Professional Documents
Culture Documents
DOI 10.1007/s12646-015-0330-x
REVIEW ARTICLE
Psychol Stud
emerging positive psychological resources and overall workplace attitudes and performance (e.g., Luthans et al. 2007b),
their relationship with creative performance has not been directly tested. Therefore, the present study also addresses to
provide empirical evidence to fill the existing gap in the theoretical literature.
The present study opted the theoretical model that is linked
with two distinct yet connected approaches. Firstly psychological resource theory (Hobfoll 2002) emphasizing the necessity of treating individual resources as manifestations of an
underlying core construct or an integrated resource set (in this
case PsyCap) rather than in isolation. For example, key resource theories (Thoits 1994) have identified individuallevel resources such as self-efficacy, optimism, resiliency,
and hope as essential foundational resources for managing
and adapting other resources to achieve favorable outcomes.
Such key resources have been empirically supported as interactive and synergistic (Cozzarelli 1993; Rini et al. 1999).
Secondly, the present study also converge broaden and build
model of Fredrickson (2003) emphasizing that experience of
positive emotions can broaden the employees scope of attention (increasing the number of cognitive elements available
for association) and the scope of cognition (increasing the
breadth of those elements that are treated as relevant to the
problem), thus increasing the probability of creative activities
(Frederickson 2001). Hence, it is observed that PsyCap and
work related flow would inspire the employees to work with
more enthusiasm and excitement and to experience other positive emotions; thereby leading to more creative work output
(Ilies et al. 2005; Prati et al. 2003; Zhou and George 2003).
Psychological Capital (PsyCap) offers a more comprehensive, higher order conceptual framework for understanding
and capitalizing on human assets in todays organizations
(Avolio and Luthans 2006; Luthans et al. 2004; Luthans and
Youssef 2004). It is also believed that synergistically integrating human, social, and psychological capital is central to actualizing human potential (i.e., attaining the possible self) in
todays workplace. The PsyCap construct comprises four dimensions: self-efficacy, hope, resilience, and optimism.
PsyCap efficacy is defined as Bones conviction about his or
her abilities to mobilize the motivation, cognitive resources,
and courses of action needed to successfully execute a specific
task within a given context^ (Stajkovic and Luthans 1998, p.
66). PsyCap Hope is considered as Ba positive motivational
state that is based on an interactively derived sense of successful (1) agency (goal-directed energy) and (2) pathways (planning to meet goals)^ (Snyder et al. 1991, p. 287). In PsyCap
approach, the definition of resiliency include not only the
ability to bounce back from adversity but also very positive,
challenging events and the will to go beyond the normal, the
equilibrium point (Avolio and Luthans 2006; Luthans 2002;
Youssef and Luthans 2005). PsyCap optimism is defined in
the context of attributional style, that is an explanatory style
that attributes positive events to personal, permanent, and pervasive causes and interprets negative events in terms of external, temporary, and situation-specific factors (Seligman 1998).
It is to be noted that Peterson and Seligmans (2004) character
strengths and virtues are trait-like (relatively stable and difficult to change); whereas, the PsyCap is state-like, and thus
relatively malleable and open to development. Both theorybuilding and prior research on hope, resilience, optimism, and
efficacy indicate that such personal strengths are amenable to
development (Luthans et al. 2007a, b). Such a state-like nature
also differentiates PsyCap from positively-oriented organizational behavior trait-like constructs, such as Big Five personality dimensions or core self-evaluations (Judge et al. 2003).
Coming from one of the recognized founders of the positive psychology movement is Csikszentmihalyis (2003) concept of flow. Like subjective well-being, flow is closely related to happiness and optimal experience. A state of flow is
attained when one has both high skills and is undergoing a
significant challenge (Csikszentmihalyi 1996). When in flow,
accomplishing a task becomes rewarding as an end in itself
rather than a means toward other goals (e.g., pay, promotion,
impression management), causing the individual to become
completely absorbed in the activity (Nakamura and
Csikszentmihalyi 2002). Asakawa (2004) defined flow as Bthe
optimal state of mind in which an individual feels cognitively
efficient, deeply involved, and highly motivated and also experiences a high level of enjoyment^ (p. 124).
Although creativity is frequently associated with strikingly
original and revolutionary ideas, it also incorporates the capacity to find novel approaches for day-to-day problem-solving, as well as to constructively adapt new ideas and mechanisms so that they positively contribute to oneself and others
(Simonton 2007). Traditionally, creativity has been viewed as
a dispositional trait that can only be developed at early age, or
it has even been seen as a genetically determined individual
difference (Cassandro and Simonton 2002; Feist 1998).
Creativity has become one of the most important sources of
sustained competitive advantage for organizations. In order to
survive, adapt, and gain competitive advantage, organizations
need to unleash their employees innate creative potential,
because employees creative ideas can be used as building
blocks for organizational innovation, change, and competitiveness (Amabile et al. 1996; Woodman et al. 1993; Zhou
and George 2003). Creativity can be generated by employees
not only in jobs that are traditionally viewed as requiring creativity, but also in any job and at any level of the organization
(Madjar et al. 2002).
Researchers have found that achieving a flow state is positively correlated with optimal performance in the fields of
artistic and scientific creativity (Perry-Smith and Shalley
2003). Flow also has a strong correlation with the further
development of skills and personal growth (Nakamura and
Csikszentmihalyi 2002). It has been found that positive
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strengths like self efficacy and hope may further foster flow
experience with a bit of personal growth and great feelings of
competence and efficacy (Ishimura and Kodama 2006).
Moreover, low self-awareness and enjoyment typically occurs
during activities that are challenging but matched in difficulty
to the persons skill level (Csikszentmihalyi 2003). Further
evidence suggested that intrinsic driven motivation enhance
the efficacious and optimistic attributional style with elevated
subjective sense of high control and concentration, or even
absorption in the task (Asakawa 2010).
Given that the social context of organizations is largely a
creation of the individuals who make up that context and their
interactions positive worker motivation in the form of dispositional flow and PsyCap may represent a significant resource
in promoting positive outcomes in creativity. Research indicates that the overall core construct of PsyCap better relates to
the outcomes of employee performance, job satisfaction, and
absenteeism (Luthans et al. 2004; 2007a, b). The dispositional
experience of flow and PsyCap factors of hope, optimism,
resilience, and self efficacy may, therefore, represent potential
pathways to influence creativity in work settings (Asakawa
2010). Avey et al. (2010) found that employees psychological
capital mediated the relationship between organizational climate and performance indicators. Furthermore, psychological
capital emerged as a strong predictor of work attitudes and
behaviors (Avey et al. 2010). Amabile et al. (2005), and others
(e.g., Moneta 2004; Tierney and Farmer 2004; Zhou 2003)
identified agentic psychological resources (e.g., intrinsic motivation) as instrumental in achieving creative outcomes.
These studies are particularly relevant here as PsyCap and
work related flow that have been investigated in the present
study would be referred to as intrinsic motivational propensities (Luthans et al. 2007a, b). Specifically, while there is empirical evidence of a positive association between emerging
positive psychological resources and overall workplace attitudes and performance (Luthans et al. 2007a, b), their relationship with creative performance has not been directly tested.
Empirical findings show self-efficacious people believe in
their abilities to mobilize the motivation, cognitive resources,
and courses of action necessary to successfully perform a specific task within a given context (Stajkovic and Luthans
1998). Those individuals are likely to choose challenging
tasks and endeavors, apply their efforts and motivational resources to accomplish their goals, and persevere in the face of
obstacles and difficulties (Luthans 2002). This combination of
challenging goals, intrinsic energy, and perseverance motivates individuals to propose new and useful ideas for reaching
goals. PsyCap is a generative capability, with Jensen and
Luthans (2006) suggesting that this psychological strength is
essential for creative productivity. Several studies reveal positive relationships between PsyCap and creativity (Darini et al.
2011; Prabhu et al. 2008; Tierney and Farmer 2004).
Moreover, work related flow is crucial for creativity because
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reported lower levels of flow state as compared to their counterparts. Additional evidence showed that male employees
expressed elevated levels of creativity (e.g., Chu 2002;
Atkins and Stough 2005). Petrides and Furnham (2000) found
that men in overall and self-motivation factors are significantly higher than women. Similarly, gender differences in favor
of men are found in a myriad of studies in self-efficacy (e.g.,
Scholz et al. 2002), managerial skills (Karatepe et al. 2006)
and optimistic attributions (Kawabata et al. 2007). Therefore,
on the basis of present literature, it is proposed that:
H4. Male employees would reflect more psychological
capital, work related flow, and creativity as compared
to female employees.
Research has shown that employees with greater work experience exhibit higher levels of self efficacy, better decision
making skills, and innovative work behavior (Chu 2002).
Moreover, flow is positively correlated with a higher subsequent motivation to perform well and it also corresponds to
the challenging tasks assigned to the employees (Seligman
and Csikszentmihalyi 2000). Similarly, it has been found that
employees with extensive work experience in their present
organization are more capable of reflecting elevated levels of
creative efficacy, organizational commitment, and conflict resolution strategies (Lyubomirsky et al. 2006). Moreover, longer
tenure in the organization is associated with positive experiences of leader-member relations, elevated levels of motivation for cognitive acts, and creativity in job related tasks
(Kreitler and Kreitler 1987). Positive psychological resource
capacities, such as psychological capital, have been shown to
have an impact on desired work-related outcomes, for instance, improved attitudes to work engagement and behaviours of organizational commitment in various work contexts
such as authentic leadership, organizational culture, and job
experience (Youssef and Luthans 2008). Hence, on the basis
of given empirical evidence, it is assumed that:
H5. Employees with extended job tenure in the same organization would reflect high levels of psychological capital, work related flow, and creativity as compared to
those with lesser job duration.
With reference to local perspective, constant novelty and
innovation are essential features for the existence of high-tech
organizations such as software houses. Hence, the greater requirement of software houses would be employees with creative solutions as cognitively competent and resourceful personnel to transform the creative solutions into revenuegenerating and problem-solving technologies. Moreover, creativity and innovation have long been the brand features of
software houses. Nevertheless, employees of software houses
are experiencing extensive change both in terms of producing
Psychol Stud
Method
Sample
The sample included 532 employees from software houses
located at Rawalpindi and Islamabad in Pakistan.
Respondents included both men (n=327) and women (n=
205), with age range 2552 years (M =32.53; SD=4.73).
Educational level of the respondents included Bachelors (n=
233), Masters (n=175), M.Phil/MS (n=82) as well as PhD
(n=42) while monthly income of the participants varied from
Rs. 22,000/- to 1, 10,000/- per month (M=66,000/-, SD=
5.67). Overall job experience of the respondents fluctuated
from minimum 218 years (M=8.67; SD=4.55) whereas job
tenure in the present organization ranged from 1 to 16 years
(M=6.45; SD=3.28). Job designations of the respondents included computer programmers (n=126), system analysts /
system integrators (n=82), software engineers (n=104), software developers (n=78), web designers (n=80), and senior
software engineers (n=62).
Psychological Capital For the appraisal of psychological capital, the Psychological Capital Questionnaire (PCQ; Luthans
et al. 2007a, b) was used. It constituted 24 items to be rated
on 6-point scale with response options ranging from strongly
disagree (1) to strongly agree (6). PCQ offers measurement
along four dimensions of the PsyCap by assessing Self-efficacy,
Hope, Resilience, and Optimism (six items in each subscale).
To control the response bias, three items were negatively
phrased. Internal consistency coefficient alpha was found to
be 0.89 for total PCQ, 0.81 for Self-Efficacy, 0.76 for Hope,
0.79 for Resilience, and 0.74 for Optimism on the current
sample.
Work Related Flow The Work-Related Flow Scale (WOLF;
Bakker 2008) consisted of 13 items with three subscales:
Absorption (4 items), Work Enjoyment (4 items), and
Intrinsic Work Motivation (5 items). Response options were
based on 7-point rating scale ranging from 1 = never to 7 =
always. For the present sample, acquired alpha coefficients for
total WOLF (0.87) and its subscales of Absorption (0.77),
Work Enjoyment (0.72), and Intrinsic Work Motivation
(0.79) were satisfactory and acceptable.
Creativity Creativity Scale (CS; George and Zhou 2001) was
used for the self report appraisal of employee creativity. CS
consisted of 13 items to be rated on a 5-point scale with response options ranging from not at all (1) to a great extent (5).
CS (Zhou and George 2003) was found consistent with previous studies in that the measure regards creativity as a unitary
construct (Shalley et al. 2004). Thus it would not distinguish
between different creative ideas, ranging from minor improvement to major breakthroughs (Coelho et al. 2011). In the present study, CS has achieved an alpha coefficient of 0.83.
Procedure
Official permissions were acquired from the chief executives
of the software houses. Informed consent was acquired from
each respondent and were briefed about the purpose of the
study. Participants were also ensured of the confidentiality of
information and were ascertained that shared information will
be used for academic purposes only. There was no restriction
of time for the completion of questionnaires in order to maximize the completion of questionnaires. Written instructions as
well as verbal narrations were given so as to maximally facilitate the respondents understanding and reduce associated
ambiguities. Respondents were graciously thanked for their
extensive cooperation and provision of valuable data.
Measures
Psychol Stud
Results
Table 1 shows that the inter-correlations among the variables
of the study. Results indicated that components of psychological capital that is self efficacy, hope, resilience and optimism
have shown significant positive association with each other as
well as with the overall construct of psychological capital.
This also provides evidence of construct validity of psychological capital. Moreover these dimensions were also significantly positively allied with work related flow and creativity.
It has been further found that psychological capital and
work related flow were significantly positively associated
with each other. Similarly, psychological capital and work
related flow were significantly allied with employee creativity.
In other words, it has been found that employees reflecting
higher levels of PsyCap also experience elevated level of work
related flow and exhibit greater intensity of creativity.
Table 2 displays stepwise regression analyses for predicting
creativity through work related flow and psychological capital. Results showed that both work related flow and psychological capital explained significant variance in creativity of
employees. However, work related flow emerged as a strong
predictor of employee creativity as compared to psychological
capital.
Table 3 revealed that direct relationship between work related flow and creativity is buffered by psychological capital
Table 1
Discussion
The present study was designed to assess the predictive role of
psychological capital and work related flow among employees of software houses. It was also intended to determine
the group differences across gender and job designations in
context of major constructs of the study.
Findings indicated that work related flow, psychological
capital and creativity were positively associated with each
other. Earlier empirical evidences (Asakawa 2004, 2010;
Kawabata et al. 2007) have also indicated that cognitive and
affective involvement in terms of flow is a significant predictor of original and productive output in the organizational
settings. Similarly it has been found that transient flow states
also positively predicted desired organizational activities, for
instance, devising strategic planning, resolution of problems,
Correlation matrix across study variables among employees of software houses (N=532)
Variables
Self efficacy
Hope
Resilience
Self efficacy
Hope
Resilience
Optimism
Psychological capital
Work related flow
Creativity
.27**
.31***
.33***
Optimism
Psychological
capital
.22**
.28***
.21**
Work related
flow
.46***
.41***
.44***
.33***
Creativity
.24**
.19*
.22**
.17*
.49***
.58***
.23**
.27**
.20**
.47***
.52***
Psychol Stud
Table 2 Stepwise regression analysis for predictors of creativity among
employees of software houses (N=532)
B
S.E
R2
R2
12.80
.53
1.15
.02
.83***
.69
.68
Constant
Work related flow
.39
.28
1.96
.03
.44***
Psychological capital
.12
.03
.21***
.75
.72
Variables
Step 1
Constant
Work related flow
Step 2
***p<.00
R2
Step 1 (constant)
Age
Education
Social desirability
Step 2 (direct effects)
Self efficacy
.005
.08
.06
Hope
Resilience
Optimism
Work related flow
Step 3 (interaction effects)
Work related flow Self efficacy
Work related flow Hope
Work related flow Resilience
Work related flow Optimism
.11
.15
.12
.18
***p<.00
.14
.251
.21
.19
.17
.16
R2
F (df)
.243
5.05**
(530)
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Table 4 Gender differences on
psychological capital, work
related flow, and creativity
(N=532)
Variables
Men
Women
(n=327)
(n=205)
M
Psychological capital
SD
95% CI
SD
Cohens d
LL
UL
106.00
18.55
90.46
20.10
6.21*
10.64
20.50
.71
53.87
15.99
39.71
13.91
6.97*
10.15
18.14
.66
Creativity
42.45
9.78
32.12
9.32
8.13*
7.83
12.83
.85
*p<.00
Conclusion
The findings of the present study indicated that psychological
capital and work related flow are significant predictors of employees creativity. Additional highlight of the present study
are the group differences regarding gender, job tenure and job
designations. It was found that male employees reflected better perceptions of psychological capital, work related flow and
creativity as compared to female employees. Similarly, employees with extended job tenure exhibited higher levels of
positive psychological states, work related flow, and creativity. It may, however, be noted that these trends are based on
data from sample drawn from a setting in developing country
and therefore generalization is limited.
Group 1
Group 2
Group 3
(n=266)
(n=182)
(n=84)
Variables
SD
SD
PsyCap
24.80
6.01
30.77
5.47
37.94
43.94
29.18
8.20
9.37
48.83
33.33
8.09
9.29
55.05
38.42
SD
Post Hoc
5.28
6.35*
3>1,2; 2>1
10.57
9.26
7.26*
5.11*
3>1,2; 2>1
3>1,2; 2>1
Group 1 = 15 years; Group 2 = 5.110 years; Group 3 = 10.116 years; PsyCap = Psychological Capital
*p<.001
Psychol Stud
Implications
The experience of work related flow is beneficial and valuable
for the attainment of both individual and organizational goals.
Two major implications of the present study need to be mentioned. Firstly, in the context of job design, the HR practitioners may identify and design the jobs in a manner that foster
intrinsic flow and optimum motivation among the employees
so as to accelerate their creative output. Secondly, industrial/
organizational psychologists could design and develop training modules which may foster the PsyCap and work related
flow by enhancing self stimulation and intrinsic motivation of
the employees.
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