1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

Bamboo occurs mostly in tropical and sub-tropical zones. It has two distinctive parts
the rhizome and the stem. The stem, called the Culm, is the upper ground part of
bamboo that contains most of the woody material. It is straight, hollow and
cylindrical formed of nodes and internodes.
This resource is, however, found in abundance in tropical Asia. It is
traditionally used for housing, for the manufacture of furniture and numerous dailylife articles. Recently the application of glue laminated technology on bamboo has
diversified the utilization potential of this resource into advanced architectural
purposes and for fabrication of furniture. China is far more advanced in the
development of glue laminated bamboo products than other bamboo producing
countries. The products are exported to Japan, the USA, Hong Kong and Taiwan. The
unused portions of bamboo and also the planer waste could be useful raw material
for the development of bamboo particleboards. This will help the local industries
with newer raw materials for their products. The study was to understand how
bamboo fiber characteristics influence the mechanical properties of bamboo-urea
formaldehyde composite, the effect of different sizes of bamboo fiber particles on the
mechanical properties of the composites will be investigated.

1.2

Objectives

The objectives of this study is to investigate the influence of bamboo fibre

composition on the mechanical properties of bamboo-fibre- filled-ureaformaldehyde composite.

1.3

Scope of Study

To achieve the objective of this research, these are the scopes of the study:
i)

Literature review and consolidation of novel ideas.

ii)

Sample preparation.

Preparation of bamboo-fibre-reinforced urea-formaldehyde

composite.

iii)

Determination of bamboo-fibre-reinforced urea-formaldehyde composite

with the optimum mechanical properties.

1.4

Problem Statement

Natural fibers are available in many different forms and produce different properties
when added to thermoplastics. Natural fibers may be used in the form of particles,
fiber bundles, or single fibers, and may act as a filler or reinforcement for plastics. To
understand how bamboo fiber composition influence the mechanical properties of
bamboo-fibre reinforced urea-formaldehyde composite, the effect of different
composition of bamboo fibre on the mechanical properties of the composites will be
investigated.

1.5

Expected Result

The best bamboo fibre composition which produces the bamboo fibre reinforced
urea-formaldehyde composite with optimum mechanical properties can be
determined.

CHAPTER 2

Literature Review

2.0

Introduction

Bamboo is a popular material for scaffolding in Asia. Bamboo sticks are strong,
lightweight, flexible, economical and handy to build. It is widely used in the building
and construction industry for repairing, decoration, sign erection and slope
maintenance works. As a natural material that grows, the bending and compressive
strengths of bamboo change with moisture content and species and the resulting
mechanical properties of bamboo are not uniform[1].
Bamboo is a natural material consisting of vascular bundles (cellulose fibers)
with sclerenchyma cells and matrix tissue with leptodermous cells. A vascular bundle
is composed of many right-handed spiral phloem fibers at a certain spiral angle. The
volume fraction of the cellulose fibers is largest near the outside surface of the
bamboo stem and decreases with the distance from the outside surface. Despite these
features and many other advantages like bio-degradability and easy availability, no
work has yet been reported in the literature on the tribological behaviour of
bidirectional woven bamboo fiber mat reinforced composites, to the authors best
knowledge. Besides, although the erosion response of red mud filled glassepoxy
composites has been studied and reported recently, there has been no investigation on
the erosion characteristics of red mud filled natural fiber composites. Red mud is the
major industrial waste produced during the production of alumina by Bayers process
and it has a huge potential to be used as a filler material in polymeric matrices.
Against this background, the present investigation has been undertaken to study of

the mechanical and wear characteristics of red mud filled bamboo fiber reinforced
epoxy composites and to compare them with the existing results for red mud filled
glassepoxy composites[2].

2.1

Composite

Composites are made up of individual materials referred to as constituent materials.

There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. At least
one portion of each type is required. The matrix material surrounds and supports the
reinforcement materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements
impart their special mechanical and physical properties to enhance the matrix
properties. A synergism produces material properties unavailable from the individual
constituent materials, while the wide variety of matrix and strengthening materials
allows the designer of the product or structure to choose an optimum combination.
Engineered composite materials must be formed to shape. The matrix
material can be introduced to the reinforcement before or after the reinforcement
material is placed into the mould cavity or onto the mould surface. The matrix
material experiences a melding event, after which the part shape is essentially set.
Depending upon the nature of the matrix material, this melding event can occur in
various ways such as chemical polymerization or solidification from the melted state.
A variety of moulding methods can be used according to the end-item design
requirements. The principal factors impacting the methodology are the natures of the
chosen matrix and reinforcement materials. Most commercially produced composites
use a polymer matrix material often called a resin solution. There are many different
polymers available depending upon the starting raw ingredients. There are several
broad categories, each with numerous variations. The most common are known as
polyester, vinyl ester, epoxy, phenolic, polyimide, polyamide, polypropylene, PEEK,
and others. The reinforcement materials are often fibres but also commonly ground
minerals. The various methods described below have been developed to reduce the
resin content of the final product, or the fibre content is increased. As a rule of

thumb, lay up results in a product containing 60% resin and 40% fibre, whereas
vacuum infusion gives a final product with 40% resin and 60% fibre content. The
strength of the product is greatly dependent on this ratio[3].

2.1.1

Synthetic Fibre

Synthetic is usually used in the sense of synthesis, the combination of two or more
parts, whether by design or by natural processes. Furthermore, it may imply being
prepared or made artificially, in contrast to naturally[4].
Synthetic fibers are the result of extensive research by scientists to improve
on naturally occurring animal and plant fibers. In general, synthetic fibers are created
by forcing, usually through extrusion, fiber forming materials through holes (called
spinnerets) into the air, forming a thread. Before synthetic fibers were developed,
artificially manufactured fibers were made from cellulose, which comes from plants.
These fibers are called cellulose fibers.
Synthetic fibers account for about half of all fiber usage, with applications in every
field of fiber and textile technology. Although many classes of fiber based on
synthetic polymers have been evaluated as potentially valuable commercial products,
four of them - nylon, polyester, acrylic and polyolefin - dominate the market. These
four account for approximately 98 per cent by volume of synthetic fiber production,
with polyester alone accounting for around 60 per cent[4].

2.1.2

Natural Fiber

In recent years, natural fibers in the form of fiber and/or particulate have been widely
used as reinforcing fillers in thermoplastic composite materials. These natural fillers
are lighter, and cheaper, and provide much higher strength per unit mass than most

inorganic fillers[5]. Besides ecological considerations, several technical aspects

promote the renewed interest for the fibers as supplement or replacement for
traditional fillers (e.g., glass fibers) in polymer composites. Natural fibers from
agricultural residues and forest products' processing mainly consist of natural
lignocellulosic polymers. As a result, they are subjected to thermal degradation
during composite processing. It is thus of practical significance to understand and
predict the thermal decomposition process of natural fibers and the knowledge will
help better design composite process and estimate the influence on composite
properties by thermal decomposition of natural fibers[5].

2.1.3

Bamboo fiber

Bamboo fibre is a cellulose fibre extracted or fabricated from natural bamboo (and
possibly other additives) and is made from (or in the case of material fabrication) the
pulp of bamboo plants. It is usually not made from the fibres of the plant, but is a
synthetic viscose made from bamboo cellulose.
Bamboo has gained popularity as a "green" fibre. Manufacturers tout the fact
that bamboo can be cultivated quickly, can be used as a cash crop to develop
impoverished regions of the third world, and is a natural fibre (as opposed to popular
synthetics like polyester) whose cultivation results in a decrease in greenhouse gases.
There may be environmental problems with the cultivation of land expressly
for bamboo and the use of harsh chemicals to turn bamboo into usable fibre for
clothing[6].

2.1.4

Matrix

The role of matrix in a fiber-reinforced composite is to transfer stress between the

fibers, to provide a barrier against an adverse environment and to protect the surface
of the fibers from mechanical abrasion. The matrix plays a major role in the tensile
load carrying capacity of a composite structure. The binding agent or matrix in the
composite is of critical importance[7]. Four major types of matrices have been used
as matrix for natural fiber reinforced composites are as follows:
High density polyethene (HDPE)
Low density polyethene (LDPE)
Chlorinated polyethylene (CPE)
Polypropylene (PP)
Normal polystyrene (PS)
Poly (Vinyl chloride) PVC)
Mixtures of polymers
Recycled Thermoplastics[7].

2.1.5

Epoxy

Epoxy is a copolymer; that is, it is formed from two different chemicals. These are
referred to as the "resin" and the "hardener". The resin consists of monomers or short
chain polymers with an epoxide group at either end. Most common epoxy resins are
produced from a reaction between epichlorohydrin and bisphenol-A, though the latter
may be replaced by similar chemicals. The hardener consists of polyamine
monomers, for example Triethylenetetramine (TETA). When these compounds are
mixed together, the amine groups react with the epoxide groups to form a covalent
bond. Each NH group can react with an epoxide group, so that the resulting polymer
is heavily cross linked, and is thus rigid and strong.
The process of polymerization is called "curing", and can be controlled
through temperature, choice of resin and hardener compounds, and the ratio of said
compounds; the process can take minutes to hours. Some formulations benefit from
heating during the cure period, whereas others simply require time, and ambient
temperatures[8].

2.1.5.1 Application of Epoxy

The applications for epoxy-based materials are extensive and include, coatings,
adhesives and composite materials such as those using carbon fiber and fiberglass
reinforcements (although polyester, vinyl ester, and other thermosetting resins are
also used for glass-reinforced plastic). The chemistry of epoxies and the range of
commercially available variations allow cure polymers to be produced with a very
broad range of properties. In general, epoxies are known for their excellent adhesion,
chemical and heat resistance, good-to-excellent mechanical properties and very
good electrical insulating properties. Many properties of epoxies can be modified
(for example silver-filled epoxies with good electrical conductivity are available,
although epoxies are typically electrically insulating). Variations offering high
thermal insulation, or thermal conductivity combined with high electrical resistance
for electronics applications, are available[8].

2.1.5.2 Epoxy Adhesive

Epoxy adhesives are a major part of the class of adhesives called "structural
adhesives" or "engineering adhesives" (that includes polyurethane, acrylic,
cyanoacrylate, and other chemistries.). These high-performance adhesives are used in
the construction of aircraft, automobiles, bicycles, boats, golf clubs, skis,
snowboards, and other applications where high strength bonds are required. Epoxy
adhesives can be developed to suit almost any application. They can be used as
adhesives for wood, metal, glass, stone, and some plastics. They can be made flexible
or rigid, transparent or opaque/colored, fast setting or slow setting. Epoxy adhesives
are better in heat and chemical resistance than other common adhesives. In general,
epoxy adhesives cured with heat will be more heat- and chemical-resistant than those
cured at room temperature. The strength of epoxy adhesives is degraded at
temperatures above 350 F (177 C)[8].

10

Some epoxies are cured by exposure to ultraviolet light. Such epoxies are
commonly used in optics, fiber optics, optoelectronics, and dentistry[8].
However, the primary risk associated with epoxy use is sensitization to the
hardener, which, over time, can induce an allergic reaction. It is a main source of
occupational asthma among users of plastics[8].

2.2

Previous Study

2.2.1

Strength analysis of bamboo by microscopic investigation of bamboo

fibre[1].

Compressive strength of bamboo was carried out in accordance with ISO221571.The top platen of the testing machine was equipped with a hemispherical bearing to
obtain uniform distribution of load over the ends of the specimen. Bamboo samples
for compressive test were taken from the internodes (see Fig. 2.1). The length of
bamboo sample equal to outer diameter was cut, making the depth to length ratio
[D/L] equal to 1. Samples from both upper part and lower part of the young and old
bamboo sticks were collected for comparison .Old bamboos were at least three years
old. Sample from the bottom part of bamboo was taken at least 30 cm above the
bamboo end. The average strengths of eight bamboo specimens were calculated[1].

Figure. 2.1. Node and internode of bamboo.

In this study, microscopic images of the samples taken from midwall region
(as in Fig. 2.2) were examined under inverted microscope at 50 and 100

11

magnifications. The area of sclerenchyma fibre per unit area of bamboo section was
examined and the average number of vascular bundle was correlated to the strength
of bamboo stick[1].

Figure. 2.2 Bamboo section showing the distribution of vascular bundles and
midwall region.
The tensile modulus of all composites considered in the present study increases with
volume fraction of fibre in the composite in the order of banana, sisal, vakka and
bamboo. It is also observed that the tensile modulus of vakka fibre composite is 66%,
12% higher than those of banana, sisal fibre composites, respectively, and
comparable to that of bamboo composite at the same volume fraction of fibre (0.37).
This is due to lower percentage strain of vakka fibre composite compared to banana
and sisal composites[4].Table 2.1 show the tensile properties of vakka fibre
composites, along with other natural fibre reinforced composites at 0.37 volume
fraction of fibre.

12

Table 2.1: The tensile properties of vakka fibre composites, along with other natural
fibre reinforced composites at 0.37 volume fraction of fibre[4].
Name of the
composite

Volume
fraction of
fibre

Ultimate tensile
strength (MPa)

Tensile
modulus
(GPa)

Plain polyester

0.00

15.1

0.44

Vakka

0.372

66.0

1.79

Sisal

0.370

50.0

1.60

Banana

0.374

60.9

1.08

Bamboo

0.371

121.5

2.23

2.2.2

Physical and mechanical properties of urea formaldehyde-bonded

particle board made from bamboo waste[9].

Development of value-added products from any unutilized woody or non-woody

material can play a vital role in economic development and also in forest resources
conservation of any country. In this study, the suitabilities of planer waste and chips
of Bambusa balcooa and Bambusa vulgaris, two locally grown bamboo species of
Bangladesh, were investigated for the production of particleboard. The planer waste
is a kind of shavings obtained during planning operation of bamboo splits for making
rectangular strips of uniform thickness. Urea formaldehyde glue was used as a
binder. Particleboards (12 mm thickness) were made from each type of the material
applying 3.5 N/mm2 pressure at 140 1C press temperature. The panels were tested to
determine bending strength, modulus of elasticity, tensile strength, thickness swelling
and water absorption. The variation in particle geometry of the raw materials
significantly influenced the physical and mechanical properties of particleboard. The
chips showed better strength properties compared to planer waste. B. vulgaris
produced better and well glued particleboards compared to B. balcooa because of its
superior gluability. The product could be used for indoor application especially as

13

furniture component. Further research on the improvement in dimensional

stabilization of product is needed.
Bamboo culms have thicker walls at the bottom, which are generally used for
preparing panel strips for laminated products. The unused portions left after making
panel strips were used form this study. The unutilized culm portion (5.4 m above the
base for B. balcooa and 3.6 m for B. vulgaris) were split longitudinally into halves.
Each half was then flattened with locally made hand tools. The flattened splits were
clipped into 3850 mm long pieces and converted into chips in a hammer mill Liquid
urea formaldehyde glue (50% solid content) was used as a binder. The proportion of
UF was 10% based on oven dried chips. The glue was catalyzed using ammonium
chloride as a hardener and then sprayed over the chips and planer waste individually.
Three identical particleboards of size 500 mm_500 mm and 12 mm thickness
with a target density of 750 kg/m3 were made for each category (planer wastes and
chips). Initially mats were made manually with glue sprayed particles and then
pressed in a hydraulic hot press at 140 1C at a specific pressure of 3.5 N/mm2
applied for 6 min. Thereafter successive pressures of 1.04 N/mm2 for 4 min and 0.35
N/mm2 for 2 min were given as breathing time. The pressure was reduced step by
step to avoid manufacturing defects like blowing or blistering of the mats. During hot
pressing, distribution of moisture is not uniform throughout the mat. Initially heat
transfers from the hot platens to the outer layers of the furnish mat and then
continues to migrate toward the core. As temperature in the outer layers of the mat
exceeds 100 1C,water starts vaporizing and steam pressure begins to build. This
elevated steam pressure helps conduction of heat into the core of the mat resulting in
plasticization of the wood furnish and curing of the resin binder. Internal steam
pressure (ISP) increases the rate of heat transfer into the core of the mat, which is
critical to mat consolidation. If ISP is greater than internal bonding strength, the
panel could blow up when the press is opened. The step wise reduction helps gradual
release of the internal steam pressure, and thus prevents the defects. At that time the
temperature was reduced by circulating cold water through the platens. The boards
were first trimmed and then three specimens were taken from each board to
determine bending strength, tensile strength perpendicular to surface and percentage
of water absorption and thickness swelling. The test specimens were conditioned in a
conditioning room until they attained uniform moisture content of about 1012%
prior to testing. The tests were carried out according to ASTM Standard

14

The physical and mechanical properties of the boards like density, modulus of
rupture (MOR), modulus of elasticity (MOE), tensile strength, percentage of
thickness swelling and the amount of water absorbed in different soaking times were
determined. The results are shown in Tables 2.2 and 2.3 The values of different
standards are also included for comparison. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used
to assess any correlation between species and particle types (planer waste and chips)
with strength properties of UF bonded particleboard. F-values and levels of
significance are given in Table 2.4.

Table 2.2: Mechanical properties of B. balcooa and B. vulgaris particleboards bonded

with urea formaldehyde glue[9].

15

Species

Particle type

Thickness

Properties

(mm)Mean

Density
(kg/m3)

Bambusa
balcooa

Bambusa
vulgaris

Standards

Modulus
of rupture
2

(N/mm )

Mean

Mean

Modulus
of
elasticity
(N/mm2)
Mean
1936.9

Tensile
strength
(N/mm2)
Mean

Planer waste

12 (2)a

849 (4)

15.7 (13)

Chips

13 (5)

821 (5)

18.0 (20)

Planer waste

12 (2)

873 (2)

17.7 (6)

Chips

13 (5)

801 (3)

19.2 (4)

IS 3087, 1985

640

500900

11.2

0.8

1320

600750

18.0

0.35

15.0

0.35

(20)
2636.6
(17)
2144.2
(13)
2344.7
(11)

1.01 (11)

1.56 (14)

1.22 (13)

1.62 (9)

German
standard
DIN687611975
BS 5669 part 2
1989
a

619

Medium
density

Values in parentheses are coefficients of variance.

Table 2.3 :Dimensional stability of B. balcooa and B. vulgaris particleboards bonded

with urea formaldehyde glue[9].

16

Species

Bambusa
balcooa

Particle type

Planer waste

Chips
Bambusa
vulgaris

Standards

Planer waste

Thickness swelling (%)

Water absorption (%)

1h

2h

24 h

1h

2h

24 h

11.5

13.4

16.5

32.8

38.0

47.9

(14)a

(13)

(12)

(4)

(6)

(3)

12.2

14.6

31.9

37.1

46.7

(18)

(11)

(10)

(9)

(9)

10.1

11.6

15.1

31.7

36.9

45.9

(2)

(10)

(14)

(15)

(7)

(5)

11.0

14.0

31.0

36.2

45.2

(12)

(13)

(6)

(6)

(3)

9.3 (8)

Chips

9.3 (5)

IS 3087, 1985

10

25

50

12

German standard
DIN68761, 1975
BS 5669, part 2 1989
a

Dimensional stability

Values in parentheses are coefficients of variance.

Table 2.4: Influence of species and particle type on mechanical properties and
dimensional stability of urea formaldehyde-bonded particleboard[9].

17

Source of

variation

Mechanical properties

type (P)

Water

swelling after

absorption

24 h

after 24 h

1.41ns

4.81ns

2.93ns

0.47ns

2.08ns

0.25ns

0.01ns

Modulus of

Tensile

rupture

elasticity

strength
7.11

ns

0.18

20.8
Particle

Thickness

Modulus of

8.28
Species (S)

Dimensional stability

82.3

11.3
1

6.39
ns

SP

0.01

Error

Total

11

ns: not significant.

Significant at 1% level of probability.
Significant at 5% level of probability.
This study indicated the suitabilities of planer waste and chips of B. balcooa
and B. vulgaris for making urea formaldehyde-bonded particleboards. Based on the
results the following conclusions were drawn:
Particle geometry has significant influence on the strength properties of the
particleboards. Boards made from hammer milled chips are superior to those made
from planer wastes.
B. vulgaris produces a better particleboard than B. balcooa due to its superior
gluability. Both species produce particleboard meeting International standards.
Bamboo particleboard made from either planer waste or chips is dimensionally less
stable. The product could be used for interior applications, like furniture components,
wall panels, etc., but not recommended for places under frequent humidity changes.

18

2.2.3

Mechanical properties of sisal fibre reinforced urea formaldehyde resin

composites[10].

Alkali-treated sisal fibres were used as novel reinforcement to obtain composites

with self-synthesized urea formaldehyde resin as matrix phase. The composites were
prepared by means of compression molding, and then the effects of sisal loading on
mechanical properties such as impact strength, flexural strength, and wear resistance
were investigated. In addition, water uptake was studied and structural features were
revealed by the scanning electron microscopy (SEM).The composite with 30 wt%
sisal fibres gives excellent flexural strength, water absorption, and especially the
wear resistance showing that it has the most superior bonding and adhesion of all the
composites. In particular, the highest value 9.42 kJ/m2 of charpy impact strength is
observed in the composite with 50 wt% sisal fibre. SEM micrographs of impact
fractured and worn surfaces clearly demonstrate the interfacial adhesion between
fibre and matrix. This work shows the potential of sisal fibre (SF) to improve the
composite wear resistance and to be used in fibre board.
Fibres were soaked in 2% NaOH solution in a water bath where the
temperature was maintained throughout at 222C for 24 h, then washed with
distilled water and left to dry at room temperature before being put in an oven for 15
h at 70C. Finally, fibers were chopped into 23 mm size. Liquid urea-formaldehyde
resin was synthesized by us. The ratio of urea to formaldehyde used was 1:1.4.
Melamine was added for improving adhesion strength and its amount was 8 wt% of
urea. There action temperature was 901C and reaction time was about 2.5 h. It had
an average viscosity of 3.51024.5102 Pas, pH between 7.0 and 7.5,
501% solid content and <1% free formaldehyde content.
Impact strength is defined as the ability of a material to resist the fracture
under stress applied at high speed. The impact properties of composite materials are
directly related to its overall toughness. Composite fracture toughness is affected by
interlaminar and interfacial strength parameters. Impact strength of SF/UFR
composite with SF loading. The impact strength of composite with 30 wt% SF is
5.78 kJ/m2.With increases in SF load

19

Figure 2.3
Effects of sisal fibre loading on the impact strength of SF/UFR composites[10]
Results from the bend tests on SF/UFR composite are given in Table 2.5. It is
observed that with decrease of SF content from 70 to 30 wt%, the flexural strength
increases sharply i.e. from 15.28 to 58.58 MPa, increasing by about 283.4%.
Meanwhile, the flexural modulus increases from 1.59 to 7.63 GPa. As the improved
mixing will provide. Table 2.5 show effect of sisal fibre loading on the bending
property of SF/UF composite.

Table 2.5 Effect of sisal fibre loading on the bending property of SF/UF
composite[10].
In this paper, mechanical properties of SF reinforced urea-

formaldehyde resin composites have been described. The composite with 50 wt% SF
has the optimal Charpy impact strength and it reaches 9.42 kJ/m2. Whereas the
flexural, wear resistance and water absorption properties are proved to be excellent in
the composite with 30 wt% SF under the present experimental conditions adopted.
The SEM micrographs of impact fractured and worn surfaces reveal that the proper
sisal fibre addition can improve the fracture energy, strengthen interfaces and lower

20

wear rate. The composite has significant potential for improving resistance to
abrasive wear due to sisal characteristic properties. The fibres themselves possess a
higher wear resistance than the matrix and should protrude from the surface after
some time. Hence, the applicability of these composites in fibre board can be
expanded.
2.2.4

The effect of borax penthydrate addition to urea formaldehyde on the

mechanical characteristics and free formaldehyde content of plywood[11].

In this study, the effects of borax pentahydrate addition to urea formaldehyde (UF)
on the bonding characteristics and free formaldehyde content have been studied.
Experiments related to the bending strength, withdrawal shear strength and free
formaldehyde content have been conducted on the three-layered beech and poplar
plywood which are prepared by the addition of borax pentahydrate into their
adhesive mixtures in certain amounts. Addition of borax pentahydrate into the
adhesive mixture did not statistically affect the bending strength and withdrawal
shear strength of the plywood but did reduce the free formaldehyde content.
Wooden materials
Veneers made out of poplar (Populus x eureamericana) and beech (Fagus orientalis)
trees were used as wooden materials for the plywood production.
Adhesive used

Ureaformaldehyde (UF) adhesive was used in the production of plywood.

Ureaformaldehyde adhesive is used in 90% of the wooden board production as its
setting duration is short in a hot-press, it has an easy usage, it is cheap, and it has a
transparent colour. Some technical characteristics belonging to the utilized adhesive
are given in Table 2.6

21

Table 2.6: Technical characteristics of ureaformaldehyde adhesive[11].

Manufacturer

Polisan Chemical Industry Comp.

Commercial name

Ureaformaldehyde 2265

Molar ratio (urea/formaldehyde)

1.35

Solid material rate (wt%)

551

Density (20 C)

1.221.23 g/cm3

Viscosity (20 C)

100200 cps

pH(20 C)

7.58.5

Free formaldehyde (%)

0.8 max

Storage time (20 C)

90 (days)

Adhesive was applied to the samples using a rolling press. Approximately

180 g/m2 of adhesive (double glue line) has been applied on the surfaces. Urea
formaldehyde adhesive with a solid content of 55 wt% was used in the production of
the test plywood. 15 wt% ammonium chloride (NH4CI) was used as a hardening
agent and was added into the liquid adhesive in 10 wt% ratio. As an additive, wheat
flour was also added into the adhesive in 55 wt% ratio of the solid material amount.
As a modification agent, borax pentahydrate was added into the adhesive in 0, 5, 10
and 20 wt% ratio of the total solid material amount.
Bending strength and the withdrawal-shear strength results

Average bending strength and standard deviation values of the poplar and
beech plywood produced to determine effect of the addition of borax pentahydrate
into the adhesive mixture in different ratios on the bending strength and the
withdrawal-shear strength are given in Table 2.7

22

Table 2.7: Values of bending strength and the withdrawal-shear strength [11].
Values of bending

Type
of

Values of withdrawal-

Values

strength (N/mm )

shear strength (N/mm2)

Borax pentahydrate

Borax pentahydrate

ratio (wt%)

ratio (wt%)

tree

10

20

10

20

97.7

96.6

96.4

95.2

11.5

11.8

11.8

11.8

0.77

0.88

0.91

0.99

0.07

0.06

0.06

0.05

9.43

9.60

9.52

9.59

0.05

0.05

0.05

Averag
Beec
h

e
(N/mm

)
Standar
d
deviati
on

Averag
Popl

77.2

75.9

74.8

74.7

ar

(N/mm2

0.91

0.79

0.76

0.68

)
Standar
d
deviati

0.61

on

It is seen that the bending strength values of the beech plywood are higher
than the bending strength values of the poplar plywood, and borax addition decreases
the bending strength values of both types of samples by a certain amount. It is also
seen that the withdrawal-shear strength values of the beech plywood are higher than
the withdrawal-shear strength values of the poplar plywood, and borax addition
increases the withdrawal-shear strength values of both types of samples by a certain
amount. The interaction between these obtained values has been examined with the
variance analysis and the results obtained are given in Table 2.8 and Table 2.9.

23

Table 2.8: Bending strength variance analysis results[11].

Type of
tree

Values of bending strength

Values

Values of withdrawal-shear

strength (N/mm2)

(N/mm )

Borax pentahydrate ratio (wt

%)

Beech

Average
(N/mm2)
Standard
deviation

Poplar

Average
(N/mm2)
Standard
deviation

Borax pentahydrate ratio (wt%)

10

20

10

20

97.74

96.68

96.45

95.25

11.51

11.87

11.84

11.85

0.77

0.88

0.91

0.99

0.079

0.063

0.068

0.059

77.24

75.99

74.83

74.73

9.43

9.60

9.52

9.59

0.91

0.79

0.76

0.68

0.61

0.055

0.059

0.056

Table 2.9: Withdrawal-shear strength variance analysis results[11].

Type of

Variance

Sum of

tree

source

squares

Beech

Inter groups

1.543

Within groups

1.106

Total

2.649

Inter groups

0.346

Poplar

df
3
7
6

Mean
square
0.514

Level of
significance

38.467

0.001

30.608

0.001

0.014

7
9

0.115

24

Type of

Variance

Sum of

tree

source

squares

Within groups

0.286

Total

0.632

Mean

df

square

Level of
significance

0.003

6
7
9

According to the results of the variance analysis conducted, the effect of the
borax pentahydrate addition into the adhesive mixture of poplar plywood on the
bending strength has been found insignificant with 0.001 margin of error. For beech
plywood the effect has been found significant with 0.001 margin of error. According
to the results of the variance analysis conducted, the effect of the borax pentahydrate
addition into the adhesive mixture of poplar and beech plywood on the withdrawalshear strength has been found insignificant with 0.001 margin of error.
Free formaldehyde content results. The free formaldehyde content data
are given in Table 2.10 indicating that borax addition results in a decrease
in free formaldehyde content.

Table 2.10: Values of free formaldehyde content[11].

Type of tree

Values

Formaldehydecontent (mg/100 g)

Borax pentahydrate ratio (wt%)

Beech

Poplar

10

20

Min.

46.48

38.86

31.12

28.68

Max.

50.08

42.26

34.12

31.28

Average

48.28

40.56

32.62

29.98

Standard deviation

1.17

1.09

0.99

1.1

Min.

63.94

48.37

36.14

36.55

Max.

68.54

52.57

39.54

39.15

Average

66.24

50.47

37.84

37.85

25

Type of tree

Formaldehydecontent (mg/100 g)

Values

Borax pentahydrate ratio (wt%)

Standard deviation

10

20

1.3

1.34

0.98

1.03

It is seen that the free formaldehyde content values of the beech plywood are
higher than the free formaldehyde content values of the poplar plywood, and borax
addition decreases the free formaldehyde content values of both types of samples by
a certain amount. The interaction between these values obtained has been examined
with variance analysis and the results obtained are given in Table 2.11 is free
formaldehyde content variance analysis results
Table 2.11: Free formaldehyde content variance analysis results[11].
Type of

Variance

Sum of

Mean

tree

source

squares

square

Beech

Inter groups

2055.167

685.56

45.669

36

1.268

Total

2100.836

39

Inter groups

5450.048

1816.68

62.819

36

1.744

5512.867

39

Within
groups

Poplar

Within
groups
Total

Level of
significance

540.02

0.001

1041.98

0.001

According to the results of the variance analysis conducted, the effect of the
borax pentahydrate addition into the adhesive mixture of poplar and beech plywood
on the free formaldehyde content has been found significant with 0.001 margin of
error.

26
It has been observed that borax pentahydrate addition to urea formaldehyde did not
significantly reduce the strength properties of plywood bonded using this resin and that there
was a moderate reduction in free formaldehyde content as a result of borax addition.

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1

Introduction

Methodology is very important part because this part will be guideline to do the
research and the experiment. As well as, preparation of literature review were carried
out to determine basic understanding of bamboo properties. In this research, the
analysis and experiment will be focusing on the urea formaldehyde and the Bamboo.
This chapter will discuss about the equipment used and the method that will be used.

27

Testing will be carried out to find the mechanical of the bamboo fiber reinforced with
the urea formaldehyde (UF). The mechanical testing is a flexural test, izod impact
test ASTM D256 and hardness test. Figure 3.1 shows the flowchart of methodology
process. Preliminary preparation must done as below
i.

To understand the method of specimen preparation

ii.

To understand the specification of bamboo fibers, and urea

formaldehyde.

iii.

To produce the specimen with roll mill mixture machine, plastic

granulator machine and hot press machine.

3.2

Flow Chart of Methodology

Start

Urea formaldehyde

Bamboo fibers

Differential Thermal Analysiss (DTA)

Specimen preparation
Mixture 1: bamboo fiber 90 %

Urea-formaldehyde: 10%

Mixture 2: bamboo fiber 85 %

Urea-formaldehyde: 15%

Mixture 3: bamboo fiber 80 %

Urea-formaldehyde: 20%

Mixture 4: bamboo fiber 75 %

Urea-formaldehyde: 25%

Mixture 5: bamboo fiber 70 %

Urea-formaldehyde: 30%

Roll Mill Mixer Machine

Hot Press Machine
Mechanical Testing

Flexural Test

Izod Impact Test ASTM D256

Data Analysis, Observation and
discussion

Hardness Test

28

Conclusion and Suggestion

End

Figure 3.1: Flow chart of methodology.

3.3

Differential Thermal Analysis

Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) is a technique that included the measurement of

temperature different between a sample and the material as a reference. This testing
will be done to determine the suitable temperature for hot press process.

Figure 3.2: Differential Thermal Analysis (DTA) Machine

3.4

Material Preparation

3.4.1 Raw material

29

Raw material that will be used in this research are:

i.

Bamboo fiber

ii.

Urea formaldehyde

3.4.2

Bamboo fiber
Table 3.1: Mechanical properties of natural fibers [12].

From the table 3.1, the density of bamboo fiber is 0.8g/cm, the tensile
strength is 391-1000MPa, the Youngs modulus is 48-89GPa and the tensile strength
of bamboo fiber is 391-1000MPa

3.4.3

Prepared Urea formaldehyde

30

Urea-formaldehyde, also known as urea-methanal, named so for its common

synthesis pathway and overall structure, is a non-transparent thermosetting resin or
plastic, made from urea and formaldehyde heated in the presence of a mild base such
as ammonia or pyridine[13].These resins are used in adhesives, finishes, MDF, and
molded objects. Urea-Formaldehyde is everywhere and used in many manufacturing
processes due to its useful properties. Examples include decorative laminates,
textiles, paper, foundry sand molds, wrinkle resistant fabrics, cotton blends, rayon,
corduroy, etc. It is also used to glue wood together. The chemical structure of UF
resins can be described as polymethylene. This description leaves the details of the
structure undetermined which can vary linearly and branched. These are grouped y
their average molar mass and the content of different functional groups. Changing
synthesis conditions of the resins give good designing possibilities for the structure
and resin properties[13].
Table 3.2: Mechanical properties of Polymer[16]

From the table 3.2, the density of urea formaldehyde is 1.5g/cm3 and the
tensile strength is 30MPa.

3.5

Sample Preparation

31

UF and bamboo fibers will be deliberate based on weight ratio and the size of
bamboo fibers. Then, the mixture will be poured into the roll mill mixer machine in
figure 3.2. Finally, the mixture will be poured into the hot press mold. The mould to
get the sample have width in 25cm, length 25cm and the thinkness 3cm. Figure 3.3
shows the mould that will be used.

Figure 3.3: The roll mill mixer machine

Figure 3.4: The Mould for Sample Preparation.

A process for the hot press molding of molded articles, such as the internal
linings of motor vehicles or the like is described, in which planar blanks of tangled
fiber mat fleece mixed with binders, using at least one mould, are permanently
deformed in a multidimensional molding process after evaporating on the mat fleece.
A stabilizing support is introduced during the deformation process on at least one
side between the shaping surface of the mould and the mat fleece. It is in the form of
a fibrous sandwich layer which is substantially elongation-free in the surface
direction at ambient temperature, but is plastically deformable within the hot press
mould under the action of heat. With and/or immediately after the molding process,

32

said stabilization support becomes a substantially elongation-free, inflexible

covering. The geometry of the flexible stabilizing support is to be made to coincide
with that of the mat fleece blank to be deformed. Figure 3.4 shows the machine hot
press.

Figure 3.5: The Machine Hot Press

Table 3.3: Percentage of mixture for the sample
Sample
1
2
3
4
5

Bamboo fiber (%)

90
85
80
75
70

Urea-formaldehyde (%)
10
15
20
25
30

Table 3.4: Composition of material for each percentage of Urea-formaldehyde and

bamboo fiber
Sampl
e

Total volume = 25cm x 25cm x 3cm = 1875cm3

Bamboo fiber
Urea-formaldehyde
= 0.8g/cm3
= 1.5g/cm3
V = 90% x 1875
= 1687.5cm3

m=V
= 0.8 x 1687.5
= 1350g

V = 10% x 1875
= 187.5cm3
m=V
= 1.5 x 187.5
= 281.5g

33

V = 85% x 1875
= 1593.75cm3
2

m=V
= 1274.8g
V = 80% x 1875

= 421.9g
V = 20% x 1875

m=V

= 375cm3
m=V

= 0.8 x 1500

= 1.5 x 375

= 1200g
V = 75% x 1875

= 562.5g
V = 25% x 1875

m=V
= 0.8 x 1406.25

m=V
= 1.5 x 281.25

= 1406.25cm3
4

= 281.25cm3

= 0.8 x 1593.5

= 1500cm3
3

V = 15% x 1875

= 468.75cm3
m=V
= 1.5 x 468.75

= 1125g
V = 70% x 1875

= 703.3g
V = 30% x 1875

= 1312.5cm3

= 562.5cm3

m=V

m=V

= 0.8 x 1312.5

= 1.5 x 562.5

= 1050g

= 843.75g

3.6 Mechanical and Physical Testing

For this research, there are three testing for each samples. The testing are
flexural test, izod impact test ASTM D256 and hardness test.

3.6.1 Flexural Test

34

The specimen will be tested using the Universal Testing Machine (UTM) as shown in
figure 3.5. The three point bending flexural test provides values for the modulus of
elasticity in bending Ef, flexural stress f, flexural strain f and the flexural stressstrain response of the material. The main advantage of a three point flexural test is
the ease of the specimen preparation and testing. However, this method has also
some disadvantages: the results of the testing method are sensitive to specimen and
loading geometry and strain rate[14].

Figure 3.6: Universal Testing Machines.

Figure 3.7: Example test setup of the three point bending tests in material sciences.
Calculation of the flexural stress f using equation 3.1 for a rectangular cross section
and equation 3.2 for a circular cross section[14].
(3.1)

(3.2)

Calculation of the flexural strain f using equation 3.3 and calculation of flexural
modulus Ef using equation 3.4.
(3.3)

(3.4)

35

Where ;
f = Stress in outer fibers at midpoint, (MPa)
f = Strain in the outer surface, (mm/mm)
Ef = flexural Modulus of elasticity,(MPa)
P = load at a given point on the load deflection curve, (N)
L = Support span, (mm)
b = Width of test beam, (mm)
d = Depth of tested beam, (mm)
D = maximum deflection of the center of the beam, (mm)
m = The gradient (i.e., slope) of the initial straight-line portion of the load deflection
curve,(P/D), (N/mm)

3.6.2

Izod Impact Test ASTM D256

Izod impact strength testing is an ASTM standard method of determining impact

strength. A notched sample is generally used to determine impact strength. The test is
named after the English engineer Edwin Gilbert Izod (18761946), who described it
in his 1903 address to the British Association, subsequently published in
Engineering. Impact is a very important phenomenon in governing the life of a
structure. In the case of aircraft, impact can take place by the bird hitting the plane
while it is cruising, during takeoff and landing there is impact by the debris present
on the runway. An arm held at a specific height (constant potential energy) is
released. The arm hits the sample and breaks it. From the energy absorbed by the
sample, its impact strength is determined. The North American standard for Izod
Impact testing is ASTM D256. The results are expressed in energy lost per unit of
thickness (such as ft-lb/in or J/cm) at the notch. Alternatively, the results may be
reported as energy lost per unit cross-sectional area at the notch (J/m or ft-lb/in). In
Europe, ISO 180 methods are used and results are based only on the cross-sectional
area at the notch (J/m). The dimensions of a standard specimen for ASTM D256 are
4 x 12.7 x 3.2 mm (2.5" x 0.5" x 1/8"). The most common specimen thickness is 3.2
mm (0.125"), but the width can vary between 3.0 and 12.7 mm (0.118" and
0.500").The Izod impact test differs from the Charpy impact test in that the sample is

36

held in a cantilevered beam configuration as opposed to a three point bending

configuration. This test can also be used to determine the notch sensitivity [15].

Figure 3.8: The machine for Impact Test.

3.6.3 Hardness Test

Among the common test such as ball drop test, Vickers, Brinell test, and durometer
has been choose in this experiment. It is because the other method of testing is more
suitable for metal material. Durometer is a simple tool. Basically the durometer is a
precision dial indicator with a calibrated spring added to create a know preload on
the indentor. The Shore hardness (Durometer Hardness) is measured by determining
the depth of penetration of the indentor in the material being tested. This
measurement is then transmitted to liner scale in increments of 0 to 100, one
increment equaling to one hardness point. In this experiment, Durometer D (Figure
3.7) will be the standard of D 2240.

Figure 3.9: Shore Durometer D

37

References

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composites. Pages 1752-1767.

38

3. Waterman, Pamela J. April 2007. The Life of Composite Materials.

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of Bamboo and Polyvinylchloride (PVC). 2833

39

13. Dunky, M.. 1998. (18:2)Urea-formaldehyde (UF) adhesive resins for wood
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