UCE

University
of

Central
England
in

Birmingham

EMPLOYABILITY:
DEVELOPINGTHERELATIONSHIP
BETWEENHIGHEREDUCATION
ANDEMPLOYMENT

LEEHARVEY

Openingpresentationatthe
FifthQualityinHigherEducation24HourSeminar

ScarmanHouse,WarwickUniversity,
28October,1999.

Centre
for

Research
into

Quality

2FifthQHE24HourSeminar

Employability

www.uce.ac.uk/crq

LeeHarvey

CentreforResearchintoQuality

Employability

FifthQHE24HourSeminar3

Introduction
Thereisgrowingpressureonhighereducationtodeveloptherelationshipbetweenthe
academyandemployment.However,thisdoesnotmeanthatinproducingwork
readygraduates,highereducationshouldchangeitsfocustotraining.
Sincethelate1980s,therehas,inmanycountries,beenincreasingpressureonhigher
educationtocontributedirectlytonationaleconomicregenerationandgrowth(Ball,
1989,1990).Increasingly,nationalandinternationalassessmentsoftheroleand
purposesofeducationindicateaneedforhighereducationtocontributesignificantly
tomeetingtheneedsoftheeconomy(DES,1987;EC,1991).
Amajorfactorbehindthispressurehasbeenthegrowingconcern,withinindividual
economiesandwithintheEuropeanUnionasawhole,aboutfuturecompetitiveness.
Forexample,theIndustrialResearchandDevelopmentAdvisoryCommittee
(IRDAC,1990)oftheEuropeanCommissionarguedthattheoutputofeducationand
trainingsystems(including,inparticular,highereducation)intermsofbothquantity
andqualityofskillsatalllevels,istheprimedeterminantofacountryslevelof
industrialproductivityandhencecompetitiveness.
Thisviewwas,forexample,recentlyendorsedbyanExpertGroupappointedbythe
IrishGovernment:Ahighlyskilledandmotivatedworkforceisessentialto
remaininggloballycompetitive(EG,1998)andbytheDepartmentforEducationand
Employment(DfEE)andtheCommitteeofViceChancellorsandPrincipals(CVCP)
intheUK:ItisbecominggenerallybelievedthatimprovedskillstrainingfortheUK
workforcewouldleadtoincreasedcompetitiveness(CVCP/DfEE/HEQE,1998a,p.
2).Furthermore,theDfEEestimatesthatthepublicrateofreturnonstateinvestment
inhighereducationis79%,andtheprivaterateofreturntograduatesthemselvesis
between1117%(CVCP/DfEE/HEQE,1998a,p.2).
RecentUKresearchhasalsospecificallyarguedthatsmallbusinessesbenefitfrom
employinggraduates.Astudyof1100smallbusinessimprovementprojects,250
smallfirmsand56casestudiesofsuccessfulsmallbusinessesinMerseysideshowed
thatgraduatesenhancedsmallbusinesses.BenefitsincludedimprovementstoIT
systems,enhancementofproductionprocesses,developmentofnewproducts,
updatingofadministrationsystems,expansionofclientbasesand,mostimportant,
managementsupportthatfreesupownerstime.Itwasestimatedthat70%of
graduateimpactisindirectfreeinguptimeallowingownerstofocuson
improvingthebusinessperformance(GEU,1988).Withthatinmind,ownersof
successfulsmallbusinessesperceivedgraduatesasmediumratherthanshortterm
investmentandgivethemopportunitytodeveloporgrowthejob.
ResearchundertakenattheCentreforResearchintoQualityduringthe1990s
(Harvey,BurrowsandGreen,1992;Burrows,HarveyandGreen,1992;Harveywith
Green,1994,Harvey,MoonandGeall,1997)highlightedthewaysinwhichthis
pressureonhighereducationisreflectedintheexpectationsthatemployershaveof
graduates.TheResearch,whichfeddirectlyintotheNationalCommitteeofInquiry
LeeHarvey

CentreforResearchintoQuality

4FifthQHE24HourSeminar

Employability

intoHigherEducation,ChairedbyLordDearing(NCIHE,1997),emphasised,among
otherthings,theeffectivenessofworkexperience.
AttheheartoftheDearingReportistheassertionthattheprimarypurposeofhigher
educationistopreparestudentsfortheworldofwork.FollowingDearing,therehas
beengrowingpressurefromgovernmentandgovernmentagenciestoensurebetter
linksbetweenhighereducationandemployers.Forexample,arecentjointCVCPand
DfEEReportnotedthat:
Employers and employerled organisations, as consumers of graduates,
shouldbeimportantinfluencesonthecontextandcontentofemployability
skills training programmes. As recommended by Dearing, HEIs should
review the extent and nature of their existing links with employers and
employerorganisationssoastoimprovetheinterfaceandtoenhancethe
responsivenessoftheirinstitutionstoemployerneeds.Thereviewwillneed
to consider how the institution will interact externally with employers,
employerorganisationsandotheragencies;itwillalsoneedtolookatthe
extenttowhichpartnershipswithemployerscanbeenhancedanddeveloped.
(CVCP/DfEE/HEQE,1998a,p.10)
However,governmentpolicyintheUKtoenhanceemployabilityofgraduatesispart
ofawiderstrategytoextendtheskillbaseintheUK.Inearly1998,theSecretaryof
StateforEducationandEmploymentappointedaSkillsTaskForce(STF)toadvise
onthedevelopmentofaNationalSkillsAgenda.Thispresumescurrentskills
shortagesandgapsinthelabourforce.ThefirsttaskoftheSTFistoidentify
shortagesalongwithstrategiestoovercomethem.AlthoughtheSTFwillnotreport
untiltheendof1999,aconsultativedocumentTowardsaNationalSkillsAgenda
(Sept.1998)emphasisesthatpartnershipiskey:partnershipsbetweenemployers,
individuals,centralandlocalgovernment,educationalestablishments,voluntary
sector,TrainingEnterpriseCouncils(TECs)NationalTrainingOrganisations(NTOs)
andtheEuropeanUnion.Themainobjectivesareto:
equipthoseatriskofexclusionwithskillsneededespeciallyatNVQlevel2(A
level);
promoteskillsbeyondlevel2;
helpemployersidentifytheirownskillsneedsandtoadapttheirtraining
accordingly;
provideindividualswithgoodinformationandguidanceandencouragingsuppliers
ofeducationandtrainingtoberesponsivetotheirneeds.
Aspartofthis,theUniversityforIndustryistobelaunchedin2000.Itwill,ineffect,
beabrokeringagencydesignedtoadvancetheseaimsthehubofabrandnew
learningnetwork.
Lockedintothisisaproposedfurtherexpansioninhighereducationofbothparttime
andfulltimeprovision(theformersupportedinpartbyemployers).Alongwiththis
expansionisagrowingfocusonmakinggraduatesworkready:
LeeHarvey

CentreforResearchintoQuality

Employability

FifthQHE24HourSeminar5

TheGovernmenthasendorsedtheviewoftheDearingCommitteeofInquiry
HigherEducationintheLearningSocietyJuly1997,thatenhancingthe
employabilityofgraduatesisakeytaskforhighereducation.(DfEE,1999,
p.40)
TheBritishGovernmentmadeitclearin1997withthepublicationoftheGraduate
ApprenticeshipFramework(DfEE,1997)thatitwantedaclearerlinkbetween
graduatesandtheworld.ItisnowpilotingGraduateApprenticeshipsinuptoeight
businesssectors.
Furthermore,thereisanintentiontolinksomefundingforhighereducationintheUK
toemployability.ThisisajointExchequerandDfEEinitiativeendorsedat
ministeriallevelandcivilservantsarecurrentlyworkingonwaysofimplementing
thisthroughthedevelopmentofanemployabilityperformanceindicator.
Inanticipationofsuchmoves,andinthewakeoftheassessmentofskillshortagesin
Wales,theHigherEducationFundingCouncilforWales(HEFCW,1999)recently
undertookapilotauditofallitshighereducationinstitutionstodiscoverthenature
andextentoftheemployabilityskillsdevelopmentofferedbyWelshinstitutions.

Whatisemployability?
Raisingthequestionofwhatisemployabilityreflectsthebeginningofthedebate
aboutqualityinhighereducationatthestartofthe1990s.Therewasmuchdebate
aboutwhatdowemeanbyquality?.Canwedefineit?.Ordowejustknowit
whenweseeit?.Itwas,forexample,alongtimebeforequalityandstandardswere
disentangled.Muchtimewasalsospenttryingtoadaptindustrialmodelstohigher
education;debatingwhetherISO9000waspartof,orseparatefrom,TQM.
Employabilityislikelytogothroughthesameprocesses.Employersviewswillbe
wholeheartedlyembracedbydisciples,asTQMwasinsomequartersofhigher
education.Mostly,employersandacademicswilltalkpasteachotherandtherewill
beendlessdebatesaboutappropriatelanguage.Employabilityprocesseswillbe
confusedwithoutcomes.Employabilitylinkedlearningwillbesubjecttocrude
measuresofoutcome,viz.firstdestinationreturns.Thefollowingisaworking
definitionofemployability.
Employability of a graduate is the propensity of the graduate to exhibit
attributesthatemployersanticipatewillbenecessaryforthefutureeffective
functioningoftheirorganisation.
Theimplicationisthat:
employabilityrelatestoindividualsseekingwork;
employershaveanideaofwhatarenecessaryattributes;
desirabilityislinkedtofuturerequirements;
employershavemechanismsfordeterminingthatgraduatesexhibitappropriate
attributes.

LeeHarvey

CentreforResearchintoQuality

6FifthQHE24HourSeminar

Employability

Thisdefinitiondoesnotspecifythatgraduatesneedtoexhibitgraduateattributesnor
thattheyarerecruitedintograduatejobs.Thisisbecause:
(a)
graduatesenteremploymentatavarietyoflevels;
(b)
whatconstitutesagraduatejobisnolongerclearlyspecified.
Indeed,theAssociationofGraduateRecruitersnowdefinesagraduatejobasanyjob
thatagraduatedoes.Thisisnotafatuousresponsetoachangingsituationbutone
thatreflectsthediversityofgraduateemployment.
Thereisplentyofevidencethatgraduates,infact,takeonjobsthatmaynot
necessarilyhavebeenseenasgraduatejobsandgrowthem.Thatis,themundane
jobtakenbythegraduateevolvestobecomefarmoreimportantandmorefar
reachingandhaveagreaterimpactonthefunctioningoftheorganisationthanwas
anticipated.

Whatarethedesirableattributes?
Overthelasttwentyyearstherehasbeenconsiderableresearchonthenecessaryor
desirableattributesofgraduates.Therearemanylistsofattributesandagooddegree
ofconvergence.Thecontextinwhichassertionsaremadeaboutgraduateattributesis
therapidlychangingorganisation.
Mostorganisationsarecharacterisedbyapresumptionthatchangeisheretostayand
havebeenafffectedbysignificantreorganisationofonesortoranother:downsizing,
delayeringandflexiblecontractualarrangements.Thismeansthat,forgraduates,
thereisanuncleargraduatepromotionladder,farmoreprojectorientedteam
working,aconsequentneedtobeabletointeractwithawiderangeofpersonnelanda
lessclearchainofresponsibility.Ontopofthatgraduatesfaceawiderangeofwork
requirementsandgreaterworkload,longerworkinghoursandmoreresponsibility
thaninthepast.Inshort,graduatesneedtobeflexibleandadaptable.
Organisationsarethuslookingmuchfurtherthandegreesubjectandclassification
whenrecruiting.
thefactthattheyhavethatdegreebasicallyconfirmstheyarepeoplewho
thinkinacertainwayandhavecertainabilities,sothenextstageisanumber
ofkeycompetencies.
(GraduatesWork:personnelmanager,multinationalfoodmanufacturer)
Whatplaysaroleinthefinaldecisionis,arewetalkingaboutpeoplewho
havedonesomethingextraaswell,whetheritisextracurricularactivitiesor
whetheritisworkexperience,orclimbingMountEverest.Somethingthat
distinguishes them and therefore can give you some clue about drive,
ambition,commercialawarenessorwhatever.
(GraduatesWork:seniorexecutive,largebrewingcompany)
LeeHarvey

CentreforResearchintoQuality

Employability

FifthQHE24HourSeminar7

Increasingly,graduateattributesaremoreimportantintherecruitmentprocessthan
thegraduatesdegreesubject.UnitedKingdomemployersareattheforefrontofany
disciplinerecruitment.Thatis,themajorityofvacanciesfilledbygraduatesdonot
requiresomeonefromaspecificdiscipline.Onthecontrary,employersrecruitingin
theUKoftenpositivelyseekoutgraduatesfromdisciplinesotherthanthatwhich
wouldappeartoberelevant.Forexample,manylargeaccountancyandmanagement
consultantfirmsseekhistory,classics,socialscienceorphysicsgraduatesratherthan
accountants.SoftwarefirmsarenotlookingforcomputingspecialiststheyneedIT
literatepeoplewhocancommunicateandworkinteams.
Subjectspecificknowledgeisnottheprimarydeterminantofsuitabilityfor
employmentinmostgraduaterecruitment,themainexceptionsbeingmedicineand
engineering.Graduaterecruiterswantaraftofotherskillsinadditiontoafirstdegree
andtheseoverridethedegreespecialisminmanyareas(CBI,1994,1995;AGR,
1995;CIHE,1996;Hansen,1998).Similarly,Fisher(1998),commentingon
Denmark,notedthatemployers,arealsobecominglessconcernedaboutthefieldof
study.Whattheywantarebrightgraduatesandtheytendtousegrades,ratherthan
subjectarea,asafirstfilter.Moreandmoreemployersaretakingexotics,those
graduateswithdegreesubjectsnotapparentlylinkedtothecorebusiness.
Idontcare whatyoudidyourdegreein,Ireally dont.Ifyouwantan
engineeryouwantanengineer,ifsomebodyisgoingtodesignavehicle,
thenIdontwantsomebodywhohasgotadegreeinsociology.Butevenin
areaslikefinance,Idontnecessarilywantafinancetrainedhumanbeing.It
isasmuch,ifnotmore,aboutpersonaltraits,personaldriveandambition.
Youcouldbemanagingdirectorofthiscompanywithadegreeinsociology.
(GraduatesWork:directorcommercialoperations,largevehiclemanufacturer)
Wehavedonesomeresearch,andinthelongtermnonlawyersaremore
successfulthanlawyers.Wetakeaboutathirdnonlawandtwothirdslaw,
becauseforawholevarietyofreasonswehavetotrainnonlawyersfora
yearmore,soitcostsussignificantlymore.Wedontcarewheretheycome
fromorwhattheirdisciplineisaslongastheyarethebest.
(GraduatesWork:headofpersonnel,largelawfirm)
Employersandtheirrepresentativesconsistentlysaythat,tosucceedatwork,most
peopleinfuturemustdeveloparangeofpersonalandintellectualattributesbeyond
thosetraditionallymadeexplicitinprogrammesofstudyinhighereducation
institutions.
Wedolookforcommunicationskills.Welookforsomeonewhoisateam
player.Welookforsomeonewhohasgottheabilitytoputforwardideas
persuasively.Weliketorecruitpeoplewhohavegoodsocialskills,theyare
abletorelatetootherpeoplewell.Linkedinwiththatispersonalityandalso
theabilitytocopewithstress.
(GraduatesWork:partner,largelawfirm)

LeeHarvey

CentreforResearchintoQuality

8FifthQHE24HourSeminar

Employability

Atroot,employerswantinteractiveandpersonalattributes.Thecoreinteractive
attributesarecommunication,teamworkandinterpersonalskills.Thesearenecessary
tocommunicate,formallyandinformally,withawiderangeofpeoplebothinternal
andexternaltotheorganisation;torelateto,andfeelcomfortablewith,peopleatall
levelsintheorganisationaswellasarangeofexternalstakeholders,tobeableto
makeandmaintainrelationshipsascircumstanceschange;workeffectivelyinteams,
oftenmorethanoneteamatonce,andtobeabletoreadjustrolesfromoneproject
situationtoanotherinanevershiftingworksituation.
Wedolookforcommunicationskills.Welookforsomeonewhoisateam
player.Welookforsomeonewhohasgottheabilitytoputforwardideas
persuasively.Weliketorecruitpeoplewhohavegoodsocialskills,theyare
abletorelatetootherpeoplewell.Linkedinwiththatispersonalityandalso
theabilitytocopewithstress.
(GraduatesWork:Partner,largelawfirm)
Personalattributesareattitudesandabilitiesincludingintellect,knowledge(insome
cases)willingnessandabilitytolearnandcontinuelearning,abilitytofindthingsout,
willingnesstotakerisksandshowinitiative,flexibilityandadaptabilitytorespond,
preemptandultimatelyleadchange;andselfskillsuchasselfmotivation,self
confidence,selfmanagementandselfpromotion.Thesepersonalattributesare
importanttoallowgraduatestofitintotheworkculture,dothejob,developideas,
takeinitiativeandresponsibilityandultimatelyhelporganisationsdealwithchange
(Harvey,MoonandGeall,1997).
Ononelevelthesetofspecifiedskillshasnotchangedgreatlyforaquarterofa
century:communicationskills,numeracy,selfconfidenceandselfdiscipline,
problemsolving,analysisandinterpersonalskillsfeaturedalongsideknowledgeand
intelligenceinorganisationalgraduatespecificationsinthe1970s(Kelsall,Poole,and
Kuhn,1972).
Technologicalandorganisationalchangesover25yearshaveaddedICTskills,
teamworking,flexibility,adaptability.Furthermore,problemsolvinghasbecome
creativeproblemsolvingandrisktakinghasbecomeakeyattribute.Ontheother
hand,thereismuchlessemphasisonknowledgeandfarmoreonwillingnessto
continuelearning.

Measuringemployability?
Howdowemeasureemployability?Thereisanattempttomovemuchmorequickly
tooperationalisingtheconceptofemployabilitythanwasthecasewithquality.
Debatesaboutemployabilityseemalreadytorevolvearoundachievementof(full
time)employment(ofanacceptabletypewithinaspecifiedtimeaftergraduation).
However,thisisprecipitous.Measurementistheendresultofaprocessof
operationalisingaconcept.Anymeasurementisonlyasgoodasitsoperationalisation.

LeeHarvey

CentreforResearchintoQuality

Employability

FifthQHE24HourSeminar9

Operationalisationistheprocessofgoingfromatheoreticalconcepttoameasurable
index(HarveyandMacDonald,1993).Thestagesofoperationalisationare:

Definethetheoreticalconcept.
Breakitdownintodimensionsthatcoverthemeaningoftheconcept.
Identifyarangeofindicatorsforeachdimension.
Selectoneormoreindicatorsforeachdimension.
Designinstrumentstocollectinformationoneachindicator.
Decidewhethertohaveamultidimensionalsetofindicators,anarrayofindicesor
asingleindex.
Whereappropriate,combineindicatorsintoanindex.
Toexplorewhatthismeans,considertwoalternatives(Table1).
Athirdalternativemightdefineemployabilityonthebasisoftheirjobsatisfaction.
Whichitselfmaybelinkedtoanarrayoffactors,differentlyweightedforeach
individual.Inshort,howemployabilityisdefinedwilldetermineits
operationalisation.
Theexposition,sofar,hasfocusedontheemployabilityofthegraduate.Thisis
deliberatebecauseitmakesnosensetotalkabouttheemployabilityofaninstitution.
Allthatitispossibletodoistoexplorehoweffectivetheinstitutionisindeveloping
theemployabilityofitsstudents.Howthatisjudgeddependsonhowwedefineand
operationalisethenotionofgraduateemployability.However,thequestionremains,
hasanyofthisgotanythingtodowithhighereducation?
Table1:Exampleofalternativeoperationalisationsofemployability
Alternative
No.1
No2
Stage1:Theoretical
Employabilityistheability Employabilityisthe
definition
ofgraduatestogetajob.
propensityofthegraduate
toexhibitattributesthat
employersanticipatewill
benecessaryforthefuture
effectivefunctioningof
theirorganisation.
Stage2:Dimensions

E.g.
Natureofemployment
Timeaftergraduation
Income
Discipline

Rangeofattributes:
teamworking
communication
risktaking...

Stage3:Indicators

E.g. Natureof
employment:
Isitlinkedtodegree
subject?
Doesitinvolvegraduate
skills?

E.g. teamworking:
experienceofworkingin
teams
experienceofleading
teams
abilitytoplaydifferent

LeeHarvey

CentreforResearchintoQuality

10FifthQHE24HourSeminar

Employability

Doesithavescopetobe
grown?

rolesindifferentteams
simultaneously

Highereducationthroughitsresearch,scholarshipandteachingprimarilydevelops
knowledge,transfersitandenablesotherstouse,andfurtherdevelop,knowledge.
Manyinhighereducationthusconsiderthelimitsofhighereducationtobethe
disseminationofknowledge(tostakeholders,whichusuallymeanstostudentsand
peersworkinginthediscipline)andtheenablingofstudentstohandletheinformation
viathedevelopmentofhigherlevelintellectualabilities,viz.analysis,synthesis,
critique,inference,extrapolation.Howthismesheswiththeworldofworkisnotthe
majorissueformanyacademics.
Indeed,forsome,theideathatacademiashouldrespondtoitsprimarystakeholderis
anunwelcomeprospect:
Doestheuniversityhavetomeettheexpectationsofstudentsoristheidea
thatthestudentsgrowtofittheexpectationstheuniversityhasofthem?
(Evans,1999,p.10)
So,whateverdefinitionofemployability(ofthegraduate)isadoptedrequiresthatwe
addressthequestionastowhetherthisisapersonalendeavourofthegraduateor
somethinglinkeddirectlytotheinstitution.Isemployabilitysolelyaresultofthe
individualmakingthemostofthehighereducationexperienceandextracurricular
activities?(Figure1).Or,doestheHEIhaveanyroleinthis?
Whateverroletheinstitutionisassumedtoplay,itisunwisetoassumeacausallink
betweentheefforts(orlackofeffort)ofahighereducationinstitutionandtheextent
andtypeofemploymentoftheirgraduates.
Figure1:Individualemployability

Graduate

employability

Employment
Itisabigsteptosomehowtakethisbacktomeasuringtheemployability
effectivenessoftheinstitution(Figure2).

Figure2:Employabilityeffectivenessoftheinstitution

LeeHarvey

CentreforResearchintoQuality

Employability

FifthQHE24HourSeminar11

HEI

employability
development
opportunities

.
.
.

Graduate

employability

Employment
Anemployabilityperformanceindicator
Anemployabilityperformanceindicatorofaninstitutionisthusanindicatorofthe
effectivenessoftheinstitutionindevelopingemployablegraduates.Ifsuchan
indicatorisbasedontheemploymentofgraduatesthenitassumessomekindof
causallink.However,thisisfarfromasimplecausalrelationship.Tomakeacausal
linkimpliesthatthehighereducationinstitutionshouldbeabletoprovidegraduates
withsomesortofpackageofattributesthatmesheswithwhatanemployerislooking
for.
Thatalsopresumesthatgraduaterecruitmentisarationalactivity.However,despite
theconvergenceamongstemployersabouttheattributestheyseek,thegraduate
recruitmentprocessofeachorganisationinpracticeisidiosyncratic,prejudgmental,
restrictive,andattimesbizarre(Harvey,MoonandGeall,1997).
Thus,itisnotappropriatetoassessaninstitutionseffortstoprovidestudentswith
employabilityskillsonthebasisoftherecruitmentactivitiesofemployersoverwhich
thehighereducationinstitutionhasnocontrol.Inshort,employmentratesof
graduatesisnoindicatoratalloftheemployabilityskilldevelopmentactivitiesofthe
highereducationinstitution.
Someinstitutionshavegoodgraduateemploymentratesbecauseoftheirreputation
butthatmayhavemoretodowithemployersperceptionsthatthebeststudentsgo
totheinstitutionratherthanperceptionsabouthowwellstudentsaredevelopedat
them.Someinstitutionshavegoodemploymentratesbecausetheyspecialiseinareas
LeeHarvey

CentreforResearchintoQuality

12FifthQHE24HourSeminar

Employability

thathavegoodratesanyway,suchaspharmacy,computerscience,maths,optometry.
Clearly,employmentratesaredisciplinespecific.
Therearealsodisciplinedifferencesintimelagstoemployment.Furthermore,there
aredisciplinedifferencesinthetypeofjobthatisdesirable.Inartanddesign,for
example,almostathirdofgraduatesundertakesomeformofselfemploymentforat
leastpartoftheirtime(thisfarmorethaninanyotherdisciplinearea).Someofthis
representsthepinnacleofadesirablejob,someofitisoutofnecessitybecauseofthe
natureofthedesignindustry.However,thisisnoteasilyidentifiedinsuchthingsas
FirstDestinationReturns.
Tostartwithaviewthatanemployabilityperformanceindicatorshouldbebasedon
FirstDestinationReturnssimplybecausetheyareavailablewouldbeunfortunate.
Whatmightbegainedbywhatappearsarelativelysimplemeasurewouldbeloston
threefronts:
lackofcausalchainbetweenHEIeffortsandemployment;
lackofcredibilitycrudeanddiscriminatorymeasure(evenifitwasmade
disciplinespecificandafteranappropriatetimelagofatleastoneyear);
lackofencouragementtocontinueemployabilityskilldevelopmentifrecognition
(andincentive)followsemploymentratesandthusfavoursthosewhorelyon
reputationandareprobablyalreadyamongthebestresourcedinstitutions.
Onthecontrary,arationalapproachtoanemployabilityperformanceindicatoris
needed.First,thereisaneedtoagreeatheoreticaldefinitionofemployability.
Second,itisnecessarytogothroughtheappropriatestagesofoperationalisingthe
concept.Theoutcomewillbequitedifferentdependingontheinitialdefinition.
Employabilitymightbeoperationalisedasagraduateprofileoritmightbe
operationalisedasachievedemploymentor,possibly,jobsatisfaction.
Third,aperformanceindicatorforemployabilitydevelopmentoftheinstitutionmust
followthemeasurementofemployabilityoftheindividual.So,forexample,ifthe
employabilityoftheindividualisoperationalisedintermsofaanattributeprofile,
thentheperformanceindicatoroftheemployabilitydevelopmentofaninstitution
wouldbebasedonanauditoftheemployabilitydevelopmentopportunitiesoffered
bytheinstitution(SeeattachedEmployabilityAuditToolkit,(Harvey,1999a)asan
example).Suchanauditwouldincludeidentifyingtheworkexperienceopportunities
andtheattributedevelopmentopportunitiesexplicitlyembeddedinthecurriculum.
Fourth,thecausallinkbetweentheperformanceoftheinstitutionandthe
achievementofthestudentmustnotbepresupposed.Students,forexample,achieve
employabilityattributesbothasaresultoftheirhighereducationandirrespectiveof
(or,even,despite)theirhighereducation.Studentsmaygetajobasaresultofhaving
adegreeinaspecificsubjectfromaspecificinstitution,orbecausetheyhaveanarray
ofdesirableattributes,orbecausetheyhavecontacts,ortheywereintherightplaceat
therighttime,ortheirfacefitsorformanyotherreasons.Howmuchofthisisdueto
theeffortsofthehighereducationinstitutionisdebatable.
LeeHarvey

CentreforResearchintoQuality

Employability

FifthQHE24HourSeminar13

Learning
Thewaytounlockthispotentialconundrumistogobacktofirstprinciples.Thetwo
keyreasonsfortheexpansionofhighereducationinEuropeistoimprovetheskills
stockandprovidepeoplewiththeattributesneededtobecriticallifelonglearners.
Lifelonglearninggoesbeyondasinglefocusonaneducatedworkforce:

Future economic prosperity, social and political cohesion and the

achievement of genuinely democratic societies with full participation, all
dependonawelleducatedandtrainedpopulation.
(Alexander,1997,p.169)
Assuch,itisaviewcompatiblewithaphilosophyoftransformativelearning.In
effect,then,achievingajobwithinsixmonthsofgraduationismerelyasymptom,
andamisleadingone,ofamuchmoreimportantdevelopment:theenhancementand
empoweringofthelearner(Harvey,1999b).
Thusemployabilityisnotaboutgettinggraduatesintojobs.Itisnotevenabout
deliveringemployabilityskillsinsomegenericsense.Ratheritisaboutdeveloping
criticallifelonglearnersandemployabilityissubsumedasasubsetwithinthat.So
thefocusneedstobeonempoweringstudentstobecomecriticallearners.
Students,areempoweredbydevelopingtheircritical,reflectiveandtransformative
abilities.Thisrequiresanapproachtoteachingandlearningthatgoesbeyond
requiringstudentstolearnabodyofknowledgeandbeabletoapplyitanalytically.
AnneBrockbandandIanMcGill(1998,p.214)arguethatfacilitationoflearning
ratherthanteachingisnecessarytoencouragecriticallyreflectivelearning.
Developingacriticalapproachtolearningisaboutchallengingpreconceptions,both
thoseofthelearnerandtheteacher.Itisaboutbeingabletodevelopopinionsandbe
abletojustifythem,tobeabletothinkaboutknowledgeasaprocessnotsomething
theytentativelyapproachandselectivelyappropriate.Acriticalapproachisabout
studentshavingtheconfidencetoassessanddevelopknowledgeforthemselvesrather
thansubmittingpackagedchunkstoanassessorwhowilltellthemifitsufficientor
correct(HarveyandKnight,1996).
Studentsneedtobeguidedincriticallearningandoneofthebestwaysistomakethe
learningprocesstransparentratherthanopaque:tomakeitsothat,forstudents,itis
theirlearningratherthananinitiationintotheprofessorsmysteries.Empowering
learnersrequiresanapproachthattreatsstudentsasintellectualperformersrather
thanascompliantaudience.Ittransformsteachingandlearningintoanactiveprocess
ofcomingtounderstand.
Increasingly,inaworldofchange,inwhichflexibilityisawatchword,learnersneed
tobeabletohelptheorganisations,inwhichtheyworkaftergraduation,totransform
inthefaceofthisrapidandcontinuouschange.Graduateswillnotbeabletodothatif
theyarenotabletoworkinteams,communicatewell,analyse,andsynthesise.More

LeeHarvey

CentreforResearchintoQuality

14FifthQHE24HourSeminar

Employability

importantly,thefuturegraduateneedstobeselftransformative,whichrequires
reflectiveandcriticalabilities.
This,inessence,iswhatanemployabilityperformanceindicatorneedstobe
measuring.ThisisnotsomethingcapturedbyFirstDestinationReturns.

Conclusion
Inconclusion,initiativesthathelpimproveemployabilityofstudentsaretobe
encouraged,especiallywheretheyincludesignificantworkrelatedelementsorare
embeddedinthecurriculum.However,anemployabilityperformanceindicatorbased
ontheemploymentratesofgraduatesfrominstitutionsisproblematic.
Apartfromimplyinganunconvincingcausallinkbetweeninstitutionalactivityand
graduatesuccessinachievingajob,itislikelytoresultinacknowledgementof
activitythatisnotgenuinelytakingtheemployabilityagendaforward.Inthelast
resort,employabilityperformanceindicatorsshouldbesubsumedtothehigher
educationpurpose.Atroot,employabilityisabouttherelationshipbetweenhigher
educationandemployment.
Assuch,employabilityraisesfundamentalquestionsaboutthepurposeandstructure
ofhighereducation.Employabilityisnotabouttrainingorprovidingaddonskillsto
gainemployment.Onthecontrary,employabilityisabouthowhighereducation
developscritical,reflective,empoweredlearners.
Despiteappearancestothecontrary,therealchallengeisnothowtoaccommodate
employabilitybuthowtoshiftthetraditionalbalanceofpowerfromtheeducation
providertothoseparticipatinginthelearningexperience.

Bibliography
Alexander,T.J.,1997,LifelonglearningtheOECDperspective,Lline:LifelongLearningin
Europe,3,pp.16669
Association of Graduate Recruiters (AGR), 1995, Skills for Graduates in the 21st Century.
Cambridge,AGR.
Atkins,M.J.,Beattie,J.andDockrell,W.B.,1993,AssessmentIssuesinHigherEducation.Sheffield,
EmploymentDepartment.
Ball, 1989, Aim Higher: Widening access to higher education. London, Royal Society for the
EncouragementofArts,ManufacturersandCommerce.
Ball,1990,MoreMeansDifferent:Wideningaccesstohighereducation.London,RoyalSocietyfor
theEncouragementofArts,ManufacturersandCommerce.
Brockband,A.&McGill,I.,1998,FacilitatingReflectiveLearninginHigherEducation.Buckingham,
SocietyforResearchintoHigherEducation(SRHE)andOpenUniversityPress.
Burrows,A.,Harvey,L.andGreen,D.,1992,IsAnybodyListening?Employersviewsonqualityin
highereducation.Birmingham,QHE.
CommitteeofViceChancellorsandPrincipalsoftheUniversitiesoftheUnitedKingdom,Department
forEducationandEmployment,HigherEducation:QualityandEmployabilitySection,
LeeHarvey

CentreforResearchintoQuality

Employability

FifthQHE24HourSeminar15

(CVCP/DfEE/HEQE),1998a,SkillsDevelopmentinHigherEducation:ShortReport.November,
London,CVCP.
ConfederationofBritishIndustry(CBI),1994, ThinkingAhead:EnsuringtheExpansionofHigher
Educationinthe21stCentury.London,CBI.
ConfederationofBritishIndustry(CBI),1995, ASkillsPassport:AVisionforOurFuture.London,
CBI.
Council for Industry and Higher Education (CIHE), 1996, Helping Students Towards Success at
Work:DeclarationofIntent.London,CIHE.
DepartmentforEducationandEmployment(DfEE),1997,PressRelease:MinisterAnnouncesStudies
onGraduateApprenticeships(London,DfEE).
DepartmentforEducationandEmployment(DfEE),1999,LabourMarketandSkillTrends,199899.
ASkillsanEnterpriseNetworkPublicationproducedfromoriginalmaterialprovidedbyBusiness
StrategiesLtdandGlynOwen.Sudbury,Suffolk,DfEEPublications.
DepartmentofEducationandScience(DES),1987,HigherEducation:MeetingtheChallenge,White
Paper,Cm.114.London,HMSO.
EuropeanCommission(EC),1991,MemorandumonHigherEducationintheEuropeanCommunity.5
November 1991. Brussels, Commission of the European Communities, Task Force, Human
Resources,Education,Training,Youth.
Evans,G.R.,1999,CallingAcademiatoAccount:Rightsandresponsibilities.Buckingham,
Buckingham,SocietyforResearchintoHigherEducation(SRHE)andOpenUniversityPress.
ExpertGrouponFutureSkillsNeeds(EG),1998,RespondingtoIrelandsGrowingSkillsNeeds.The
firstreportoftheExpertGrouponFutureSkillsNeedstotheTnaiste,andMinisterforEnterprise,
TradeandEmploymentandtheMinisterforEducationandScience.Dublin,Forfs.
Fisher,C.,1998,Thestudentperspective,presentationataConferenceonEmployability,
CopenhagenBusinessSchool,October.
GraduateintoEmploymentUnit(GEU),1998,BeyondWorkExperience:Maximisingtheimpactof
graduatesonsmallbusinesscompetitiveness.Liverpool,UniversityofLiverpool.
Hansen,E.,1998,Theemployerperspective,presentationataConferenceonEmployability,
CopenhagenBusinessSchool,October.
Harvey,L.,19959a,EmployabilityAuditToolkit.Birmingham,CRQ.
Harvey,L.,1999b,Newrealities:therelationshipbetweenhighereducationandemployment,
keynotepresentationattheEuropeanAssociationofInstitutionalResearchForum,1999,Lund,
Sweden,August.
Harvey, L. and Knight, P.T., 1996, Transforming Higher Education. Buckingham, Society for
ResearchintoHigherEducation(SRHE)andOpenUniversityPress.
Harvey, L. and MacDonald, M., 1993, Doing Sociology: A Practical Introduction. London,
Macmillan.
Harvey,L.withGreen,D.,1994,EmployerSatisfaction.Birmingham,QHE.
Harvey,L.,Burrows,A.andGreen,D.,1992,SomeoneWhoCanMakeanImpression.Reportofthe
Employers'SurveyofQualitiesofHigherEducationGraduates.Birmingham,QHE.
Harvey,L.,Moon,S.andGeall,V.,1997, GraduatesWork:OrganisationalChangeandStudents
Attributes. Birmingham, Centre for Research into Quality (CRQ) and Association of Graduate
Recruiters(AGR).
HigherEducationFundingCouncilforWales(HEFCW),1999,PilotAuditofEmployabilityprovision
inhighereducationinstitutionsinWales.Cardiff,HEFCW.
Industrial Research and Development Advisory Committee (IRDAC), 1990, Skills Shortages in
Europe:IRDACOpinion,November,Brussels,EC.
Kelsall,R.K.,Poole,A.andKuhn,A.,1972,Graduates:TheSociologyofanElite.London,Methuen.
National Committee of Inquiry into Higher Education (NCIHE), 1997, Higher Education in the
LearningSociety.London,HMSO.
SkillsTaskForce(STF),1998,TowardsaNationalSkillsAgenda:FirstreportoftheNationalSkills
TaskForce.Sudbury,Suffolk,DfEEPublications.

LeeHarvey

CentreforResearchintoQuality