A Comparative Study of

Hydraulic Models for Foam Drilling

M.E. OZBAYOGLU
The University of Tulsa

E. KURU
University of Alberta

S. MISKA, N. TAKACH
The University of Tulsa

Abstract
Compared to conventional (incompressible) drilling fluids,
relatively little is known about the hydraulic and rheological
properties of foamed drilling fluids. The complex flow mechanisms involved in compressible drilling fluid circulation make
determination of the optimum combination of liquid and gas
injection rates very difficult. Modelling of foam rheology is the
key issue in hydraulic design, in order to predict the bottom-hole
pressure accurately, and to optimize the different controllable
variables for effective cutting transport performance.
The University of Tulsas low-pressure ambient temperature
flow loop has been recently modified to accommodate foam
flow. The flow loop permits foam flow through 0.0508 m (2 in.),
0.0762 m (3 in.), 0.1016 m (4 in.) diameter pipes, and a 0.2032
m (8 in.) by 0.1143 m (41/2 in.) annular section. Preliminary
experiments have been conducted, in which pressure losses were
measured for different foam qualities. Measured parameters
were gas/liquid flow rates, pressure, differential pressure loss,
and temperature.
Statistical analysis was carried out to see the degree of fit provided by Bingham plastic, power law, and yield power law models for the generalized foam flow curve data.
A comparative study was conducted to investigate the predictive ability of the available foam hydraulic models. Models presented by Beyer et al. (1972), Blauer et al. (1974), Reidenbach
et al. (1986), Sanghani and Ikoku (1983), Gardiner et al. (1988)
and Valko and Economides (1992) were used to estimate the
frictional pressure losses during the flow of foam in horizontal
pipes. Comparison of the model predictions with experimental
pressure loss values show that model predictions of frictional
pressure losses can be different from the actual values by 2 to
250 %.

Introduction
In the 1970s, high quality foams were developed into a viable
fracturing stimulation tool for oil and gas wells(1). Since then,
foam rheology has been the subject of numerous investigations, in
an effort to design better proppant transport medium. Lord(2) presented one of the first comprehensive mathematical treatments of
foam flow behaviour. He used the real gas law and mass balance
considerations to develop an equation of state for foam with
solids. Later, Spoerker et al.(3) modified Lords solution and presented a new two-phase flow equation. They used a virial equation(4) instead of the real gas equation of state. They also solved
the differential mechanical energy equation to obtain an explicit
expresion for pressure loss prediction during foam flow.

Reidenbach et al.(5) presented empirical correlations to calculate

the rheological properties of N2 and CO2 foam fracturing fluids.
Harris(6-9) conducted some excellent studies on the rheology and
fluid loss properties of fracturing fluids. Harris and Reidenbach(10)
also studied the effect of temperature on the rheology of foam
fracturing fluids.
Foam has been used as a drilling fluid in many drilling operations, and the results from various field cases are well documented
in the literature(11-23). In many cases, drilling with foam has been
shown to provide significant benefits, including increased productivity (by reducing formation damage), an increased drilling rate,
reduced operational difficulties associated with drilling in low
pressure reservoirs (e.g., lost-circulation and differentially stuck
pipe), and improved formation evaluation while drilling.
Foam is generally formed by mixing a gas phase with a liquid
phase, which is either water (stable foam) or an aqueous polymer
solution (stiff foam) containing 1 2% by volume foaming agent.
The major advantage of foam is its flexibility in controlling the
mud effective density, which influences the bottomhole pressure. Characteristically, the foam viscosity is greater than that of
the liquid and gas phases. Although viscosity may improve cuttings transport, it also results in higher pressure losses. Designing
proper fractions of gas and liquid phases, volumetric flow rates,
and types of polymers and surfactants is critical for achieving the
desired flowing bottomhole pressure and cuttings transport.
Field experiences have shown that the performance of foamed
drilling fluids is rather difficult to predict. This is mainly because
the complex flow mechanisms involved in foam circulation make
determination of the optimum combination of liquid and gas
injection rates very difficult. Other questions remain, such as how
to predict the bottomhole pressure, and how to combine different
controllable variables in order to obtain optimum cuttings transport performance and bit hydraulics.
In a recent study, Nakagawa et al.(24) compared the predictive
ability of four different commercial simulators by using field data.
Their analysis has indicated that equivalent circulating density
(ECD) predictions from available foam hydraulic models differed
significantly from the field measured values.
In an effort to determine the best hydraulic model applicable to
foam flow, we have identified six different foam hydraulic models
available from the literature and compared their performances for
predicting pressure losses in pipe flow. The models selected are
the ones developed by Blauer et al.(25), Sanghani and Ikoku(26),
Beyer et al.(27), Reidenbach et al.(5), Valko et al.(28), and Gardiner
et al.(29) A brief discussion of the each model is given in the following section.

PEER REVIEWED PAPER (REVIEW AND PUBLICATION PROCESS CAN BE FOUND ON OUR WEB SITE)
52

Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

Foam Hydraulic Models

The hydraulic models given below are used in the computer
program for the determination of pressure losses due to the laminar flow of foam in horizontal pipes.

Blauer et al. Model

In arriving at a method for predicting friction losses in laminar,
transitional, and turbulent flow regimes for foam flow in pipes,
Blauer et al.(25) calculated Reynolds numbers and Fanning friction
factors by using effective foam viscosity, actual foam density,
average velocity, and true pipe diameter.
The authors also found that the relationship between Reynolds
number and Fanning friction factor for foam was identical to that
of single-phase fluids. The authors assumed that foam behaves
like a Bingham plastic type of fluid.
They calculated the average foam flowing velocity and quality
by using a mass balance, and the real gas law equation as suggested by Mitchell(30).
Foam plastic viscosity and yield strength were experimentally
determined as a function of foam quality. They also defined foam
density as a function of foam quality. In their calculations, however, they neglected the contribution of the gas phase in the final
equation for the foam density.
For laminar flow of foam in pipes, Blauer et al.(25) calculated
the pressure losses by using the Buckingham-Reiner equation

Q=

D3 w gc 4 y 1 y
1
+
32 p 3 w 3 w

vT = vS + v F ...........................................................................................(5)
The slip velocities calculated from the pilot-scale data were
correlated with the liquid volume fraction (LVF) and wall shear
stress (w).
For w 16.5 kg/m2 (0.0024 psi)
vS = 25.8LVF

vS = (1.1 + 14.8LVF )

0.02 LVF 0.1

w
0.0024

.................................(6)

0.10 LVF 0.25

......................(7)

For w > 16.5 kg/m2 (0.0024 psi)

vS = 25.8LVF + 357( w 0.0024)

vS = 1.1 + 14.8LVF

0.02 LVF 0.1

...............(8)

0.10 LVF 0.25 .....................................(9)

The velocity of a Bingham fluid in a circular pipe of diameter

D is given as follows:

v=
.................................................(1)

w
0.0024

144 D w 4 y 1 y
1 +
8 o 3 w 3 w

...............................................(10)

The wall shear stress, w, in Equation (1), can be written as a

function of the differential pressure loss, P, and the pipe geometry as follows:

By neglecting the fourth order term in Equation (10), the fluidity of foam is expressed as follows:
For w < (4/3)y

P D
L 4 ...........................................................................................(2)

v F = 0 ..................................................................................................(11)

w =

For w > (4/3)y

Sanghani Model
The main difference between Sanghanis(26) model and Blauer
et. al.s(25) work is that Sanghani assumed that the foam behaves
as a pseudoplastic fluid. He provided experimental data for
pseudoplastic model parameters, K and n, as a function of foam
quality. The density of foam differs from Blauers work by
including the effect of gas phase.
Sanghani(26) suggested that the pressure loss for laminar flow of
foam in pipes could be calculated by using the following equation:
Pf
L

4 K 8(3n + 1)Q

D nD3

vF =

144 D
4
w y
8 o
3 .....................................................................(12)

The pilot-scale experimental data showed that y in Equation

(12) is 4.65 kg/m2 (0.000675 psi) and that the Bingham viscosity
of the foam is given as follows:
o =

1
7200 LVF + 267

0.02 LVF 0.1

o =

1
2533LVF + 733

0.1 LVF 0.25

.................................(13)

...................................................................(3)

Beyer et al. Model

Beyer et al.(27) considered the effect of wall slip in their modelling of foam flow behaviour. They described the composition of
the foam at any temperature and pressure by the liquid volume
fraction, which is defined as follows:
VOL L
LVF(T,P) =
VOL L + VOLG (T,P) .....................................................(4)
where VOLL is the liquid volume fraction in the foam, and VOLG
is the gas volume fraction in the foam. According to the pilotscale experiments, total velocity (vT) is composed of a slip component (vS) and a fluidity component (vF).
June 2002, Volume 41, No. 6

.................................(14)

Equations (4) to (14) were combined to obtain an explicit function for which then can be used to estimate frictional pressure
drop as a function of total velocity (vT), liquid volume fraction
(LVF), and pipe diameter (D) as follows:
dP
4
= w = vT (T,P) ,LVF (T,P) ,D
D
dL f

]
..................................(15)

Reidenbach et al.s Model

Reidenbach et al. (5) proposed empirical correlations for
calculation of rheological properties of N 2 and CO 2 foam
stimulation fluids.
53

For < 60 %,
y = C1

losses during the isothermal, steady state flow of compressible

fluids in horizontal pipes:

.............................................................................................(16)

For > 60 %,
y = C2eC3

.........................................................................................(17)

The constants a, b, and c in Equation (23) are defined as follows:

The consistency index;

K foam

= K liquid eC1+C2

................................................................(18)

where C1, C2, and C3 are constants dependent on concentration,

texture, and physical properties.
The authors presented a laminar flow model with viscosity
dependent on foam quality, yield point, base liquid consistency
index (K), and flow behaviour index (n). A general flow formula
can be derived for yield pseudoplastic fluids but cannot be solved
explicitly for pressure losses. The authors, therefore, suggested a
practical method for determining laminar flow pipe pressure loss
for a yield pseudoplastic fluid by defining apparent viscosity as
follows:
a =

'YP (

8v

( d)

+ K ' 8v

2 2
3
2 2
2 2
dp
1 2 f f b c Dg p + 4 f f abc p + 2 f f a c p
=
3
2
2
2 2
dx
D
bp + ap abc p a c
................................(23)

RT
Mg

a = wg

b=

c=

..........................................................................................(24)

wg RTB'
Mg

+ 1 wg

4 m g + ml

wg =

D2

) 1

................................................................(25)

)
...................................................................................(26)

mg
m g + ml

....................................................................................(27)

n' 1
................................................(19)

K, n, and YP are constants obtained from a plot of wall shear

stress w vs. 8v/D and depend on geometry. The authors suggested
that this viscosity might be used as an apparent Newtonian viscosity in standard pressure drop calculations.

In order to represent the volumetric behaviour of the gas phase,

the authors used a virial equation of state(4), truncated after the
second term:

1 RT 1
+ B'
=
Mg p

...............................................................................(28)

Valko and Economides Model

Valko and Economides(28) proposed a new constitutive equation for non-Newtonian compressible fluids by using the invariance property of Reynolds number (i.e., assume a constant friction
factor) They defined a new variable called specific volume
expansion ratio and used this variable instead of foam quality
for the characterization of the foams.
The specific volume expansion ratio is defined as the ratio of
the liquid density to the foam density;
s =

L
F ..............................................................................................(20)

where s is the specific volume expansion ratio, L is the base liquid density, and F is the foam density. All density-dependent
parameters are normalized with respect to liquid density by using
this variable. The principle states that if we plot volume-equalized
shear stress vs. volume-equalized shear rate, points obtained at
different qualities and different geometries lie on one curve in
isothermal conditions.
By using the specific volume expansion ratio concept, the
authors defined the volume-equalized Reynolds number as follows:
N Re VE =

1 n 2n n1
D u
K
...................................................................(21)

Consequently, they have defined the volume-equalized Fanning

friction factor as follows:
16 1 6 n + 2

N Re VE 8 n ................................................................(22)
n

ff =

By using the principle of mechanical energy balance, they

derived the following equation to determine frictional pressure
54

Gardiner et al.
The method of Gardiner et al.(29) also uses the volume equalization principle proposed by Valko and Economides(28). The authors
assumed that the flow is isothermal, and the effect of changing
axial velocity on radial velocity is negligible. They also assumed
that foam is a pseudoplastic fluid.
By using the volume-equalized power law model [Equation
(29)]
du
dr

= k1n

n1

du
dr ...........................................................................(29 )

together with an elementary momentum balance on an axial cell,

they derived an analog of the Haigen-Poiseuille [Equation (30)]:

Q = 2

n dp Rn+1 n1 n
urdr = R uslip +

3n + 1 dx 2k

.........(30)

Equation (30) relates the pressure gradient during foam flow in

pipes to foam volumetric flow rate, which is corrected for slip
effect using the Oldroyd-Jastrzebski correlation(31).

Experimental Setup
Foam flow experiments were conducted by using the
University of Tulsa low pressure-ambient temperature flow loop.
A schematic view of the experimental facility is shown in Figure
1. Figure 2 shows a general view of the flow loop.
A 75 HP centrifugal pump (maximum capacity 0.041 m3/s (650
gpm) and 345,000 kg/m2 (50 psi)) is used with two different
Fisher control valves (one has a 0 0.003 m3/s (0 50 gpm)
Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

FIGURE 1: A schematic view of the experimental setup.

FIGURE 2: TUDRP low pressure-ambient temperature flow loop.

range, and the other has a 0.003 0.041 m3/s (50 650 gpm)
range) to provide a controlled circulation of liquid through the
loop. A compressor (with a working capacity of 0 862,000
kg/m2 (0 125 psi), 0 0.755 m3/s (0 1,600 scfm)) is used to
supply compressed air. The gas is introduced to the system
through a regulator, allowing the pressure of the inlet gas to be
reduced and equalized to the pressure of liquid. The flow rates of
both the gas and liquid phases are measured by mass flow metres.
Surfactant and water are pre-mixed in two different tanks, each
with 4.16 m3 (1,100 gal.) capacity. The water-surfactant solution
and compressed air are mixed by a static mixer to generate foam
just before the pipe section. The pipe section consists of acrylic
transparent pipes with a total length of 15.24 m (50 ft.) and diameters of 0.05 m (2 in.), 0.07 m (3 in.) and 0.10 m (4 in.). The pressure difference between the inlet and outlet of the pipe section is
measured by a differential pressure transducer. Also, the pressure
June 2002, Volume 41, No. 6

at the inlet of the pipe section is measured by a pressure transmitter, allowing determination of the foam quality. After the pipe section, foam enters the annular section, where cuttings can also be
introduced.
The annular section is approximately 27.4 m (90 ft.) long, and
it consists of a 0.20 m (8 in.) ID transparent casing with a 0.11 m
(4.5 in.) OD drillpipe. The drillpipe can be rotated up to 200 rpm.
One end of the flow loop is attached to a movable platform, while
the other is connected to a pulley, which enables the user to
incline the loop to any angle between 15 and 90 from vertical.
Pressure difference between the two ends of the flow loop is measured by using a differential pressure transducer. A control room
located near the test section contains the data acquisition system.
The foam breaking process takes place in three stages: 1) a
foam breaker is injected into the foam just before it arrives at the
shale shaker; 2) foam is then exposed to high speed water streams
coming out of jet nozzles to enhance separation of gas and liquid
phases; and 3) final separation of liquid and gas phases is
achieved inside the collection tank by injecting additional foam
breaker.
Foam rheology experiments were conducted at 70%, 80%, and
90% foam qualities, with total flow rates varying from 0.003 m3/s
(50 gpm) to 0.0157 m 3/s (250 gpm). Results from pipe flow
experiments are discussed in the following section.

Analysis of the Wall Slip Effect

The presence of a thin liquid layer in the immediate proximity
of the tube has been observed during the flow of some polymer
solutions (31-32) and foam (29, 33) in pipes. This thin liquid layer
would lead to a reduction in apparent viscosity in the vicinity of
the wall, with results analogous to those that would be expected if
there was actual slip between the fluid and the solid surface. Since
true slip is not believed to occur, the phenomenon is referred to as
effective slip near the tube wall, and corrections must be
applied(26).
Generally, a plot of wall shear stress, w [Equation (2)], vs.
55

FIGURE 3: Shear stress vs. shear rate plot for 70% quality foam.

FIGURE 4: Shear stress vs. shear rate plot for 80% quality foam.

Figures 3, 4, and 5 show the characteristic plots of w vs. w for

foam qualities of 70, 80, and 90 degrees, respectively. In Figures
3 5, different trend lines observed for 0.05 m (2 in.), 0.07 m (3
in.) and 0.10 m (4 in.) diameter pipes indicate the presence of the
slip effect. Therefore, measured flow rate values need to be corrected before we can use them to establish flow curves. The effective slip coefficient, , needs to be determined to calculate the slip
corrected flow rates.
The effective slip coefficient, , can be estimated by using the
Oldroyd-Jastrzebski correlation(31), which suggests a three-step
procedure to determine the value of .
A plot of Newtonian wall shear rate, 8v/D, vs. 1/D2 at constant
wall shear stress, w, must be obtained. Figures 6, 7, and 8 show
typical plots for foam qualities 70, 80, and 90 %, respectively.
FIGURE 5: Shear stress vs. shear rate plot for 90% quality foam.

Newtonian wall shear rate, w [Equation (31)], is used to determine the presence of wall slip effect.

w =

8v
D ...............................................................................................(31)

If experimental data indicates the presence of a wall slip effect,

measured flow rate values need to be corrected for an effective
slip effect before they are used for the development of a flow
curve. A flow curve is intended to portray the relationship
between shear stress and shear rate at a point in the fluid, without
any extraneous effects such as may be introduced by the proximity of solid surfaces. The measured volumetric flow rate from the
pipe flow experiments may be corrected to the value it would
have in the absence of the slip by the following equation:
Qc = Qm w R2

........................................................................(32)

FIGURE 6: 1/D2 vs. shear rate plot for 70% foam quality.
56

The slope of the least-squares straight lines will be equal to

8w. Therefore, the value of can be determined by dividing the
slope of the least-squares line by 8w.
A functional relationship between the effective slip coefficient
and wall shear stress can be determined by curve fitting of the plot
of vs. w . Figure 9 shows the variation of the slip coefficient, ,
as a function of wall shear stress, w.
The effective slip coefficient increases with increasing wall
shear stress for 70% quality foam, while it decreases with increasing wall shear stress for 80 and 90% foam qualities. Both behaviours have also been reported by other researchers(29, 33).

Development of Flow Curves

Under conditions of steady, fully developed flow in horizontal
pipes, using the force balance, the wall shear stress, w, is determined from Equation (2). The rate of shear at the tube wall can be
calculated by using the Rabinowitch-Mooney(32) equation given as
follows:

FIGURE 7: 1/D2 vs. shear rate plot for 80% foam quality.
Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

FIGURE 8: 1/D2 vs. shear rate plot for 90% foam quality.

FIGURE 9: Slip factors for different foam qualities.

TABLE 1: Rheological model parameters.

Power Law

70%
80%
90%

Bingham Plastic

kg S s
f

K
m2

p ( p)

kg f
y 3
m

0.78
0.74
0.56

2.48
5.02
12.84

0.62
1.01
0.84

0.30
0.45
0.77

TABLE 2: Average error analysis of rheological models, %

70%
80%
90%

w =

Power Law

Bingham

Yield Power Law

21.75
14.70
62.25

22.05
15.53
50.89

21.62
15.69
60.90

8v 3n' +1
D 4 n' ...................................................................................(33)

where
n' =

d ln( w )
8v
d ln
D ......................................................................................(34)

For Newtonian fluids, n = 1, and the wall shear rate equation

reduces to Equation (31). For non-Newtonian fluids, n 1; therefore, the generalized wall shear rate relationship given by
Equation (33) should be used to establish flow curves for nonNewtonian fluids. Note that the slip-corrected flow rate values
from Equation (32) should be used to calculate the generalized
wall shear rate values in Equation (34). Generalized flow curve
data for 70%, 80%, and 90% quality foams are plotted in Figure
10.
A statistical analysis was conducted to determine the curve fitting parameters, assuming the foam flow behaviour can be
explained by using Power Law, Bingham Plastic, and YieldPower Law models. A summary of the estimated model parameters is given in Table 1.
The average error involved in curve fitting of the actual flow
curve data with the three rheological models is given in Table 2.
The results show that the power law model gives a better fit to
explain foam flow behaviour for 70% and 80% foam qualities,
whereas, the Bingham Plastic model was better for 90% foam
quality.
Results of the statistical analysis also show that the yield power
law model is not applicable for the foam used in the experiments,
since the yield point values, y, were found to be negative for all
June 2002, Volume 41, No. 6

Yield Power Law

kg f
y 3
m
-0.93
-1.63
-708.43

n
0.74
0.40
0.00

kg S s
f

m2

3.38
49.88
69,156.57

quality values, which is physically impossible.

The model parameters obtained from the curve fitting of the
experimental data are used in the computer simulator for comparing the predictive ability of the existing hydraulic models.

Comparison of the Foam Hydraulic

Models
The Sanghani(26), Beyer et al.(27), Blauer et al.(25), Valko and
Economides(28), and Gardiner et al.(29) models were compared for
their ability to predict pressure losses due to the laminar flow of
foam in pipes by using experimental data. Since results of the statistical analysis have shown that the Yield Power Law model is
not applicable to the foam under investigation, the model of
Reidenbach(5) et al. is not included in the model performance
comparison.
A computer program was developed to compare the experimental results with existing models. Input data for the program, i.e.,
pressure, temperature, flow rates, pipe diameter and length, were
set to be the same as the experimental conditions. The program
considered the change in the foam volume due to the change in
pressure as the foam flows along the test section by incorporating
the foam equation of state given by Equation (40).

PT
V2 = V1(1 1 ) + 1 2 (1 )

..............................................................(40)
P2T1
where subscript 1 refers to the present position, and subscript
2 refers to the next position of foam as it flows along the pipe.
Figures 11 19 show the comparison of the pressure losses,
measured vs. predicted, obtained by using different models for 70,
80, and 90% quality foams in 0.05 m (2 in.), 0.07 m (3 in.) and
0.10 m (4 in.) pipes, respectively. Comparison of the existing rheological models with experimental results showed that there is no
best model which describes the foam flow behaviour under all
flow conditions. The difference between actual pressure losses
and the model predictions can be anywhere from 2% to >250 %,
as is shown in Figures 20 22.
57

FIGURE 10: Shear stress and shear rate plot after slip and n
correction.

FIGURE 11: Model comparison with experimental data for 50

mm pipe with 70% quality.

FIGURE 12: Model comparison with experimental data for 75

mm pipe with 70% quality.

FIGURE 13: Model comparison with experimental data for 100

mm pipe with 70% quality.

Conclusions
Based on the analysis of the experimental data and the results
of the comparative study, the following conclusions are offered:
1. Wall slip effect may not be negligible and should be considered in establishing the flow curve representing the true flow
behaviour of foam in pipes. The true shear rates are determined by using measured flow rates that are corrected for
the slip effect.
2. The Yield-Power Law model is not applicable for the foam
investigated in this study.
3. Foam rheology can be better characterized by the Power
Law model for 70% and 80% qualities, whereas the
Bingham plastic model gives better fit for 90% foam quality.
4. It is concluded that there is no best model for predicting
the pressure losses during foam flow in pipes under all circumstances. In general, it can be said that Valko and
Economides model gave the relatively more accurate prediction of pressure losses for all foam quality ranges tested

FIGURE 14: Model comparison with experimental data for 50

mm pipe with 80% quality.
58

(i.e., 70, 80, and 90%). Blauer et al.s model gave comparably better predictions for the 80 and 90% foam quality
ranges. Predictions from other models were rather erratic;
predicting pressure losses closer to actual values in some
cases, and very different from the actual values in other
cases. Therefore, results from these models were considered
rather inconclusive. Some of these erratic behaviours may be
attributed to the fact that the bubble size and the texture
were not among the parameters which were controlled during these experiments.
5. Finally, it can be suggested that considering only rheological
parameters and foam quality is not enough to achieve a satisfactory model for pressure loss estimations. Therefore, bubble size and texture have to be included into the rheological
models to obtain a more general model. Further research is
required for introducing the effect of quality, bubble size,
texture and rheological parameters in pressure loss
calculations.

FIGURE 15: Model comparison with experimental data for 75

mm pipe with 80% quality.
Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

FIGURE 16: Model comparison with experimental data for 100

mm pipe with 80% quality.

NOMENCLATURE
a
b
B
c
D
ff
gc
K,k
K
L
LVF
mg
Mg
ml
n
n

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

NReVE
P,p
Q,V
R
T
u,v
vF
vs
vT
wg

=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

constant coefficient, L2/t2

constant coefficient, L3/m
modified second virial coefficient of gas, Lt2/m
constant coefficient, m/t/L2
pipe diameter, L
friction factor, dimensionless
gravitational constant
consistency index, mtn-2/L
geometry dependent consistency index, mt2-n/L
pipe length, L
liquid volume fraction, dimensionless
mass flow rate of gas, m/t
molar mass of gas, m/mol
mass flow rate of liquid, m/t
flow behaviour index, dimensionless
geometry dependent flow behaviour index,
dimensionless
volume equalized Reynolds number, dimensionless
pressure, m/Lt2
flow rate, L3/t
universal gas constant
temperature, T
foam velocity, L/t
fluidity velocity, L/t
slip velocity, L/t
total velocity, L/t
mass fraction of gas, dimensionless

Greek Letters

a
e

=
=
=
=
=

foam quality, dimensionless

slip coefficient, L3/mt
corrected slip coefficient, L4/mt
apparent viscosity, m/Lt
effective viscosity, m/Lt

FIGURE 18: Model comparison with experimental data for 75

mm pipe with 90% quality.
June 2002, Volume 41, No. 6

FIGURE 17: Model comparison with experimental data for 50

mm pipe with 90% quality.

f
g
L
o,p
s
w
y

=
=
=
=
=
=
=

foam density, m/L3

gas density, m/L3
liquid density, m/L3
plastic viscosity, m/Lt
specific volume expansion ratio, dimensionless
wall shear stress, m/Lt2
yield point, m/Lt2

SI Metric Conversion Factors

ft. 0.3048
lbm 0.454
in. 25.4
in3/min 1.6387
Gal (US) 3.785
Psi 6.8948

E +00 = m
E +00 = kg
E -03 = m
E -05 = m3/min
E +00 = litre
E -03 = MPa

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank Tulsa University Drilling Research
Projects (TUDRP) member companies and the U.S. Department
of Energy for their support of this study. We would also like to
thank Bachman Chemicals Co. for providing the foaming-defoaming materials.

REFERENCES
1. BLAUER, R.E. and KOHLHAAS, C.A., Formation Fracturing with
Foam; paper SPE 5003, presented at the 49th Fall Meeting of SPE,
Houston, TX, Oct. 6 9, 1974.
2. LORD D.L., Mathematical Analysis of Dynamic and Static Foam
Behaviour; paper SPE 7927, presented at the SPE Symposium on
Low Permeability Gas Reservoirs, Denver, CO, May 20 22, 1979.
3. SPOERKER, H.F., TREPES, P., VALKO, P., and ECONOMIDES,
M., System Design for the Measurement of Downhole Dynamic
Rheology for Fracturing Fluids; paper SPE 22840, presented at the
66th Annual and Technical Conference and Exhibition of the SPE,
Dallas, TX, October 6 9, 1991.

FIGURE 19: Model comparison with experimental data for 100

mm pipe with 90% quality.
59

FIGURE 20: Error analysis of foam hydraulic models (70%

quality).

FIGURE 21: Error analysis of foam hydraulic models (80%

quality).

16.

17.

18.

19.

FIGURE 22: Error analysis of foam hydraulic models (90%

quality).
4. REID, R.C., PRAUSNITZ, J.M., and POLING, B.P., The Properties
of Gases and Liquids; 4th Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1987.
5. REIDENBACH, V.G., HARRIS, P.C., LEE, Y.N., and LORD, D.L.,
Rheology Study of Foam Fracturing Fluids Using Nitrogen and
Corbon Dioxide; SPE Production Engineering, January 1986.
6. HARRIS, P.C., Dynamic Fluid Loss Characterization of CO 2
Foam Fracturing Fluids; SPE Production Engineering, pp. 89-94,
May 1987.
7. HARRIS, P.C., KLEBENOV, D.E., and KUNDERT, D.P., Constant
Internal Phase Design Improves Stimulation Results; SPE
Production Engineering, pp. 15-19, February 1991.
8. HARRIS, P.C., A Comparison of Mixed Gas Foams with N2 and
CO 2 Foam Fracturing Fluids on a Flow-Loop Viscometer; SPE
Production and Facilities, pp. 197-203, August 1995.
9. HARRIS, P.C. and HEATH, S.J., Rheology of Cross-Linked Foam;
SPE Production and Facilities, pp. 113-116, May 1996.
10. HARRIS, P.C. and REIDENBACH, V.G., High Temperature
Rheological Study of Foam Fracturing Fluids; Journal of Petroleum
Technology, pp. 613-619, May 1987.
11. ESSARY, R.L. and ROGERS, E.E., Techniques and Results of
Foam Redrilling OperationsSan Joaquin Valley, California; paper
SPE 5715, presented at the Symposium on Formation Damage
Control, Houston, TX, January 29 30, 1976.
12. BENTSEN, N.W. and VENY, J.N., Preformed Stable Foam
Performance in Drilling And Evaluating Shallow Gas Wells in
Alberta; Journal of Petroleum Technology, pp. 1237-1240, October
1976.
13. HALL, D.L. and ROBERTS, R.D., Offshore Drilling with
Preformed Stable Foam; paper SPE 12794, presented at the SPE
California Regional Meeting, Long Beach, CA, April 11 12, 1984.
14. FRASER I.M. and MOORE R.H., Guidelines For Stable Foam
Drilling Through Permafrost; paper SPE/IADC 16055, presented at
the SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, New Orleans, LA, March 15
18, 1987; 5. Shale, L. and Curry, D., Drilling A Horizontal Well
Using Air/Foam Techniques; OTC-7355 presented at the 25 th
Annual Offshore Technology Conference, Houston, TX, May 5 6,
1993.
15. KITSIOS, E., ROVIG, J.W., and REYNOLDS, E., Underbalanced
60

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

Drilling Through Oil Production Zones With Stable Foam In Oman;

IADC/SPE Drilling Conference Dallas, TX, February 15 18, 1994.
FRIK, H., Horizontal Drilling in Low Pressure Reservoirs With a
Foam Mud System (Horizontales Bohren in Druckschwachen
Lagerstaetten Mit Einem Schaumspuelungs System); DGMK Spring
Conference, Celle, Germany, pp. 177-185, April 27 28, 1995.
FALK, K. and MCDONALD, C., An Overview of Underbalanced
Drilling Applications in Canada; paper SPE 30129, presented at the
SPE European Formation Damage Conference, The Hague, The
Netherlands, May 15 16, 1995.
SUREWAARD, J., KOOL, M., WOODLAND, D., ROED, H. and
HOPMANS, P., Approach to Underbalanced Well Operations in
Petroleum Development Oman; paper SPE 35069, presented at the
1996 IADC/SPE Drilling Conference, New Orleans, LA, March 12
15, 1996.
LAGE, A.C.V.M., NAKAGAWA, E.Y., SOUZA, A.A., and
SANTOS, M.M., Recent Case Histories of Foam Drilling In Brazil;
paper SPE 36098, presented at the 4th SPE Latin American and
Caribbean Petroleum Engineering Conference,Trinidad and
Tobago, April 23 26, 1996.
DOANE, R.D. BENNION, D.B. EILERS, D.M., and NEW, E.R.,
Successful Drilling of an Underbalanced Horizontal Well in the
Rigel Halfway PoolLaboratory Screening and Field Results; paper
SPE 37065, presented at the 1996 SPE International Conference on
Horizontal Well Technology, Calgary, AB, November 18 20, 1996.
SCHERSCHEL, S.R. and GRAVES, D.G., UnderbalancedDirectional Drilling with Coiled TubingChallenges and Solutions;
paper SPE 37062, presented at the SPE International Conference on
Horizontal Well Technology, Calgary, AB, November 18 20, 1996.
MENG, Y.F., LOU, P.Y., JIAO, D., LAO, R.K., and LAO, H.,
Horizontal Drilling Technology with Cycling Using of Inert Foam;
paper SPE 37078, presented at the 1996 SPE International
Conference on Horizontal Well Technology, Calgary, AB, November
18 20, 1996.
NEGRAO, A.F. and LAGE, A.C.V.M., An Overview of
Air/Gas/Foam Drilling in Brazil; paper SPE/IADC 37678, presented
at the 1997 SPE/IADC Drilling Conference, Amsterdam, The
Netherlands, March 4 6, 1997.
NAKAGAWA, E.Y., SILVA,V., BOAS, P.R.C., and SHAYEGI, S.,
Comparison of Aerated Fluids/Foam Drilling Hydraulics Simulators
Against Field Data; paper SPE 54319, presented at the DPE Asia
Pacific Oil and Gas Conference and Exhibition, Jakarta, Indonesia,
April 20 22, 1999.
BLAUER, R.E., MITCHELL, B.J., and KOHLHAAS, C.A.,
Determination of Laminar, Turbulent and Transitional Foam-Flow
Friction Losses in Pipes; paper SPE 4885, presented at the 1974
SPE California Regional Meeting, San Francisco, CA, April 4 5,
1974.
SANGHANI, V., Rheology of Foam and its Implications in Drilling
and Cleanout Operations; M.S. Thesis, the University of Tulsa, Tulsa,
OK, 1982.
BEYER, A.H., MILLHONE, R.S., and FOOTE, R.W., Flow
Behaviour of Foam as a Well Circulating Fluid; paper SPE 3986,
presented at the 1972 Annual SPE Meeting, San Antonio, TX,
October 8 11, 1972.
VALKO, P. and ECONOMIDES, M.J., Volume Equalized
Constitutive Equations for Foamed Polymer Solutions; Journal of
Rheology, August 1992, American Institute of Physics.
GARDINER, B.S., DLUGOGORSKI, B.Z., and JAMESON, G.J.,
Rheology of Fire Fighting Foams; accepted for publication, Fire
Journal of Canadian Petroleum Technology

Safety Journal, 1998.

30. MITCHELL, B.J., Viscosity of Foam; Ph.D. Thesis, University of
Oklahoma, 1967.
31. ENZENDORFER, C., HARRIS, R.A., VALKO, P.,
ECONOMIDES, M., FOKKER, P.A., and DAVIERS, D.D., Pipe
Viscometry of Foams; Journal of Rheology, 39(2), pp. 345-358,
March/April 1995.
32. JASTRZEBSKI, Z., Entrance Effect and Wall Effect in Rheometer
During the Flow of Concentrated Suspension; Ind. Eng. Chem. Res.,
6, pp. 445-454, 1967.
33. SKELLAND, A.H.P., Non-Newtonian Flow and Heat Transfer; John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., Chapter 2, pp. 27-67, New York, NY, 1967.

ProvenanceOriginal Petroleum Society manuscript, A

Comparative Study of Hydraulic Models for Foam Drilling
(2000-183) first presented at the Canadian International Petroleum
Conference June 4-8, 2000, in Calgary, Alberta. Abstract submitted for review November 8, 1999; editorial comments sent to the
author(s) October 17, 2001; revised manuscript received
December 4, 2001; paper approved for pre-press December 7,
final approval June 3, 2002.

Authors Biographies
Evren Ozbayoglu is currently a Ph.D. candidate in The University of TulsaOklahoma, drilling research projects.
Before joining TU, he was a research assistant at Middle East Technical University,
Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering
Department, Ankara, Turkey. He received a
B.Sc. in 1996 and, in 1998, a M.Sc. from
Middle East Technical University. He is a
member of SPE.
Ergun Kuru is an associate professor of
Petroleum Engineering at University of
Alberta. He received his B.Sc. degree from
Middle East Technical University, an
M.Sc. and Ph.D. from Louisiana State
University all in Petroleum Engineering.
His research interests include drilling optimization, cuttings transport, underbalanced
drilling, and formation damage. Dr. Kuru is
currently serving in SPEs drilling engineering committee, and is an associate technical editor of the
ASME Journal of Energy Resources Technology. Dr. Kuru is a
member of SPE and the ASME.
Stefan Miska, professor and chairman of
the Department of Petroleum Engineering
at The University of Tulsa since 1992,
obtained his Ph.D. degree (1973) and his
M.S. degree (1968) from the University of
Mining and Metallurgy in Cracow, Poland,
where he began his career in academia as
an assistant professor. He has also worked
at The University of Trondheim-Norwegian
Institute of Technology, and at New
Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, where he became
professor and chairman of the petroleum engineering department.
In 1996 he became director of Tulsa University Drilling Research
Projects (TUDRP), a non-profit research consortium of major
oil/service companies. Dr. Miska was a member of the SPE
Production Operations Committee, is currently a reviewer for
Drilling Engineering, and is a member of the API Resource
Group on Drill Stem Design. He is a member of SPE, IADC, and
the Petroleum Society. His current research interests are in
mechanics of tubulars, drilling optimization, and cuttings
transport.
Nicholas Takach is an associate professor
of chemistry at The University of Tulsa. He
received his B.S. degree in chemistry from
California State Polytechnic University and
a Ph.D. in inorganic chemistry from the
University of Nevada. Dr. Takach joined
Tulsa University Drilling Research Projects
(TUDRP) in 1996 and became associate
director in January, 1999. Dr. Takach is
also a co-principal investigator of the
Advanced Cuttings Transport Study
(ACTS), a major new research initiative funded primarily by the
U.S. Department of Energy, and was formerly co-director of the
Tulsa University Wettability Research Projects. His research
interests include the physical and chemical properties of drilling
and completion fluids, surface and environmental chemistry
applied to the petroleum industry and thermodynamic modeling of
natural gas stability in ultradeep reservoirs. Dr. Takach has published in both chemistry and petroleum-related journals, and has
given presentations in both areas at national and international conferences. Dr. Takach is a member of the SPE and the ACS
(American Chemical Society).

June 2002, Volume 41, No. 6

61