Journal of Metallurgical Engineering (ME) Volume 3 Issue 2, April 2014

doi: 10.14355/me.2014.0302.02

www.me-journal.org

A Probe into Failure of Selected Plumbing

Parts: Alloy Composition, Microstructural
Condition and Aqueous Exposure
Iyiola O. OTUNNIYI*, Oluwayimika O. OLUOKUN
Metallurgical and Materials Engineering, Federal University of Technology Akure, Nigeria
*iootunniyi@futa.edu.ng; drolatunji@gmail.com
Abstract
A probe into the metallurgical integrity of selected plumbing
parts was carried out for an informed evaluation of the
failures observes in service. Faucets and sink drainer were
focused on. Alloy compositions and microstructures were
assessed, and test exposures to normal service conditions
were simulated. Alloys were found with off-specification
compositions, with residual stresses in the microstructures
providing energy to initiate degradation early in service.
Hence, plumbing parts corrodes freely in ordinary neutral
water, with metal overload in water. The materials choice
and production design predisposes the units to short service
life. Conformity to basic material and manufacturing
standards is still lacking in some operations.
Keywords
Plumbing Parts; Metallurgical Integrity; Materials Selection;
Alloy Compositions; Residual Stress; Corrosion

Introduction
Instances of very short service lives are very common
experiences in using many consumer items in Nigeria
in recent years. Plumbing fittings have been found to
fail and had to be replaced within months. Service
lives of electric bulbs have been found to average less
than four weeks. Wall electrical outlets commonly heat
up under household amperage, melt and burn the
plastic housing. Electric stoves, water heaters, pressing
iron, rechargeable lamps, ceiling lamp holders and IT
products, often pack up in few months of use. The list
is longer and there have been officially statements
about the trend (Agboola, 2011). Since many of these
items were imported into the country, such
experiences can be expected in many parts of the globe.
For this work, plumbing parts that have been found to
fail in service after remarkably short service lives were
focused. Shower sprinklers and drainers (sieves in
kitchen sink hole) produced to appear like stainless
steel have been found to rust to dirty brown within

less than 24 weeks of fitting. Drainers rust and crumble

into pipe work. Taps not used for a few days have
been found to first dispense a burst of brownish
globule before clear flow. Such tap heads often cease to
hold flow after about four months. The tap continues
to drip and must be replaced. Whereas, a plumbing
part is expected to be noncorrosive, and durable
enough to equal or exceed the expected life of the
building in which it is installed (Encyclopedia B., 2010)
When a consumer item fails after a short service life, it
can be a case of abuse by the user, or a single defective
product out of many other good ones. When this
observation is in all instances of use, the logical
thinking is that these items are not made to safe and
durable standards from source. No position will be
final without an empirical basis for its conclusion.
Selected plumbing parts were therefore investigated
and reported herein. The alloy compositions were
determined and compared to standard material
specifications for such units (BSI, 1991; CDA, 1991;
Ramesh, 2011; Malekith, 2013), and the microstructural
conditions of the alloys as-used were studied. Test
exposure to the service condition (neutral water) was
simulated. It was also found necessary to assess
possible metal load of water dispensed by such faucets.
The results were discussed from different viewpoints.
Methodology
For a documentary, visual inspection of striking
instances of faucets and drainer failure, as found in
service were carried out. From a survey of the varieties
of these items available in the plumbing stores, four
most common faucets found in the shops and a drainer,
were obtained. For reference, Table 1 gives designations and summary description of the items. The
samples were dissembled, scratched, sawn, and cut
apart, as necessary, to visually assess surface and bulk
body material make up.
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Journal of Metallurgical Engineering (ME) Volume 3 Issue 2, April 2014

Spark spectrometric analysis of separate alloys making

up the units was done. For the faucets, the alloys used
in the central control rods in F1 F3, being the major
moving part, and the housing alloys, being the bulk
material, were analyzed. Since mechanical and heat
treatments affect microstructural condition, which in
turn affects service performance, metallographic
samples of the alloys analyzed were obtained. Optical
microstructures of the alloys were obtained.
Microstructure and compositional analysis were
similarly done for the drainer.
TABLE 1 DESIGNATION AND DESCRIPTION OF FOUR COMMON FAUCETS
AND THE DRAINER STUDIED

Designation

F1

F2

Features and description

A circular indentation around the valve control rod
of the faucet reads ENGLAND EURO UK. On the
faucet housing (the gland), on one side, letters SF
and on the other side BS 10102 and were boldly
embossed as-cast. Uses screw control mechanism.
Similar to F1 expect with no indentation or
embossed, and the stem appears to be of steel luster.

water above another set of samples using a small

impeller attached to the thin shaft of a small DC motor.
The motor was powered for four hours in a day; since
the tap in a typical household will not dispense water
round the clock, while in a typical public utility the tap
can be expected to run cumulatively for about four
hours a day. Measurement of any changes in the
samples mass was done weekly for six weeks, with
the water above the samples replaced with every
measurement.
From the corrosion test (results below), possible level
of pollution of water dispensed by such faucets was
also assessed. Sample was taken from the water in
which the component alloys were placed, and
analyzed for metal load using atomic absorption
spectroscopy (Haswell, 1991; Welz, 1999). With the
respective lamps, the water sample was analyzed for
iron, copper, sodium, lead, potassium, and zinc.

F3

Similar to F1 in stem, and embossed letters but with

different structural design.

Results and Discussion

F4

Stainless steel appearance; flow control mechanism

by aperture opening and closing in 90O turn.

Exhibits

A sample drainer; the sieve covering drain hole in a

kitchen sink.

From the visual inspections, Figure 1 presents exhibits

of sample faucets as found in service. Corrosion stains
and rusts to different extents on the stem (the central
control rod) and towards the supporting threaded nut
can be seen on the faucets. For plumbing fittings to
corrode visibly in this manner in service, the material
selection and the production design are strongly
suspects. The faucets shown in Figure 1 are of the type
designated as F1.

For a quantitative check on the performance in the

service environment, test exposure to the service medium
was simulated. The disassembled components were
left undisturbed to simulate the static condition of a
tap that is not dispensing water. Since in service, water
is not static but actually runs in the tap, the dynamic
flow service condition was simulated by stirring the

FIGURE 1 INSTANCES OF TAP1 AS FOUND IN SERVICE SHOWING DETERIORATION LEVELS AND EMBOSSED PRODUCTION
STAMP SHOWING SUPPOSED STANDARD SPECIFICATION KEPT.

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Journal of Metallurgical Engineering (ME) Volume 3 Issue 2, April 2014

www.me-journal.org

(c)

(a)

(b)
FIGURE 2 TAP SAMPLES AS OBTAINED FROM THE PLUMBING SHOP

Figures 2a c show new samples of F2, F3 and F4 as

obtained from the plumbing shop. Examining the
samples, the stem in F2 shows steely luster, and it is
presumably machined from rolled bars. The main
faucet body is apparently made of brass, with as-cast
surface texture. It is notable that the stem and the
valve housing are not of the same alloy. This portends
a dissimilar metal violation for a unit that will be
susceptible to wet aqueous exposure in service. In F1
(new one is not shown), the stem has the same brass
coloration as the housing. On this basis, F1 in new
form appears to be of better material selection in its
design and production, compared to F2, since the
possibility of dissimilar metal galvanic effect appears
to be removed. However, while holding F1 around in
the course of observation, the stem started showing
discoloration (due to inadvertent rubbing by fingers),
exposing portions with steel luster. Portions showing
steel and brass coloration like this were found in
service also (Figure 1). The stem obviously has a thin
(possibly submicron) coating, with poor adhesion. In
F3 the stem is also coated as in F1, but the coating did
not rub off so readily.
F4 is a different design, with covered stem and the
housing of stainless steel luster. The housing surface
when scratched with a pin indented deep and softly,
unlike stainless steel but rather more like an organic
coating. With a hand saw and file, a thin undercoat
showing reddish brown on a bulk body of dull white
luster was revealed. The bulk material of the housing
thus appears to be of steel, with a faint first coat of
copper, and a final tenacious surface coat that can be
organic.
F1, F2 and F3 are similar in working mechanism: the

threaded stem is turned downward to block flow by

closing against a polymeric o-ring. The valves will
continue to block flow as long as the polymeric disc
remains resilient and the stem maintain its length. In
F4, a turn through 90O allows or stops flow when
holes in two polymeric components align or not,
respectively. One of the polymeric components sits on
a stem that appears as cast brass. The stem turns the
polymeric piece in and out of alignment with the other
piece that is fixed in the flow channel. The unit will
continue to regulate flow effectively as long as the
aligning polymeric components do not degrade but
maintain tight tolerance. Based on visual inspection,
production of F4 appears of a best material selection
and design.
Figure 3 shows a sample drainer in service that has
corroded and crumbled, and a new sample. The new
sieve appears of stainless steel, but this surely cannot
be if the new is of the same material as the one
observed in service, which corroded so badly that part
of it crumbled into the pipe works. The fitting bolt
gave way and can no longer hold it in place. The
results of analysis are presented following.

FIGURE 3 DRAINER SIEVE AS FOUND IN SERVICE INSIDE A

DRAINER AND A NEW ONE.

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Journal of Metallurgical Engineering (ME) Volume 3 Issue 2, April 2014

Compositions of Component Alloys

Table 2 shows the elemental compositions of different
alloys in the study. Columns R1 to R3, gives the
compositions for the control rods in F1, F2 and F3
respectively, while H1 to H4 are for the housing alloys
of F1 to F4. Column D is for the drainer, ST is for the
generic BS 1400 brass alloy recommended for fresh
water faucets, and column SD is for AISI-SAE Grade
304 stainless steel recommended of the drainers (CDA,
1991; MatWeb, 2013). Among many equivalents,
specifications BS 5154: 1991, BS 12288: 2010, BS EN
12163: 2011, BS EN 1982: 2008 cover specific brass
alloys for components of fresh water valves, while BS
EN 10088-1: 2005 number 1.4301 or 1.4401 covers
stainless steels for screens (BSI, 1991; ASD, 2012).
According to the compositions in Table 2, the housings
of F1, F2 and F3 were confirmed to be brass alloys,
while that of F4 is a zinc-aluminum alloy. The central
control rods in F1, F2, and F3 were found to be of
medium to low carbon steels (MatWeb, 2013). The
drainer was also of low carbon steel and not stainless
steel according to the standard in column SD.
Compared to the standard specifications, there are
random elements in the alloys compositions. This can
be traced to recycling charge. More than half of metal
productions in the world are now sustained by scrap

recycling (Papp, 2001). Production of finished parts

using only ingots smelted from primary ores is
increasingly rare. Different copper alloys in the
BS2870/5, BS3072/6, BS1400 specifications (the PB10x,
CN10x, AB10x, CA10x, ABx series) contains definite
amounts of Al, Si, Mn, Fe, Pb (Higgins, 1999; Callister,
2001). There are precipitation hardened copper alloys
containing Cr and Be. For steels and irons, the existing
alloys are more (MatWeb, 2013). Such assorted alloys
get into scrap feed in recycling, and the charge
calculation settles for the closest optimum. If a heat
produces off-specification composition, the product
becomes new scrap (Papp, 2001). If an operation
weighs economics too high, compositions such as
obtained herein will be the result.
For the control rods and the drainer, the compositions
cannot be classed as stainless steel based on the Ni and
Cr, nor as Mn-Si steel; all the elements were not up to
requisite levels (Callister, 2001; MatWeb, 2013). Trace
Al and Cu were also detected. Based on the carbon
levels, the alloys can be said to have been produced
from assorted ferrous scraps charge, roughly targeted
toward mild steel but turned out off-specification.
Compositions that are roughly mild steel are
inadequate for plumbing applications for which they
have been employed (Blower, 2006; Ramesh, 2011;
Malekith, 2013).

TABLE 2 ELEMENTAL COMPOSITION (%) OF ALLOYS USED IN THE DRAINER (D), THE CONTROL RODS (R) AND HOUSING (H) OF THE SAMPLE FAUCETS, AND
THE STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS OF SUCH PARTS.

72

R1

R2

R3

H1

H2

H3

H4

ST

SD

Al

0.023

0.149

0.003

0.0088

0.245

0.087

83.3

0.1-0.8

0.031

0.100

As

0.034

0.032

0.016

0.014

0.014

--

0.193

0.244

0.195

--

--

--

--

0.142

0.080

Cr

0.532

0.313

0.0042

0.0068

0.02

0.069

0.070

0.084

20.000

Cu

0.037

0.04

0.0033

58.2

67.5

54.2

1.86

58-63

0.081

Fe

97.7

97.35

99.3

0.74

0.95

0.7

0.5

0.7

99.2

68.995

Mn

0.79

1.02

0.369

0.009

0.005

0.003

1.18

0.5

0.108

2.000

Ni

0.009

0.015

0.021

0.306

0.281

0.281

--

0.053

8.000

0.036

0.037

0.047

0.0079

0.005

0.005

--

0.02

0.045

0.045

Pb

0.003

0.001

0.002

2.61

5.63

6.22

0.05

0.5 - 2.5

0.024

0.03

0.020

0.0061

0.011

0.007

--

--

0.048

0.750

Si

0.58

0.71

0.021

0.013

0.066

0.14

1.3

0.05

0.188

0.030

Sn

0.026

0.027

0.0012

0.81

2.44

1.6

0.146

0.0043

Zn

--

--

0.013

37.17

22.68

36.65

11.40

30.43 38.13

0.01

--

Journal of Metallurgical Engineering (ME) Volume 3 Issue 2, April 2014

For the housing alloys, reference to column ST in Table

2, a plumbing faucet will be made of brass alloy. All
the components of the unit the housing, the turning
knob, the control rod are mandated to be of the same
brass alloy (CDA, 1991). The brass alloys used in the
housings deviated with respect to different elements.
The Pb levels in H1 (F1 housing) is close enough to be
acceptable, while that in F2 and F3 exceeded this level.
Lead level of 2.5 maximum is the standard, while F2
and F3 contained 5.63% and 6.22%. Pb is notably
carcinogenic for humans and strict restrictions apply to
the presence and use of this element according to the
RoHS directive (Directive, 2003). Permitted levels may
therefore not be exceeded. Chromium is another
element not expected but found in trace proportion. It
may not be a threat in this context, but can rather
improve corrosion resistance of the alloy. More so that
these housings did not fail in service instances
inspected, or show any dissolution during the
corrosion testing (see below), the brass alloys used in
the manufacture of the faucet heads can be considered

www.me-journal.org

acceptable.
The bulk body alloy used in F4 housing found to be of
aluminum alloy is a good alternative to the brass
alloys. The composition shows an Al-Zn alloy that can
come under the BS 1475:7000 series. Aluminum is
known for its tenacious thin surface oxide which
makes aluminum alloys naturally corrosion resistant
(Snodgrass, 2003). The surface of this faucet was also
treated to a tenacious coating, and the material can be
considered acceptable.
Microstructures of Component Alloys
The housings of the various faucets generally show
different as cast microstructures. Since the housings
actually did not give any problem in service or in the
corrosion test, the micrographs are inconsequential in
further analysis of the performance problem. Figures
4a and b, micrographs obtained for H1 and H3, were
therefore shown only as representative micrographs of
the brass housings.

FIGURE 4 OPTICAL MICROGRAPH OF THE BRASS HOUSING OF (A: LEFT) TAP1, SHOWING A GRANULAR AS-CAST +
STRUCTURE (EXPECTED AT 37 % Zn, X 400), AND (B: RIGHT) H3, SHOWING A PREDOMINANTLY -BRASS MATRIX (AT 22 % Zn, X 200)
WITH EQUIAXED AS CAST STRUCTURE.

FIGURE 5 OPTICAL MICROGRAPHS OF THE VALVE CONTROL RODS OF (A: LEFT) TAP1 SHOWING AS-ROLLED DIRECTIONAL
GRAIN (X 400) AND (B: RIGHT) TAP2 SHOWING RECRYSTALLISED GRAINS POSSIBLY FROM FULL ANNEAL (X 400).

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Journal of Metallurgical Engineering (ME) Volume 3 Issue 2, April 2014

FIGURE 6 OPTICAL MICROGRAPHS OF (A: LEFT) THE VALVE CONTROL ROD OF TAP3 SHOWING THE AS ROLLED STRUCTURE
LARGELY RELIEVED, THOUGH LITTLE FLOW IS STILL RESIDUAL (X 400), AND (B: RIGHT) THE DRAINER SIEVE WITH CLEARLY
FLOWED PEARLITE MORPHOLOGY IN A FERRITE MAIN MATRIX (X 400).

Considering the microstructure from R1 (Table 2)

shown in Figure 5(a), it can be inferred that the stem
was machined to size from the rod in as-rolled condition.
The microstructure shows grains with preferred
orientation ascribable to the rolling direction (Tatsuya
and Kenji, 2010). In this state, this rod was used asworked, and with the strain energy not relieved. It was
therefore more corrosion active than if some stress
relief annealing had been performed on it (Van Boven
et al., 2007). Here is another insight into why the stem
was, as it were, dissolving in ordinary water at room
temperature. The micrograph of R2 shows rather
recrystallised grains, possibly from full anneal of the
as-rolled rod used in the production of the stem. For
F3, as Figure 6 indicates, the stem can be said to have
been turned from an alloy that was worked and then
treated only to stress relief anneal. From Figure 6b, the
drainer is in a slightly worked state, with the residual
stress unrelieved. This could have been from the little
deformation during press forming. A fully relieved
structure is a better condition for reducing corrosivity
(Higgins, 1999). In the production design of F1, F3 and
the drainer, this fact was disregarded. Production
design in F2 is mindful of this, but the bulk alloy is
essentially not corrosion resistant.
The highpoint thus far is that the central valve control
rod in F1, F2 and F3 were of alloys that are clearly
unsuitable, of mild and low carbon steels and not
brasses. The drainer alloy was also not of stainless
steel according to specification. These alloys are
inappropriate and are not expected in applications for
aqueous exposure. Some are also in worked states. To
have used such alloys for these applications in the first
place is bad enough; to keep the alloys in a worked
state, with residual energy in the microstructure, is
worse. This predisposed the items to such poor
performance as found in service. The results of the test

74

exposures track the degradation in service with time.

Corrosion Behavior of the Faucet and the Drainer Alloys
Of the various components of the faucets exposed to
static and flowing water, all the component parts of F4
did not show any degradation. No noticeable
corrosion was observable. The mass measurements
remained constant. In the other faucets, the central
valve control rod corroded glaringly, turning rusty
brown on the surface, while the water also turned
brownish. The mass measurements showed mass loss
in the rods. Figure 7 shows the cumulative mass loss in
the different control rods under the two conditions
over the 42 days of exposure. From the figure, the
material used for the control rods in F1, F2 and F3
cannot survive exposure to ordinary water at room
temperature. Even under static exposure, corrosion of
the rods was progressing. Under the dynamic
condition, the rate increased, indicating erosioncorrosion (Rabald, 1991). These central control rods are
the very component of the valve that blocks the flow.
This implies that, in the locked condition, the faucets
will continue to degrade. Related to service performance, the corrosion observed under static condition
accounts for the first globule of brownish water that
burst from these faucets after some days of inactivity.
On a closer study of the data in Figure 7, in the first
week of exposure, the mass loss rate was relatively
highest for control rod of F3. This latter slowed down,
relatively, before the corrosion continued steadily. This
can be a passivation - transpassive behavior (Kruger,
2003), but the imperfect coating on the surface of the
rod could be more responsible. With imperfect coating,
coating breakdown, surface corrosion, local galvanic
action with the substrate, exfoliation, peeling, and
blistering to different extents can occur (Roberge, 1999).

Journal of Metallurgical Engineering (ME) Volume 3 Issue 2, April 2014

Mass loss rate can therefore reduce after the coating is

fully consumed, and some modes of corrosion cease.
However, the corrosion did not passivate. There is also
such coating on F1. Corrosion commences right from
the very first week of exposures and continued
steadily. Cummulatively, F3 gave lower mass loss, and
F1 the higher. In both cases, the manufacturers would
know that the coatings do not offer short or long term
protection to the substrate. These coatings must have
been for sale cosmetics only. Overall, the control rod of
F2 recorded the highest mass loss over the time
interval, while F1 and F3 were in the trail. All the
dissolution is continuous, and will not passivate. The

faucets will cease to control flow after short service life.

The drainer also was found to corrode under water.
Figure 8 shows the drainer response over the period
under dynamic exposure. It was noted that the
response was initially slow. The coating first tended to
resist degradation, but later tarnished and gradually
gave way. The rate of corrosion then aggravated. As
the sample corrodes in this manner under neutral
water, more profuse corrosion till failure as found in
service (Figure 3), can be expected. When exposed to
the real kitchen waste water streams, with pH shocks
above and below 7, depending on what is cooking, and
thermal fluctuations, the product is surely a failure.

R1-Static
R1-Dynamic
R2-Static
R2-Dynamic
R3-Static
R3-Dynamic

12

Cumulative mass loss per unit area

(mg/cm2)

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10
8
6
4
2

Time (days)

0
0

10

20

30

40

Cummulative mass loss per unit area

(mg/cm2)

FIGURE 7 CUMULATIVE MASS LOSS PER UNIT AREA UNDER STATIC AND DYNAMIC EXPOSURES OF CONTROL RODS IN F1, F2
AND F3, DENOTED AS R1, R2 AND R3 RESPECTIVELY.

6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0

10

20

30

Time (days)

40

FIGURE 8 CUMULATIVE MASS LOSS PER UNIT AREA OVER TIME OF EXPOSURE OF THE DRAINER SIEVE TO ORDINARY WATER
UNDER DYNAMIC CONDITION, WITH VIEWS OF THE CORRODED TEST SAMPLE INSET.

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Journal of Metallurgical Engineering (ME) Volume 3 Issue 2, April 2014

Obviously, the alloys used for the different

components are unsuitable for these applications,
virtually dissolving under exposure to ordinary water,
only with the exception components of F4. These types
of products will only put the consumer in a vicious
cycle of replacing the plumbing fittings forever.
Metal Load in Water
With the dissolution of the faucet control rods in
presence of ordinary water, expect for F4, metal load in
water dispensed by such faucets raises concern. The
AAS analysis shows various metallic elements in the
water sample (Table 3). The allowable levels for safe
drinking water for these elements by some standard
bodies (United Nations WHO, USAs EPA and
Nigerias NSDWR) are also shown in the table (NIS
2007; EPA, 2010; WHO, 2011). It may be needed to
restate that the water sample analysed was taken
above the corroding control rods, and the analysis is
indicative of possible contaminations that this rods can
contribute to water dispensed by the faucets. It does
not account for many other possible source of
contamination of pipe borne water. It may be needed
also to state that the water has become faint brown due
to the corrosion dissolution. This analysis may
therefore represent the first brownish globule observed
in service when the faucets have not been used for
some days. Clear flow normally follows after such first
brownish burst, although how clean such clear flow
can be is clearly debatable.
TABLE 3 METAL LOAD IN WATER SAMPLE FROM CORRODED PARTS

Elements
Chromium (Cr)
Copper (Cu)
Iron (Fe)
Lead (Pb)
Manganese(Mn)
Nickel (Ni)
Zinc (Zn)

Tested Water
Sample (mg/L)
0.074
0.186
130.8
1.039
0.027
28.833

NSDWR WHO EPA

(mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L)
0.05
0.05
0.1
1
2
1.3
0.3
-0.3
0.01
0.01
0
0.2
-0.05
-0.07
-3
3
5

Definite information from this analysis is that six

metallic elements can leach from these control rods
into household cup of drinking water. The list includes
chromium, known to serve no biological function in
the body, but rather a cumulative poison (Chowdury
and Chanda, 1987. Chromium can also exist in the
hexavalent state, which is particularly listed as
hazardous. Elements such as iron and zinc that are
dietary elements can be loaded beyond limits from
these units, as the data show. Iron overload disturbs
pH balance, predisposing patient to permanent coma
in the worst case. Human exposure to metals from tap

76

water is known for a long time, with lead plumbing

being notorious. From the data herein, excessive
dosage of many other metals may soon add to the
global health concerns from different vulnerable
regions where these substandard parts still enjoy sales.
Conclusion
Study of alloys used in production of sample
plumbing parts faucets and drainer shows cases of
bad material selection and production design. The
composition analyses show the alloys as off
specification compositions, but close to mild steel. The
alloys are actually from assorted scraps charged not to
a strict composition target. The microstructures show
that some of the alloys are in stressed states, providing
internal energy to hasten degradation. There are
dissimilar metal coupling too. Active surface corrosion
of the critical moving parts triggers on exposure to
service condition (drinking water). Coatings were only
for sale cosmetics. Corrosion was sustained in erosioncorrosion mode by fluid current so that passivation
will not occur. The short service life as found in service
is expected. Metal load in the water dispensed from
such taps can be far above safe portable water
threshold. The products were produced to a gross
substandard. It is an indication that conformity to
basic materials and manufacturing standards is still
lacking in some operations.
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products. The Nation Newspaper, November 21, 2011.
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Blower, G. J. Plumbing mechanical services, 5th ed.,
Edinburgh Gate, Essex, UK: Pearson Education Limited,
2006.
BSI. B. S. 5154:1991 Specification for copper alloy globe,
globe stop and check, check and gate valves. British
Standards Board: Piping System Components Standard
Committee; 1991.
Callister, W. D. Fundamentals of materials science and
engineering, 5th ed. New York: John Wiley, 2001.
Chowdhury, B. A. and Chanda, R. K. Biological and health
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Journal of Metallurgical Engineering (ME) Volume 3 Issue 2, April 2014

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Iyiola Olatunji OTUNNIYI is a
Metallurgical Engineering academic.
He studied at Obafemi Awolowo
University
Ile-Ife,
Nigeria
and
University of Pretoria, South Africa.
He holds a PhD degree and has more
than ten years of teaching and research
experiences in Universities and Institutes.
Oluwayimika O OLUOKUN is a notably bright upcoming
Metallurgical Engineer. He studied at Federal University of
Technology, Akure and took interest in materials quality and
integrity in service, metallurgical plant and process design.

Subramanian, T.K.S. and Venkata R. B. Impact of household

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