The Mongolian Bow

Because the Old Mongols lived in an environment where survival skills were always of the utmost
importance, it was a matter of course that they should develop excellent tools, both civilian and
military. One piece of equipment that was of great significance in war as well as in the daily life of
the Mongols was their composite bow. Perhaps this bow is not quite as well-known in the West as the
classical English longbow, which was the best bow ever to emerge in Europe.
Yet the Old Mongolian bow was incomparably superior to everything seen in the West. Not until the
advent of breach-loading firearms in the 1800's was the Mongolian bow decisively surpassed as a
long-range shooting tool. Still the original Mongolian bow remains a formidable tool for targeting,
war or hunting, and the people around the Bajkal sea regularly used these bows for hunting at least up
to the twentieth century.
In the following I am going to describe this bow in detail so as to make it clear to the contemporary
reader what the Old Mongols could do with their shooting equipment.
The military use of the bow
When we are talking about Mongolian bows, the first thoughts go the their military use, although
hunting and target practice certainly were more prominent activities. Every day was not filled with
war, but hunting and the training of various skills were part of the daily routine. However, we will
start with the military aspect.
In the military, each soldier carried two bows on horseback. One bow was for long-range shooting,
another for shooting at close distances. Also, each soldier had two quivers with arrows for different
purposes. To mention but a few of these, there were armor-piercing arrows with a particularly heavy
arrowhead of tempered steel, there were incendiary arrows for setting buildings afire and spreading
fear in the enemy ranks, as well as whistling arrows for signalling. Of course, the majority of arrows
they carried were ordinary arrows where the arrowhead and length of the shaft were adjusted to the
normal range at which the particular type arrow was to be used. The standard, according to James
Chambers, was that each soldier should have at least sixty arrows with him or her. Yes; it merits
mention once more that the strongest and most courageous Mongolian females rode along with the
men and fought bravely. Also, the women who did not ordinarily participate in military activity
nevertheless had to learn how to wield the bow, a necessary skill for self-defence as well as hunting.
The construction
We are now going into the details of the Mongolian bow. As already mentioned, it was the most
capable bow in the world, and probably still is. Even though the modern high-tech compound bows
are in some ways more convenient to use and can be made equally powerful, the sheer simplicity of
the Mongol composite bow with its complete indepencence of foreign equipment and complicated
parts that the archer cannot easily repair or replace makes the Mongol bow on balance a superior
solution. In order to show the Mongols and their extraordinary bow the proper respect, the story is
mostly told in the present tense, which also serves to emphasize the salient point that these things can
be done today as well.
The Mongol bow is not as large and long as the English one, but it is vastly more powerful. The draw
weight of an English longbow averages around 70-80 pounds, whereas the Old Mongol bow had a
pull that, according to George Vernadsky, averaged at around 166 pounds. Chambers states that the
pull varied from 100 to 160 pounds. This seeming discrepancy certainly reflects the fact that draw
weight varied with the strength of the user, and with what use the bow had been made for. As could be
expected, there was a considerable difference in shooting range. Whereas the English longbow could

shoot at distances up to 250 yards or around 228 meters, the Mongol counterpart can hit its target at
350 yards or 320 meters and, if the archer is well trained for the task, even beyond that.
There are people who claim that the Old Mongols could shoot and hit their target over truly
astonishing distances. Gongor Lhagvasuren, Deputy Director at the Mongolian National Institute of
Physical Education, has written an article called "The stele of Chinggis Khan." There, Lhagvasuren
refers to an ancient inscription on a stone found in the basin of the river Kharkiraa, a left tributary of
Urlengui river which flows into the trans-Bajkal river Erdene. The text of the inscription, supposedly
dated from 1226, may be interpreted as follows: "While Chinggis Khan was holding an assembly of
Mongolian dignitaries, after his conquest of Sartaul (East Turkestan), Esungge shot a target at 335
alds" (536m). Lhagvasuren draws the conclusion in his article that such feats were rather common for
Mongolian archers during the 1200's, and writes: "This case illustrates the strength, accuracy and
sharpness, physical prowess of the Mongolians who lived more than 700 years ago." Whether or not
we find it likely that Mongolian archers could regularly hit their targets at the distances Lhagvasuren
claims they could, there is no question that they and their and bows are outstanding in all of archery's
history.
When we take a closer look at the Mongolian bow, we see that it is an intriguing construction indeed.
The backbone of the bow is a wooden frame, which will typically be birch, because that wood is
resilient and is also readily available. The total length of the frame is 150-160 cm. When the bow is
unstrung, it looks like a semi-circle with a beautifully curvaceous shape, but when a string is attached
the whole thing is stretched out so that its limbs are bent inward. Even so, these limbs with string
attachments are bent slightly away from the archer, forming a double curve. It is this double curve
that delivers explosive acceleration and awesome velocity to the arrow. From these limbs or bends of
the bow behind the string attachments where the impact is greatest, the frame is covered with
elongated and flattened pieces of mountain sheep's (or other wild or domesticated ungulate's) horn
or/and bone which adds snapping power to the resilient wood in the frame. These hard parts form a
layer that covers the whole area of the so-called belly, which is the part between the grip and the
limbs. Chambers describes how the back parts of the bow, nearest the archer, were those covered with
horn and/or bone while the sinew layer was applied to the outer side.
The reader will have noticed that I use the term horn and/or bone. This is because the precise details
of how the bows were built could vary over the Siberian area, although the main features are clear.
The bone elements, when added, are no more than a small part at the center of the bow, and may
originally have served mainly ornamental and possibly magical purposes.
Fish glue and sinew
As we understand, a composite bow by definition has several layers. We have mentioned the birch
frame, and the layer of horn/bone. In addition to this, there is a layer of specially prepared birch bark
whose purpose is to protect against penetration of moisture. In addition to this again is a layer of
sinew, which is taken from deer, moose or other game animals. The tendons of domestic animals may
also be used, but Mongols feel that tendons from wild animals like deer, moose and mountain sheep
are the strongest and best. Naturally, the bow has to be glued together. The preferred and traditional
substance used for the impregnation of both leather as well as their bows is fish glue. As a matter of
fact, fish glue has been proven through millennia to be highly capable of resisting moisture.
Moreover, it is durable and lasts longer than modern epoxy resins, which are prone to molecular
fatigue. Above all, fish glue is available in all the waters of Siberia where fish is living, among them
the greatest of them all, Lake Bajkal.
How is fish glue made? The process that yields the highest quality is to take swim bladders from
freshwater fish, soak them into hot water to extract the protein substance, and then boil the resultant
soup for a prolonged period. If sufficient quantities of swim bladders cannot be obtained, it is also
possible to make hide glue by boiling animal skins. This latter method however results in a glue of

inferior quality, because it absorbs moisture, whereas glue made from ichthyic air bladders is highly
moisture-resistant.
Although all materials needed to build the Mongolian bow are to be found in the immediate natural
environment, the whole production process is very complex. It takes a long time to build a bow that is
to meet the Old Mongol requirements. We may also assume that the selection of the best wood
material for the frame requires knowledge and experience.
The usual procedure in the production of a traditional Mongolian bow is as follows: The wooden
frame is cured, and the horns and/or bone to be used are boiled for softness. This makes it possible to
fit the different parts together with great precision. As we understand, high-quality Mongolian
bowmaking is certainly a most impressive craftsmanship. When the wooden frame, and the
horns/bone parts are ready, the sinewing can take place. First the tendons have to be dried. After that,
they are crushed until they form a mass of loose fibers. Next, this mass is mixed with fish glue to
form a solid but not rigid layer. It is important to apply the correct thickness and amount of sinew, and
it is done in a two-stage process with some days in between. Too little makes the bow weaker, too
much would make it stiff. When completed the layer of sinew could be as thick as a human finger
before drying. Sinew has a peculiar quality: Unlike other materials, its strength increases when
subject to stretching or impact. This form of elasticity is a property stemming from the molecular
structure of the protein of tendons (collagen), and can be seen as another striking demonstration of the
innate superiority of natural solutions and materials. When used in a Mongolian composite bow, the
effect is that as the horn plates in the front snap back to their former shape, the sinew layer in front
contracts in the same split-second, adding further acceleration to the shot as the arrow is propelled
forward.
At each stage, fish glue has been applied to secure all the parts. In the horns and wooden parts, the
sides that are to be glued against each other are first grafted with a toothed special tool in order to
give the strongest possible hold.
The last step is usually the applying of the protective birch bark layers, which are also boiled until
soft, so ensuring a proper fit before glued to the finished bow. When the layer of birch bark has been
added to the composite construction, the whole bow is wrapped tightly in ropes and placed in a form
where it is allowed to dry and harden in room temperature for one year or more. This ensures that the
bow becomes extremely strong and that it keeps its shape and snappiness even after many years of
frequent shooting.
A Mongolian bow is stored in its own leather case, protecting the bow when not in use.
The string
No bow, no matter how powerful, can be shot without a string. Traditional Mongol bowstrings are
made from animal hide. First every trace of fat is removed. Thereafter the hide is stretched and
twisted. After this treatment it will not stretch, but remain taut. Although the skin of many fur-bearing
animals can be used, horse skin is often preferred since it is said that this material maintains
suppleness in the exceedingly low winter temperatures of Siberia and Inner Asia. It is also possible to
use the intestines of animals as string material, but such strings are not water resistant and thus only
suited for use in dry and hot weather.
Silk and cotton, and mixes of these, can also be used. Modern archers generally use dacron and other
man-made materials that require high technology to produce and therefore cannot possibly be made
by the archer himself. Here we see another example that the use of primitive materials, although
demanding in terms of individual skills and work, is the more reliable and sustainable strategy when
viewed in a broader perspective.

When the bow is strung, the archer may sit down, using both feet to press against the bow as the
limbs were bent while the string was attached. Using another technique, he or she could also stand
upright, bow bent under one leg while the other leg holds the outer end. On horseback, the Mongol
archer routinely stringed the bow by placing one end of the bow between the foot and the stirrup
while the arms pressed against the bow.
The shooting
The Old Mongols have their own technique for shooting, known as the "Mongolian release." The
Mongols, if right-handed, keep their bow in the left hand, pushes it forward as the right arm pulls the
string all the way back to behind the ear. The left arm is now fully extended, and the release is near.
However, now comes an interesting part. Since this bow has immense power, the Mongols have to
use a special technique to hold the string during the drawing of the bow and before the arrow is
released. The technique is as follows: The string is held by the thumb, since this is the strongest
finger. Still, it is not easy to hold 166 pounds comfortably. Thus, the thumb is supported with the
index finger curling around, placed atop the outermost joint, exactly at the base of the nail. The other
fingers are also curled, forming a fist. Even so, this is not enough. Hence, the Mongols use a special
ring on which the string is hooked before release. This thumb ring, a cylinder that fits around the
outer part of the thumb and protects its pad from damage as the string is released, is typically made
from Chinese jade or agate, but leather, metal and bone is also known to have been used.
Mongolian soldiers used to shoot while sitting on horseback, and with deadly accuracy. This was
done by skilfully timing the shots to the moment when the hooves of the horse were in mid-air, so as
to avoid disturbing the aim when they hit the ground.
The arrows
Birch is a typical material for arrows too. The normal length of an arrow is between 80 and 100 cm,
and the shaft's diameter is around 10 mm.
As for fletchings, tail feathers of crane are favored, but tail feathers of all birds are usable. Eagle
feathers make a particularly exclusive arrow, but since eagles are rare most arrows obviously cannot
have fletchings from eagle's tail feathers. Feathers taken from the wings are said to flow less
smoothly through the air, so if given the choice tail feathers are picked. The Mongols
characteristically pay close attention to minutest of details. The placement of the fletchings in relation
to their size, and what part of the bird they were taken from, is of great importance for correct rotation
and good balance in the air. Consequently these factors are painstakingly considered when making
arrows after the Old Mongol standard.
The arrowheads, or points, could be everything from wide metal blades used for big game (or in war)
to bone and wooden points, which are used for hunting birds and small animals. The high impact of
this bow ensures that a bony point will be lethal when hitting the body of a smaller animal or a bird.
In addition to these kinds of arrows, whistling arrows are useful during hunting, because the effect on
animals of an arrow whistling away high above the ground is often to make it stop, curious to see
what is in the air. This gives the hunter time to launch a second arrow, this time with a game head to
kill the animal. How are these whistling arrows made? They are made by inserting an arrowhead of
bone in which air channels have been created. When shot, such arrowheads make a very audible
sound through the air.

The History of Boomerangs

Contrary to popular belief, the boomerang did not originate in Australia. Historical traces of
boomerangs have been found throughout the world. Boomerangs are considered by many to be the
earliest "heavier-than-air" flying machines invented by human beings. Australian Aboriginal
boomerangs have been found as old as ten thousand years old, but older hunting sticks have been
discovered throughout Europe. The famed King Tutankhamen of Egypt had an extensive collection of
boomerangs over 2000 years ago.
Although historians are not certain of the exact origin of the first boomerang, it is speculated that the
boomerang was developed from a flattened throwing stick, used by early hunters. The returning
boomerang was most likely discovered by accident by an early hunter trying to fine tune a
hunting stick. The modern boomerang is most commonly associated with Australia because it has
been preserved in its highest state of development by Australian Aborigines. Since the Australian
Aborigines are one of the few cultures in history never to develop a bow and arrow, their heavy
dependence on the boomerang for hunting has ensured its preservation.
The modern boomerang has been refined over time to state of the art boomerang materials such as
paxolin and carbon fibre. The use of finnish birch wood has been found to be useful for more durable
wooden boomerangs. Aircraft windfoil design programs and Computer Aided Drawing programs are
used to optimize flight characteristics. Modern competition boomerangs can stay aloft for up to several
minutes time and distances over 200 yards.

Construction of traditional Australian boomerang (for right hand)

Instructions how to make traditional boomerang

1. Take plywood sheet of 12mm thickness. Draw boomerang contour pattern as shown in picture
above. The 107 degree angle size is not critical, just optimum. It can be more or less than 107deg.
Chord length near the center of boomerang = 80 mm, and 60 mm near tips. Make wing chord length
few millimeters wider as is required, because it necessarily reduces during sanding process. Also make
some access length at boomerang wings tips, as it possible, that you will have to cut them during tune
procedure of the boomerang.
Note:
If you make angle >>107, consider that rotation plate becomes small and it can be difficult to keep the
boomerang spinning.
If you make angle of about 90 degrees, the boomerang flight trajectory circle radius is minimum.
Angles <90 deg and >90 degrees increase circle radius.
2. First what you have to do is to sand dihedrals of wings. You have to make decision were is top and
bottom. Put plywood boomerang on flat table and see if the tips are up or down. The traditional
Australian boomerang has positive dihedral. The best choice is to find position in which the
boomerang wings tips are up. (Do not care about that if your plywood is absolutely flat).
Remove some material from boomerang bottom at distance of about D=70...90 mm from both tips. It
can be asymmetrical, but condition A+B = 14 mm should be satisfied.
Note:
Dihedral is the most critical part of boomerang. Boomerang model states, that dihedral determines the
boomerang's trajectory. Considering D=const=70 mm, we can point out four cases:
A+B < 14 mm gives flight trajectory pattern in which boomerang remains orientated vertically too
long (lift force is orientated along spin axis) and falls down with ballistic trajectory. Then it rolls on
ground making arc. Boomerang doesn't return.
A+B = 14 mm (D=const=70 mm) gives "O" type pattern
A+B > 14 mm gives "8" type pattern.
A+B >> 14 mm gives cork screw pattern which goes forward. Boomerang doesn't return.
Note: other types of boomerangs different from Original Australian boomerang need other dihedral
angles. For an example, threeblader or fourblader has negative angle dihedral.
3. Formation of wings profiles. Actually, boomerang is spinning rotor with blades like a helicopter or
fan. The difference from fan is in angle of attack: boomerang blades should never exceed 14 degrees
angle. See picture below. Take out 3...4 mm from the front edge of both boomerang's wings to get
small angle of attack. This significantly increases the lift force of boomerang and prevents boomerang
from bending into negative angle when plywood stress is released. Sometimes plywood bends by itself
during sanding or after it.

Note:
Increasing lift force decreases the flight pattern radius. Increasing weight of boomerang (most
sensitive place are tips of wing or stabilizers) increases flight pattern radius. It is easy to compensate
too big lift force by increasing mass of boomerang. Just put extra varnish layer after some picture is
painted. High quality varnish is recommended. It significantly increases strength and lifetime of the
boomerang.
Tuning the boomerang
In most cases the only parameter you have to tune is dihedral. Before tuning it you have to throw
boomerang and observe a trajectory (flight pattern).
If boomerang makes "O" type pattern and falls down too quickly - increase dihedral. Cut of about 1
cm from both ends of boomerang and sand it (A+B should be increased).
If boomerang makes cork screw turn - dihedral is too big. Reduce it. Step by step make few sanding
procedures with throwing tests (sand A+B of about 2 mm)) until you get the type of the pattern you
need.
Notes:
1. Boomerang's weight is about 0.16...0.18kg.
2. Reducing dihedral you can change boomerang pattern from "8" type to "O" type.
3. Increasing dihedral you can tune boomerang pattern from "O" type to "8" type.

Boomerang Technology
Despite the simple appeareance of the boomerang, the characteristic returning flight is guided by a
complex combination of physics and aerodynamics. The returning boomerang is most commonly
two wings jointed at angle bewteen 80 and 120, however, some newer boomerangs have more than
two wings. The combination of spin and forward motion create an uneven lift over the wings. As the
air flow passes over one wing faster than the other lift is created. When thrown correctly, boomerangs
will return. The natural spin of the boomerang twists at right angles, which results in the boomerang's
curving flight. Since the center of lift is forward of the center of gravity another tipping force is
created, making the boomerang lie down during its flight. The combination of these spinning forces is
called gyroscopic precession.

Launching the boomerang

The best way to launch the boomerang is by holding it close to upright or vertical position, aimed
slightly upward at a 5 angle (just above the horizon). You should be positioned 45 to the right of the
wind. Grip the boomerang firmly with the flat side facing away from your body (to thr right for right
handed throwers). Cock back as far as comfortable to ensure maximum spin. Left handed throwers
should position themselves 45 to the left of the wind and should hold the boomerang so that the flat
side is facing to the left.

The flight path begins curving

The spin of the boomerang along with the forward motion causes uneven lift over the boomerang's
wings. The wing at the top of the cycle has its spin motion added to its forward motion, producing a
higher air speed and more lift than the other wing. The uneven lift across the plane of rotation
produces a tilting force on the spin axis. This force on the axis is twisted at right angles because of
gyroscopic precession, which causes the boomerang's flight path to become curved.

The boomerng laysover

The distance between the boomerang's center of lift and center of gravity causes the front edge of the
boomerang's rotation to rise. Because of gyroscopic procession this force on the axis of spin is twisted
at right angles, making the boomerang "lie down" during its flight. As the boomerang lies down the
overall lifting force of the boomerang is aligned closer to the center of gravity, causing the boomerang
to rise.

The boomerang hovers back and can be caught

As the boomerang approaches the end of its flight the axis of spin will be twisted 90 from its original
orientation. This means that the boomerang is now rotating horizontally and the remaining lift
produced by the wings is acting against gravity, producing a slow hovering descent. The spin rate
slightly increases, conserving its angular momentum, aiding in slowing down the descent. Most of the
energy of the boomerang has been used up by aerodynamic drag and the acceleration which produced
the curving flight, making the boomerang safe for a careful catch.

Center of lift
For any heavier than air flying device (boomerangs, gliders, planes, etc.) the point at which the total
lift is applied is called the "center of lift." Interestingly, for boomerangs the center of lift does not lie
on any part of the boomerang itself, but at some point located between the wings instead .

Center of gravity
For any object (including boomerangs) the point at which the total weight of the object is said to act is
called the "center of gravity." In the case of the boomerang, this point does not lie on the boomerang
itself, but at some point between the wings

10

Gyroscopic precession
Gyroscopic precession is the tendency of the spin axis of a rotating object to twist at right
angles. This effects all spinning bodies including the planet Earth, which wobbles on its axis
like a top (commonly called precession of the equinoxes). You can test this force by gripping
the axel of a spinning wheel and trying to tilt it. The twisting motion that results is due to
gyroscopic precession. It is the effect of gyroscopic precession that makes a moving two
wheel bike turn in the direction that the rider leans.

Boomerang Aerodynamics
Introduction
The purpose of the article is to present you with fundamental knowledge behind the aerodynamics of
boomerangs and principles, which allow you to build your own boomerang constructions. The
objective is to encourage you to make high quality returning boomerangs for this sport.
Ideal and Real Gases
Ideal Gases:
1. Gas consists of molecules in ceaseless motion.
2. The size of the molecules is negligible in the sense that their
diameters are much smaller than the average distance traveled
between collisions.
3. The molecules do no interact, except during collisions.

11

Real Gases
The image to the left displays the typical international potential
between molecules of real gases. Attractive Van der Waals forces
have a very complex character at distances about 10^-7 cm. They
decrease with distance as ~1/(r^7). At long distance, molecules
attract each other. This attraction is also a response for the
condensation of gases into liquids at low temperatures. At a short
distance, molecules repel each other. This repulsion is a response
for the definite volumes of liquids and solids, so they will not
collapse to a point.

Notes and Lessons from the Ideal Gas Equation:

For 1 mol of an ideal gas, PV/RT = 1 for all pressures.
In a real gas, PV/RT varies from 1 significantly.
The higher the pressure - the bigger deviation from the ideal behavior.
For 1 mol of ideal gas, PV/RT = 1 for all temperatures.
As temperature increases, the gases behave in a more ideal way.
The assumptions of the kinetic-molecular theory show where ideal gas behavior breaks down:
The molecules of gas have finite volume.
Molecules of gas do attract each other.
As the pressure on gas increases, the molecules are forced closer together.
As the molecules get closer together, the volume of the container gets smaller.
The smaller the container, the more of the total space the gas molecules occupy.
Therefore, the higher the pressure, the less the gas resembles the ideal gas.
As gas molecules get closer together, the intermolecular distances decrease.
The smaller the distance between the gas molecules, the more likely the attractive forces will develop
between the molecules.
Therefore, the less probability the gas resembles the ideal gas.

12

 As temperature increases, the gas molecules move faster and further apart.
Also, higher temperatures mean more energy available to break intermolecular forces.
As temperature increases, the negative departure from ideal gas behavior disappears.
Although the ideal gas model is very useful, it is only an approximation of the real nature of gases, and
the equations derived from its assumptions are not entirely dependable. As a consequence, the
measured properties of a real gas will very often differ from the properties predicted by calculations.
Real gases sometimes don't obey the ideal gas laws because the ideal gas model is based on some
assumptions that aren't completely true. The main flaw in the ideal gas model is the assumption that
gas molecules do not attract or repel each other. Attractions and repulsions are negligible when the
distance between molecules is large, but they do become larger as the molecules become closer
together. If you can contrive conditions that force the molecules into close contact, so that attractions
and repulsions can't be neglected, you will likely see deviations from ideal behavior.

Gyroscopic Precession

Gyroscope
A gyroscope is a spinning device demonstrating the principle of conservation of angular momentum,
in physics.
The traditional mathematical definition of the angular momentum of a particle about some origin is
described below:

Where L is the angular momentum of the particle, r is the position of the particle expressed as a

13

displacement vector from the origin.

p = m*v is the linear momentum of the particle (more correct expression is
). m - Mass
of the particle.
If a system consists of several particles, the total angular momentum can be obtained by adding
(integrating) all the angular moments of the constituent particles. Angular momentum can also be
calculated by multiplying the square of the distance to the point of rotation, the mass of the particle
and the angular velocity.
Precession of Gyroscope
The device, once spinning, tends to resist changes to its orientation. If external force F1 is applied to
some point which is at radius r from rotation axis of gyroscope, the spinning device begins to rotate.
The motion "seems to be strange" as it does not follow the applied force direction, but moves in a
perpendicular one. This rotation of spinning plane is called precession.
The simplest explanation of the phenomenon is shown below.

The gyroscopic precession is fundamental phenomenon which explains why boomerang returns. See
boomerang model in next chapter.
For example:
The angular momentum from turning bicycle wheels makes them act like gyroscopes to help stabilize
the bicycle. This gyroscopic action also helps to turn the bicycle.
Stability of free-hand biking: Take a
look for yourself to see how the front
wheel turns to the left/right when you
shift your center of mass (and bend
the bike) to the left/right side of a
bicycle.

14

Air Foils

Note 1. The
is a fluid stream front
Note 2. There are 2 types of friction:
a) Friction between the lowest air stream and the foil. The friction bends the layer front into foil
surface. This results in "dynamic sticking to the surface".
b) Friction between different layers of streams (dynamic viscosity). The lower layer of the stream
drags and bends down the upper neighboring layer.
Note 3. The stream layers have velocities gradient along the normal to foil surfaces.
Note 4. The figure is simplified - the foil is considered to be very thin. Air flow is laminar. The stream
bending (and little compression for air only) is exaggerated in order to show it.
Note 5. The Coanda effect has a dynamic origin - it appears at nonzero relative to fluid and foil speed.

15

Boundary Layer. Ref.

When the air hits the airfoil leading edge, it will separate into the upper and lower airstrea; which
meets again at the trailing edge.
It is obvious that the air, very close to the airfoil, "rubs" against the solid surface and is slowed down.
In other words, starting downstream of the impact point, the air loses some of its momentum, or
velocity. In addition, it loses more and more momentom as we follow it along the path close to the
solid airfoil. We can see that friction creates an area where there is less speed. The reduced speed area,
just outside of the airfoil, becomes thicker and thicker as we follow it from the leading edge to the
trailing edge. This area is called the boundary layer. Its thickness is increasing as described, and is
defined as the thickness at which the local free stream speed is finally reached. A typical boundary
layer thickness is 1/2" near the trailing edge. The friction, which obviously is a loss, results in the
friction drag of the airfoil.

Ref. Glenn Research Center

Again the theory of fluid dynamics shows that there are two possible types of stable boundary layers
Ref. : The first to build up is called 'laminar," because the flow is nice and steady while the friction
drag is relatively low.
The second is called 'turbulent," because the flow is rather rough and the friction drag is higher.
Unfortunately, the "laminar boundary layer" will automatically become turbulent (with associated
higher drag) close to the leading edge of the airfoil unless very special precautions are taken. These
precautions are:
A very smooth airfoil surface: Slight construction defects (or bugs as they stick to the airfoil leading

16

edge) will change the laminar boundary layer into a turbulent one. Unless you have a perfect airfoil
and keep it this way, forget about the possible gain with a laminar flow!
A special shape of the airfoil: The pressure distribution on the airfoil is related to the airfoil shape.
Today, we can calculate (with high speed computers) airfoils, which maximize the length of the
laminar boundary layer. Still, what is mentioned in a) applies. But, do not get desperate. The friction
drag of the airfoil with a laminar boundary layer is .08, whereas in turbulent flow it becomes .12. Sure,
this is a 50% increase but only on the friction drag of the airfoil.
Lift force of airfoil
Lift depends on the density of the air, the square of the velocity, the air's viscosity and compressibility,
the surface area over which the air flows, the shape of the body, and the body's inclination to the flow.
In general, the dependence on body shape, inclination, air viscosity and compressibility are very
complex.
One way to deal with complex dependencies is to characterize the dependence by a single variable. As
for the lift, this variable is called the lift coefficient, designated "Cy." The lift equation states that lift L
is equal to the lift coefficient Cy times the density rho times half of the velocity V squared times the
wing area A.
Lift force= 1/2*Cy * A * rho * V^2
For given air conditions, shape and inclination of the object, we have to determine a value for Cy to
determine the lift. For some simple flow conditions, geometries and low inclinations, aerodynamicists
can determine the value of Cy mathematically. But, in general, this parameter is determined
experimentally. The combination of terms "density times the square of the velocity divided by two" is
called the dynamic pressure.

Actually, the coefficient Cy hides a mechanism of lift (also physics of aerodynamics), but this allows
us to collect all the effects, simple and complex, into a single equation. The question, what kind of
mechanisms convert the drag force into the lift one, still remains under discussion. If you would like to
prepare further research about this issue, you can find useful information in Weltner, Klaus and
Ingelman-Sundberg, Martin paper "Physics of Flight".
Notes:
The amount of air diverted by a wing is proportional to the speed of the wing and the air density.
The vertical velocity of the diverted air is proportional to the speed of the wing and the angle of attack.
The lift is proportional to the amount of air diverted times the vertical velocity of the air.

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The Coanda Effect

THE COANDA EFFECT Ref. Jef Raskin's Webpage Coanda Effect: Understanding Why Wings Work
If a stream of water is flowing along a solid surface which is curved slightly away from the stream, the
water will tend to follow the surface. This is an example of the Coanda effect and is easily
demonstrated by holding the back of a spoon vertically under a thin stream of water from a faucet. If
you hold the spoon so that it can swing, you will feel it being pulled toward the stream of water. The
effect has limits: if you use a sphere instead of a spoon, you will find that the water will only follow a
part of the way around. Further, if the surface is too sharply curved, the water will not follow but will
just bend a bit and break away from the surface.
The Coanda effect works with any of our usual fluids, such as air at usual temperatures, pressures, and
speeds. I make these qualifications because (to give a few examples) liquid helium, gasses at extremes
of low or high pressure or temperature, and fluids at supersonic speeds often behave rather differently.
Fortunately, we don't have to worry about all of those extremes with model planes.
A stream of air, such as what you'd get if
you blow through a straw, goes in a straight line
A stream of air alongside a straight surface still goes in a straight line
A stream of air alongside a curved surface tends to follow the curvature of
the surface. Seems natural enough.
Strangely, a stream of air alongside a curved surface that bends away
from it still tends to follow the curvature of the surface. This is the
Coanda effect.
Another thing we don't have to wonder about is why the Coanda effect works; we can take it as an
experimental fact. But I hope your curiosity is unsatisfied on this point and that you will seek further.
Coanda and Flight
Many scientists have recently begun using the COANDA EFFECT to at least partially explain how
planes fly. Ref .
For a long time many people believed (and many people still do) that LIFT during flight is achieved
due to something called the Bernoulli Effect. This theory suggest that air moving across a wing moves
more quickly over the top than underneath. This creates an area of lower pressure on top of the wing in
comparison to the underside of the wing. Thus, less pressure pushes down on the wing and more
pressure pushes up and consequently LIFTS the craft into the air
However, many scientists disagree with this explanation! Is it time to say good bye to Bernoulli's
principle while speaking about a lift of wing? My interpretation can be found here.
Some scientists have suggested recently that due to the shape of a planes wing, air moving along it due
to the COANDA EFFECT will be deflected downwards as it leaves the wing and thus push the craft
up into the air (due to NEWTONS THIRD LAW OF MOTION) and consequently assist with LIFT
What is the Coanda effect?

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Very simply, the COANDA (or wall attachment) EFFECT is the tendency for a moving fluid (either
liquid or gas) to attach itself to a surface and flow along it.

Displayed above is an image of a

girl and a few soldiers. Soldiers are See what happens. This is simplest
marching forward in straight line. explanation of Coanda effect.
Each soldier holds hand of his
Note: it is assumed, that "soldiers"
neighbor. Suddenly outsider
are some fluid elements, not single
soldier caches a hand of a girl
molecules.
standing on a sidewalk.
One way of explaining this effect is to understand that as a fluid moves across a surface, and certain
amount of friction (called skin friction) occurs between the two surfaces (friction is that force that
slows down or prevents two surfaces from moving across each other). This friction tends to slow down
the fluid as it moves across the other surface. This resistance to the flow of the fluid will then pull the
fluid towards the other surface, making it stick to it even as it bends around corners! Ref .
Air Streams
Viscosity of air
"It seems natural to see the origin of viscosity in terms of the attractive and repulsive forces between
molecules. However, gases have substantial viscosity even though their inter-molecular forces are
weak, suggesting some other mechanism. Viscosity in gases arises principally from the molecular
diffusion that transports momentum between layers of flow. A lot of fluid dynamics is concerned with
in-viscid flow, but the role of viscosity is crucial to understanding some of the most important fluid
phenomena, such as lift produced by a wing." (Author: Fred Senese senese@antoine.frostburg.edu).
Touch a lift force in water

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Inner surface
The water "reflects" from spoon surface. According to the
Newton's third law ("For every action, there is an equal and
opposite reaction") the spoon moves to the opposite
direction. The motion is shown by arrows.

Outer surface
The water follows the surface of the spoon. According to
Newton's third law, the spoon moves to the opposite
direction.
Why does water stick to the surface of spoon?
You can replace the surface tension's attractive force by a
repulsive one. Just put oil or fat film on the spoon's surface.
You will be able to see that the static forces (as capillarity)
make no changes to water stream. It still attracts the spoon.
The effect has a dynamic origin; It is explained by the
Coanda effect.

Peculiarities of dynamic and static pressure

Dynamic pressure is the component of fluid pressure that represents fluid kinetic energy (i.e., motion),
while static pressure represents hydrostatic effects.

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Static pressure is isotropic the same in all x,y,x

directions. In air, it is equal
to the atmospheric pressure
and does not depend on the
wing speed.

Dynamic pressure of a fluid

stream with density and
speed u is given by
Dynamic pressure represents
the fluid stream motion at a
certain direction. Air speed u Note1. Pillow phenomenon may explain why air flow speed near the
is evaluated as a relative
curved upper surface is accelerated and is higher when compared to
speed of the wing.
the air flow near the lower surface.
Note2: Air stream "sticks" to surface and bends down near the upper
surface of the wing, which is not caused by the Pillow phenomenon
but the Coanda effect.
Note3: Do not confuse
Dynamic pressure with a
pressure near airfoil
surfaces. Air stream
interaction with both airfoil
surfaces has a complex
dependence and gives some
relative pressure, which may
be applied to the normal of
surface.

ref

Weltner, Klaus and Ingelman-Sundberg, Martin.

Ref.. Misinterpretations of Bernoulli's Law:
Static pressure in a free air stream.
Static pressure is the pressure inside the stream measured by a manometer moving with the flow. At
the same time, the static pressure is the pressure which is exerted on a plane parallel to the flow. Thus
the static pressure within an air stream has to be measured carefully using a special probe. A thin disk
must cover the probe except for the opening. The disk must be positioned parallel to the streaming
flow, so that the flow is not interfered with.
If the static pressure is measured in the way outlined above within a free air stream generated by a fan
or a hair dryer it can be shown that the static pressure is the same as in the surrounding atmosphere.
Bernoulli's law cannot be applied to a free air stream because friction plays an important role. It may
be noted that the situation is similar to the laminar flow of a liquid with viscosity inside a tube. The
different velocity of the stream layers is caused by viscosity. The static pressure is the same throughout
the whole cross-section. A free air stream in the atmosphere is exclusively decelerated by friction. If

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static pressure in a free air stream is equal to atmospheric pressure, some of the striking lecture
demonstrations are interpreted incorrectly since the effects observed are not caused by Bernoulli's law.

Measurement of static pressure within a free stream

A sufficiently sensitive manometer can be produced easily if not available in the lab. A fine pipe of
glass is bent at one side to dip in a cup and to be fixed according to figure 7. The meniscus must be
positioned in the middle of the pipe. The suitable inclination should be 1:15 - 1:30. A rubber tube
connects the glass pipe with a probe. As has been pointed out before a flat disk must be glued on top of
the probe leaving the opening free. The disk has to be held parallel to the streaming. If the static
pressure is measured in such a way it can be shown that it is equal to the pressure in the environmental
atmosphere.

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