

30

40

50

10

20

30

Figure 3. Correlation between crude oil gravity (API) and crude oil viscosity at reservoir
condition and API distribution of international CO2 floods.

17

Cluster 3
2
2
2

3
3
3
32 3 2
2 23 2 22 3 2
2 21
2 2 1122
22 2
3
1
2
2
2
3
21

1
2
3

1
1

2
1
1

1 1

Cluster 2
Cluster 1

Figure 4. International CO2 floods projection (reservoir typologies or clusters) considering

four reservoir variables: TVD, , k, and API (Realization 1).

Pressure
decrease
1

Cluster 3

3
32 3
2 33
3
2 2
2
2 2 2 322 13 2
2
1
2 2
1 1
2 2
2 2 2
2
2
3 12

1
1
2
3

2
1

1
2
1

2
1

1
1

Cluster 2

Cluster 1

Figure 5. International CO2 floods projection (reservoir typologies) considering five

reservoir variables: TVD, , k, API and Pressure (Realization 2).

18

Cluster 3
1

Cluster 1
1
2
3

1
2

3
1

32 3
3
2
2

1
332
2
22 2 2113 1
3
2
1
2 2 22 3
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
3 12
2

1 2

1
1

Cluster 2

Figure 6. International CO2 floods projection (reservoir typologies) considering six

reservoir variables (TVD, , k, API, Pressure and at reservoir condition).

WILMINGTON

Tia Juana
Reservoirs

Cluster 1
1
THOMPSON, SOUTHEAST

3
3 2 3 2 33
2 32 2 2 2
1
322 13 21
2 2
2 2
1 12
2
2
2 22
Cluster 3
2
2
3 12
2

1
2
1
2
1 1

1
3

1
2
3
F G3_
TiaJ G3_

1
1

Cluster 2

Figure 7. Tia Juana reservoir portfolio projection considering five reservoir variables
(Realization 2). Figure also shows reported unsuccessful CO2 projects (Brown squares).

19

WAG

WILMINGTON

Unsuccessful
projects
Fail CO2-WAG
?

Cluster 1
CO2
PEWITT RANCH FIELD

Tia Juana Reservoir

1
2
3
F G3_
TiaJ G3_

CO2
THOMPSON, SOUTHEAST

Cluster 3

CO2
WAG

O2
CO2
CO2
CO2
WAG
CO2CO2
CO2
WAG
CO2CO2CO2
CO2
CO2 CO2
WAG
CO2 WAG
WAG
O2 WAG

WAG
CO2

CO2

Cluster 2

CO2

CO2 CO2
CO2
CO2 CO2
WAG
CO2

CO2 CO2
CO2

Field
Thompson Southeast

TVD (ft)
5500

Porosity (%)
28

k (mD)
100

W ilmington

2750

35

Pewitt Ranch

4300

24

API
25

P (psi)
2000

1000

16,9

900

1400

18,6

N.A.

N.A. = Information Not Available

Figure 8. Zoom of cluster 1 showing Tia Juana reservoir portfolio of reservoir and its closer
international analogs.

20