Preferred Utilities Manufacturing Corp

Combustion Theory Boiler

Efficiency And Control

Preferred Utilities Manufacturing Corporation

31-35 South St. Danbury CT
T: (203) 743-6741 F: (203) 798-7313
www.preferred-mfg.com

Overview
Introduction
Combustion Basics
Efficiency Calculations
Control Strategy Advantages and
Disadvantages
Summary

Preferred Utilities Manufacturing Corp.

Over 80 Years of Combustion Experience

Custom Engineered Combustion Solutions
Package Burners for Residual Oil, Distillate Oil and Natural
Gas
Fuel Handling Systems for Residual Oil Burners
Fuel Handling Systems for Distillate Oil Burners
Diesel Engine Fuel Management Systems
Combustion Control Systems
Burner Management Systems
Data Acquisition Systems

Instrumentation & Control Products

DCS-III
Programmable Controller

Plant Wide Controller

PCC-III
Multiple Loop Controller
Draft Control

Operator Interface

JC-10D Process
Bargraph Display

PCC-III
Faceplate Display

SCADA/Flex
Distributed Control Station

LCD
Message Display

OIT10 Operator
Interface Terminal

Sensors

HD-A1 Tank Gauge

Leak Detector

Pressure
Sensor

Outdoor Air
Temperature Sensor

Tank Gauge
Level Sensor

ZP Oxygen Probe

PCC-300 EPA
Opacity Monitor

JC-30D
Opacity Monitor

Boiler Room Fire Safety

PCC-III Combustion Experience

Boiler Specific...

Operator Friendly
F(x) Characterizers with Learn Mode
Built In Boiler Efficiency
Constructed For Boiler Front Mounting
120 Vac Inputs for Direct BMS Interface
Triac Outputs to Drive Electric Actuators
Free Standard Combustion Blockware

There are many digital controller manufacturers,

but NONE have Preferreds in-depth and ongoing
combustion control experience.

UtilitySaverTM Burner Control

Fuel and Electrical Savings

The UtilitySaver
includes firing rate
control with both
oxygen trim and
variable speed fan
combustion air flow
control.
UtilitySaver fuel
and electrical
savings can pay for
the installed system
in two years or less.

BurnerMate Touch Screen

Fully Integrated Touch Screen

BurnerMate Touch Screen

DCS-III Controller

BurnerMate TS
Advanced
Communication

BurnerMate Touch Screen

Easy Operation

BurnerMate Touch Screen

Easy Setup

Combustion Basics
What is fuel made of?
What is air made of?
What happens when fuel is burned?
Where does the energy go?
What comes out the smoke stack?

Most Fuels are Hydrocarbons

Common fuels have typical analysis

can be used for most combustion calculations

especially for natural gas
also number 2 fuel oil

Residual oil can be approximated with a

typical fuel oil analysis
Wood, coal, waste require a case by case
chemical analysis for combustion calculations

Common Fuels Analysis

Typical Ultimate Analysis of Common Fuels
Percent by Weight
#2 Fuel Oil

#4 Fuel Oil

#6 Fuel Oil

Natural Gas

Coal

Wood

Hydrogen

12.6

11.8

9.7

23.5

5.0

5.7

Carbon

87.3

87.9

87.1

75.2

75.0

53.9

Nitrogen

0.02

0.1

0.5

1.3

1.5

25.3

Oxygen

---

---

1.5

---

6.7

13.1

Sulfur

0.1

0.2

0.3

---

2.3

trace

Ash

---

---

0.2

---

7.0

2.0

Water

---

---

.7

---

2.5

---

Composition of (Dry) Air

By Volume

20.95% Oxygen, O2

79.05% Nitrogen, N2

By Weight

23.14% Oxygen
76.86% Nitrogen

Can be up to 9% H2O by volume in Summer

Traces of Argon and CO2

Common Combustion Reactions

Neglecting H2O in Air
Neglecting NOx, Other minor reactions
Simplifying percentages:

4N2 + O2 + 2H2 2H2O + 4N2 + Heat

4N2 + O2 +

CO2 + 4N2 + Heat

4N2 + O2 +

SO2 + 4N2 + Heat

Common Combustion Reactions

For Methane

CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + Heat

16 + 64 44 + 36
Therefore:
#O2 Required = 64
# Fuel = 16
Therefore #O2/#Fuel =4/1 or 4

Boiler Efficiency and Control

Boiler efficiency is computed by losses
Understanding of efficiency calculations
helps in choosing the proper control strategy
Energy traps such as economizers can
provide a payback
Preferred Instruments has over 75 years of
combustion experience to help optimize
boiler efficiency

Boiler Efficiency by Losses

Conservation of Energy

Fuel energy in equals heat energy out

Energy leaves in steam or in losses
Efficiency = 100% minus all losses

Typical boiler efficiency is 80% to 85%

The remaining 15% to 20% is lost

Largest loss is a typical 15% stack loss
Radiation loss may be 3% at full input
Miscellaneous losses might be 1 to 2%

Boiler Energy Balance

Stack Losses

Latent heat of water vapor in stack

Fixed amount depending on hydrogen in fuel

About 5% of fuel input for fuel oil
About 9% of fuel input for natural gas
Assumes a non-condensing boiler (typical)

Sensible heat of stack gasses

Typically around 10% of fuel input

Increased mass flow and stack temperature
increase the loss

Radiation Loss
Generally a fixed BTU / hour heat loss
As a percentage, is greater at low fire
Depends on the boiler construction
Is generally about a 3% loss at high fire
Would be 12% loss at 25% of fuel input

Miscellaneous Losses

Consist of:

blow down losses

unburned fuel losses (carbon in ash or CO)

Generally on the order of one percent

Excess Air Required for Burners

Excess Air Required for Burners

Burner Fuel-Air Ratio
100
Air %

90

Oxygen %

80
70

Air %

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0

10

20

30

40

50
Fuel %

60

70

80

90

100

Excess Versus Deficient Air

Effects of Stack Temperature

Generally, stack temperature is:

Steam temperature plus 100 to 200 degrees F

Rule of thumb watertube-150, firetube-100F

A 100 degree increase in stack temperature

Higher for dirty boilers, higher loads and increased

excess air levels
Costs about 2.5% in energy losses
May mean the boiler needs serious maintenance

Economizers are useful on medium and high

pressure boilers as an energy trap

Efficiency Calculation Charts

Oxygen and Air Required for Gas

To release 1 million BTU with gas

42 lbs. of gas are burned

168 lbs. of oxygen are required no excess air
725 lbs. of combustion air
767 lbs. of stack gasses are produced

5% to 20% excess air is required by burner

Each additional 10% increase in excess air:

Adds 73 lbs. of stack gasses

Reduces efficiency by 1% to 1.5%

Cost of Inefficiency

The combined effects of extra excess air and the

resulting increase in stack temperature:

Could mean a 2% to 10% efficiency drop

Reducing this extra excess air saves fuel
Savings = (Fuel Cost)*[(1/old eff)-(1/new eff)]

For a facility with a 30,000 pph steam load

10% to 60% Extra Excess Air Represents From

$6,000 to $35,000 in potential savings per year
Running 20 hours, 300 days, $4.65 per MM Btu

Combustion Control Objectives

Maintain proper fuel to air ratio at all times

Too little air causes unburned fuel losses

Too much air causes excessive stack losses
Improper fuel air ratio can be DANGEROUS

Always keep fuel to air ratio SAFE

Interface with burner management for:

Purge
Low fire light off
Modulate fuel and air when safe to do so

Related and Interactive Loops

Feedwater Flow

feedwater is usually cooler than water in boiler

adding large amounts of water cools the boiler
cooling the boiler causes the firing rate to increase

Furnace Draft

changing pressure in furnace changes air flow

changed air flow upsets fuel to air ratio

Variations in Air Composition

Standard air has 0.0177 LB. O2 per FT3

Hot, humid air has less O2 per cubic ft

Dry, cold air has more O2 per cubic ft

20% less at 95% RH, 120OF, and 29.9 mm Hg

10% more at 0% RH, 32OF, and 30.5 mm Hg

Combustion controls must:

Adapt to changing air composition (O2 trim), or

Allow at least 20% extra excess air at standard
conditions

Control System Errors

Combustion control system can not perfectly regulate
fuel and oxygen flows. Therefore, extra excess air must
be supplied to the burner to account for control system
errors

Hysteresis
Flow transmitter can not measure fuel Btu flow rate (Btu /
hr)
Oxygen content per cubic foot of air changes with humidity,
temperature and pressure
Fuel flow for a given valve position varies with temperature
and pressure

Control System Errors

25%

Typical Combustion Control System "Errors"

(Expressed in % Excess Air Required)
20%

20%

15%

14% 14%

Jackshaft and Parallel

Positioning Type
Systems
Fully Metered Systems

10%

5%

5%

5%
2%

0%

2%

3%

2% 2%
0%

Burner
Requirments

Humidity

Draft Pressure

Fuel BTU/lb
Changes

Air
Temperature

2%
0%

Hysterisis

2%

2%

0%

0%

0%

Air Pressure

Fuel Pressure
Changes

Fuel
Temperature
Changes

Additional Errors Due To Jackshaft and Parallel

Poitioning Control Method

Control System Errors

For example a 600 BHP boiler, delivering 20kpph of 15 psi saturated steam has the
following additional operating cost due to excess combustion air:
Excess Air

Excess O2

Air Flow

Theoretical
Fuel flow

Lost BTU's
Up Stack

%
27%

%
6%

#/hr
20,300

#/HR
841

BTU
342,070

Fuel
Equivalent
to Lost
BTU's
#/hr
14.3

Total Fuel
Lost

Annualized
Additional Fuel
cost

%
1.7%

US$
$ 9,543

The fuel savings are calculated using a fuel cost of $4.65/MMBTU and a boiler operating
at full load for 20hrs/day & 300days/year. Excess air also causes additional forced draft
fan horsepower costs.

Combustion Control Strategies

Single Point Positioning (Jackshaft)

Parallel Positioning

Fuel and air are tied mechanically

Simple, low cost, safe, requires extra excess air
Fuel valve and air damper are positioned separately
Allows oxygen trim of air flow

Fully Metered

Fuel and air FLOW (not valve position) are controlled

Jackshaft Strategy
One actuator controls fuel and air via linkage. It is
assumed that a given position will always provide a
particular fuel flow and air flow.

All control errors affect this system. Typically, 20 - 50 %

extra excess air must be supplied to the burner to account
for control inaccuracies.
Oxygen trim systems can reduce the extra excess air to 10%
Suitable for firetube boilers and small watertube boilers. Used
when annual fuel expense is too small to justify a more
elaborate system.

Jackshaft Strategy
D ru m P re s s u re

STEAM
FT

100
FU EL V LV

ACK

D IS

ALARM
RUN

PV

SP

AUTO
M AN

AUTO
MA N

LO O P

REM
LO C

O U T

P C C - III
F IR IN G R A T E

F u e l A c tu a to r
O IL

G AS

Jackshaft Strategy
Advantages
Simplicity
Provides large turndown
Inexpensive

Disadvantages
Fuel valves and fan damper must be physically
close together
Changes in fuel or air pressure, temperature,
viscosity, density, humidity affect fuel-air ratio.
Only one fuel may be burned at a time.
Not applicable to multiple burners.
Not applicable to variable speed fan drives.
Oxygen Trim is difficult to apply, trim limit
prevents adequate correction

Parallel Positioning Strategy

Separate actuators are used to position fuel
and air final devices, flows are unknown. Fuel
to air ratio can be varied automatically

Cross Limiting is employed for safety and to prevent

combustibles or smoke during load changes. Cross
Limiting requires and accurate position feedback signal
from each actuator. A failure of either actuator or feedback
pot will force the air damper open and the fuel valve to
minimum position.
Many of the same applications, limitations and
improvements described in the Single Point Positioning
section also apply to Parallel Positioning

Parallel Positioning Strategy

Drum Pressure

STEAM

100

FT

100

FUEL VLV

AIR DAMPER

ACK

DIS

ACK

ALARM

ALARM

RUN

RUN

DIS

Air Actuator

PV

SP

OUT

AUTO
MAN

AUTO
MAN

AUTO
MAN

AUTO
MAN

LOOP

REM
LOC

LOOP

REM
LOC

PV

SP

OUT

PCC - III

PCC - III

FIRING RATE

AIR FLOW

Fuel Actuator
OIL

GAS

Parallel Positioning Strategy

Advantages

Disadvantages

Allows electronic characterization Changes in fuel or air pressure, temperature,

of fuel-air ratio
viscosity, density, humidity affect fuel-air

ratio.
Adapts to boilers with remote F.D.
fans and / or variable speed drives
Provides large turndown
Allows low fire changeover
between fuels
Oxygen trim is easy to accomplish

Only one fuel may be burned at a time.

Not applicable to multiple burners.
Position feed back is expensive for
pneumatic actuators
Oxygen Trim limit prevents adequate
correction

Fully Metered Strategy

Both the fuel flow and the combustion air flow are measured. Separate PID
controllers are used for both fuel and air flow control. Demand from a
Boiler Sub-master is used to develop both a fuel flow and air flow setpoint.

Fuel and Air Flow setpoints are Cross Limited using fuel and air flows.

Oxygen trim control logic is easily added as an option. Flue gas oxygen
is measured and compared against setpoint to continuously adjust (trim)
the fuel / air ratio. The excess air adjustment allows the boiler to operate
safely and reliably at reduced levels of excess air throughout the
operating range of the boiler. This reduction in excess air can result in
fuel savings of 2% to 4%. The flue gas excess oxygen setpoint is based
on boiler firing rate or an operator set value.

Fully Metered Strategy

F u e l G a s F lo w

D ru m P re s s u re

C o m b u s tio n A ir F lo w

F u e l O il F lo w

STEAM

100

100

FU EL VLV

A IR D A M P E R

ACK

D IS

ACK

A LARM

ALARM

RUN

RUN

FT

FT

D IS

A ir A c tu a to r

PV

FT

O IL
FT

G AS

SP

AUTO
M AN

AUTO
M AN

AUTO
M AN

AUTO
M AN

LO O P

REM
LO C

LO O P

REM
LO C

O U T

PV

SP

O U T

P C C - III

P C C - III

F IR IN G R A T E

A IR F L O W

F u e l A c tu a to r

Fully Metered Strategy

Advantages

Disadvantages

Corrects for control valve,

damper drive and pressure
regulator Hysteresis

Installation is more costly.

Compensates for flow

variations.

With no oxygen trim.For all types of

flow meters, the fuel Btu value and air
oxygen content must be assumed.

Applicable to multiple burners.

Allows simultaneous firing of
oil and gas.

Jackshaft
Positioning
Application Specifics
Dual Fuel Firing
Low-fire changeover only
Full Load Simultaneous
Firing
Single/Multiple Burners
Single Burner
Multiple Burners
Furnace Conditions
Pressurized
Balanced Draft
(FD & ID Fans are used)
Air Heater Type
Ljungstrom (Rotary)
Tubular
Stack Options
Independent
Common & slight effect
on furnace pressure
Common & significant
effect on furnace
pressure
F.D. Fan Location
Integral with windbox
Remote
Air Composition
Constant
Variable but slight
Variable & significant
Fuel Composition
Clean
Variations
Boiler Performance
Monitoring
Fuel Consumption
Efficiency by
Losses Method
Efficiency by
Input - Output Method

Parallel
Positioning

Fully Metered

Option
Option
Option
Not Recommended Not Recommended Option
Option
Option
Option
Not Recommended Not Recommended Option
Option
Option
Option
Not Recommended Not Recommended Option
Not Recommended Not Recommended Option
Option
Option
Option
Option
Option

Option
Option

Option
Option

Not Recommended Not Recommended Option

Option
Option
Not Recommended Option

Option
Option

Option
Option
Option
Option
Option
Option
Not Recommended Not Recommended Option
Option
Option
Option
Not Recommended Not Recommended Option
NO
YES

NO
Option

YES
YES

NO

NO

Option

Comparison

Other Control Loops that Impact

Control of Fuel and
Draft Control

Feedwater Control

Draft Control
Changing furnace draft can change air flow
Changed air flow effects efficiency
Changed air flow effects emissions
Draft Control keeps furnace pressure constant
Draft Control becomes extremely important:

When multiple boilers share a stack

Stack is very high
Induced FGR is used for NOx control

Draft Control Schematic

Types of Draft Control

Self contained units such as Preferred JC-20

Sequencing closes damper when boiler is off

Saves energy
Draft sensing diaphragm and logic in one unit

Micro-processor controllers for tighter

control

Feedforward based on firing rate

True PID control of furnace draft

Feedwater Control

Benefits of stable water level control

high and low water trips are avoided

water carryover in steam is minimized
steam pressure stays more nearly constant

Swinging feedwater flow can:

cause pressure swings

cause firing rate to hunt
create extra wear and tear on valves and linkage
waste fuel

Simple Feedwater Control Strategies

On-off control

typically used on small firetube units

Single Element Feedwater Control

opening of valve is influenced by change in level

typical of older thermo-hydraulic systems
thermo-hydraulic systems are proportional only
use of PID controller can add reset
suitable for steady loads

Shrink and Swell

Momentary drum level upsets in water tube
boilers when the steam load swings
Increase in load causes swell:

drops pressure in boiler

increases size of steam bubbles in watertubes
causes more water to flash to steam
causes the actual level in the drum to rise while the
total amount of water actually drops
single element will close the valve, not open it

Shrink and Swell, cont.

Drop in load causes:

pressure to rise
some steam to condense
size of remaining bubbles to shrink
water level in drum drops
actual amount of water might be rising

Controls reduce impact of shrink and swell

controls cant compensate for poor design or

condition of boiler

Two Element Feedwater Control

Control on water level and steam flow

drop in level increases valve opening

rise in steam flow increases valve opening
reduces impact of shrink and swell
better for swinging loads

PID control with steam flow feed-forward

which can be characterized to match the
valve trim
Requires a steady feedwater supply pressure

Two Element Feedwater Control

Three Element Feedwater Control

Water level, steam flow and feedwater
determine controller output signal
Two PID loops in cascade configuration:

hold drum level at setpoint

hold feedwater flow to match steam flow

Very stable level control

Keeps water inventory constant during
periods of shrink and swell

Three Element Feedwater

Auxiliary Controller Functions

Calculation of pressure compensated steam
flow
Compensation of drum level signal for
changing water density in steam drum
Totalization of steam flow
Totalization of feedwater flow
Alarms for high and low water levels

Data Acquisition for Combustion

Allows remote operation of controllers
Reduces manpower requirements in plant
Provides historical data

Trend data to replace strip or circular charts

Reports to document plant operation

Can compare energy usage per degree day

From year to year

From building to building
Allows energy wasting trends to be spotted

New Advances in Combustion Control

These features offers help firing systems meet
emissions goals.

Combustrol's fully metered combustion control strategy includes

differential cross limiting of fuel and air flows. This feature adds an
addition level of protection to the conventional air flow and fuel flow
cross limiting combustion control scheme by preventing the air fuel ratio
from becoming too air rich as well as too fuel rich.
To enable improved burner turndown, Combustrol provides automatic
switching to positioning control of the air control damper whenever the
firing rate of the unit is below the turndown range of the air flow
transmitter.
For rapid boiler load response, the air flow control output is the sum of
the air flow controller output and an air flow demand feedfoward index.

Saving Fuel with Combustion Control

Oxygen Trim of air flow

Variable speed drive of combustion air fan

Applicable to any control strategy

Should be applied to any large boiler
Oxygen readout is valuable even if trim is
impractical
Can generate considerable horsepower savings
Applicable to any control strategy

Economic Boiler Dispatch

Oxygen Trim Strategies

Mechanical trim devices for single point

positioning

Can vary the air damper position

Can vary the fuel pressure

Biasing the air damper actuator position for

parallel positioning control
Changing the fuel to air ratio in metering
systems
Changing the fan speed in systems with VFD

Oxygen Trim for Jackshaft System

Oxygen Trim Cautions

Replace worn dampers and linkage FIRST!
Use only proven analyzers for the signal
Use only proven controllers and control
strategies to accomplish the trim
Budget calibration and probe replacement.

Variable Speed Fan Drives

Applicable to parallel positioning or
metering control strategies
Can generate considerable electricity savings

For a 40,000 pph boiler running at 50% load:

Savings could be up to $12,000 per year
R.O.I. could be as low as 1.5 years

Might be a candidate for a utility company

rebate

Summary
Combustion control is a specialty field
Each application has unique requirements
Each system should balance:

efficiency of operation
installed cost
safety and reliability

Preferred Instruments is leader in the field

of special combustion control systems

Preferred Utilities Manufacturing Corp

For further information, contact...

Preferred Utilities Manufacturing Corporation

31-35 South Street Danbury CT
T: (203) 743-6741 F: (203) 798-7313
www.preferred-mfg.com