Lecture 4

Structural materials and their properties

Major structural materials

Stone

naturally occurring / quarried and formed into block or slab units by sawing,
splitting and chiseling / strong in compression - weak in tension / low strength
to weight ratio / primary use as wall-pier or arch.

Brick / Block

formed structural units (generally smaller than stone) / standard unit sizes /
strong in compression - weak in tension / primary use as wall-pier or arch.

Concrete

formed (cast) into many shapes / on-site (in situ) or off-site (pre-cast) / strong
in compression - weak in tension (corrected by adding reinforcement) /
excellent fire resistance / versatility: can be used for almost every type of
structural member.

Steel

formed into a range of standard extruded shapes. Can also be cast / very
strong in both compression and tension / can be assembled into many
configurations by use of standard connecting techniques (bolting and
welding) / versatility: can be used for almost every type of structural member
because of its relative ease of fabrication, but due to its density and cost,
steel usually is formed into thin linear shapes (beams, columns, rods/
cables, plate structures) and therefore lends itself more to frames or tension
structures (cable stayed/suspension) / must be protected from fire.

Wood

naturally occurring / renewable building material / formed into linear or planar

elements by sawing (timber or lumber) or peeling (veneer) trees / lightweight
and good strength to weight ratio / susceptible to fire and natural
deterioration (rotting, insect infestation) / can be assembled into many
configurations by use of standard connecting techniques (nail, screw, bolt,
glue) / strong in tension and compression but dependent on orientation of
grain (non-isotropic).

Other

Aluminium, Glass, PVC coated polyester (membranes), FRP (fiber reinforced

plastic), compacted earth (adobe).

LOAD
External applied loads. Act on various parts of
the structure in different directions. Gravity
loads, such as dead loads, act vertically.
EXTERNAL (APPLIED) FORCE
Loads are translated into external forces that
are represented as a single vector
(concentrated load) or a series of equal
vectors (uniform distributed load). Reactions
at the connection of the structure with the
ground or some other part of the structure are
also considered external forces.
INTERNAL (REACTING) FORCES
The action of external forces on a structure
produces internal resisting forces such as
axial tension and compression, bending,
shear, and torsion. The magnitude and
direction of these force vectors is
independent of the material or configuration
of the section of the structure.
STRESS
The action of internal forces on the material
of the structure produces various types of
stress. These stresses are dependent of the
size and configuration of the section but are
independent of the material.
DEFORMATION
The action of stress on the material of the
structure produces deformation in the form of
elongation, shortening, curvature, and
twisting. The deformations are measured as
strain.

External Applied Load > Internal Force > Stress > Deformation
P, W, w, M
kN, kN/m, kN/m2, kN-m

FT, FC, V, M, T

ft, fc, fb, fv, ft

kN, kN-m

N/mm2 (MPa)

or

deg

mm

concentrated load P

axial tension FT

tensile stress

elongation

resultant force W

axial compression FC

compression stress

shortening

distributed load w

shear V

shear stress

diagonal
distortion

moment force M

moment M

bending stress

curvature
deflection

torsional force T

torsion T

torsional stress

twisting

Stress and Deformation

tensile stress (ft) causes stretching or elongation
compressive stress (fc) causes shortening
bending stress (fb) causes curvature
shear stress (fv) causes diagonal distortion (a rectangular area
becomes a parallelogram
torsion stress (ft ) causes twisting

Typical axial force structures: columns, walls, trusses, cables, arches

Elasticity
When most materials are subjected to a stress such as tension, they will stretch or elongate in a
predictable manner. The amount of stress will directly determine the amount of elongation in a
linear manner: for an applied amount of stress there will be a proportional amount of elongation.
Double the amount of stress and the elongation will double. This property of materials is known
as elasticity.

Strain
Strain is a term that is used to describe the amount of elongation or shortening in a material
subject to stress. It is defined as the ratio of the change in length of an element (L) to its original
length (L), or L / L . This ratio known as strain is represented by the symbol epsilon or e. There
are no dimensional units to strain as it is a ratio or percentage.
In the seventeenth century a scientist named Robert Hooke (1635-1703) discovered that for many
materials there is a general relationship between stress and strain that is linear and constant. This
relationship came to be known as Hookes Law and states that for an isotropic elastic material,
the ratio of the amount of stress present in a body to the strain that is produced is a constant. This
constant, which varies for different materials, is known as Youngs modulus after the 19th
century British scientist Thomas Young, who investigated its application in mechanics. It is also
known as the modulus of elasticity, E.
stress / strain = E

stress / strain diagram for steel

Elasticity versus Plasticity

Past a certain point in the stress/strain test a test specimen will continue to to elongate or stretch under no
appreciable additional load. This is referred to as the plastic range. Once in the plastic range the material
undergoes a permanent deformation. For ex., if the test specimen is unloaded and its length measured there will
be a change: the length will have increased.
Yield point
This is the point on the stress / strain curve at which the material yields and begins to stretch with no extra load
applied. It marks the beginning of the plastic range. Not all materials have a yield point. Steel has a very distinct
yielding point and this limit is used to determine safety margins in design under the working stress method of steel
design.
Strain hardening
Beyond the yield point the material stretches for a certain amount and then becomes stiff again. Further load may
be applied and the material will offer resistance. This range of capacity beyond the yield point is known as the
region of strain hardening.
Ultimate Strength
A test specimen subjected to increasing load in the strain hardening range will offer resistance and continue to
gradually elongate until the limit of the material tensile strength is reached. At this point the specimen will abruptly
break. Some necking or reduced cross sectional area occurs in the specimen which accounts for a lower stress
before the material actually breaks.
Ductility versus Brittleness
The property that allows a material to undergo large amounts of deformation before breaking is known as ductility.
Rubber, for ex. is extremely ductile. And so is steel although it is a much harder material. A material that can not
stretch easily and breaks with very little elongation is called brittle. Glass is an example of a brittle material. Also
concrete and cast iron.

GPa = kN/mm2

From Introduction to Architectural Technology. Chart developed by Mike Ashby, Cambridge University, Department of Engineering.

Design strength: variation in the yield strength of various steel grades

Basic Design Strengths for Steel*

BS 4360 Grade

Thickness: less than

Design Strength (Yield Strength)

or equal to (mm)

(N/mm2)

____________________________________________________________
43

16

275

A, B, & C

40

265

100

245

50

16

355

B&C

63

340

100

325

55

16

450

25

430

40

415

*reproduced from BS 5950 The Structural Use of Steelwork in Building

Basic permissible (allowable) stresses for steel grade 43 (BS 4360)*

Stress type

Basic Permissible Stress (Grade 43 steel)

____________________________________________________
Tension

155 N/mm2

Compression

155 N/mm2

Bending

165 N/mm2

Shear (average)

100 N/mm2

Bearing

190 N/mm2

Factor of Safety:
If the yield stress of Grade 43 steel (thickness less than 16mm) is 275 N/mm2 and the permissible stress
in tension is 155 N/mm2, then what is the factor of safety using this value?
275 N/mm2 / 155 N/mm2 = 1.77

or the amount of the capacity for stress below the yield point used is 56%
*In Hong Kong, Grade 250 steel refers to a grade of steel with a nominal yield strength of 250 Mpa and
having a similar chemical composition and mechanical properties to Grade 43.

Amount of coarse aggregate (stone) in kg in ratio to

amount of cement.

Ratio of fine aggregate (sand) to coarse aggregate.

stress / strain diagram for concrete

concrete cylinder test

stress / strain diagram for concrete

From Structures Design Manual for Highways and Railways. Third Edition, 2006. Published by the
Highways Department of the Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region.

Properties of Concrete. Curing time.

Left: effect on ultimate compressive strength
Right: time needed before removing formwork and props
PFA refers to Pulverized Fuel Ash. PFA is a by-product of coal-powered power stations. It is a pozzolanic material. In
the presence of lime (contained in Portland cement) it has hydraulic (cementing ) properties.

Slump test for consistency of concrete.

Amount of water by volume required in concrete.

Appendix A
Density of Materials
Materials

Density (kN/m)

Concrete (normal weight

aggregate, with or without PFA)

Plain
Reinforced

23.6
24.5

Prestressed

24.5

Brick and block work

Brick work

21.7

Metals

Mortar

Natural stone

Wood

Other materials

Concrete blocks

20.6

Aluminium

27.2

Brass

83.3

Bronze

87.7

Copper

87.7

Iron (cast)

70.7

Iron (wrought)

75.4

Lead

111.0

Steel

77.0

Zinc

70.0

Cement mortar

23

Gypsum mortar

18

Lime-cement mortar

20

Lime mortar

18

Granite

29

Marble

27

Basalt

30

Sandstone

25

Slate

28

Timber

Refer to suppliers specifications

Hardboard

11

Chipboard

Plywood

Blockboard

Wood-wool

Glass

26

Soil

20

Acrylic sheet

12

Asphaltic concrete

25

Mastic asphalt

18

Hot rolled asphalt

23

http://www.bd.gov.hk

Cross section of rod

Area (A) = r2 = (3.14)(10mm)2 = 314mm2

Tensile Stress (ft) = Ft / A

If

W = 10 kN (approx. 1000kg) then:

ft = 10 kN / 314mm2
= 31.8 N / mm2 (or 31.8 Mpa)
ft << 400 N / mm2
(400 N/mm2 = ultimate tensile strength of steel*)

Internal Force: tension force in a hanging rod

Internal Stress: tensile stress in a hanging rod

Cross section of column

Area (A) = 300mm x 200mm
= 60,000mm2

Compression Stress (fc) = F / A

If

P = 1000 kN (approx. 100,000kg)

then 3P = 3000 kN (at bottom of column)

fc = 3000 kN / 60,000mm2 = 50 N/mm2
since ultimate stress of concrete = 20.7 N/mm2
and 50 N/mm2 > 20.7 N/mm2
then column cross section is too small.

Internal Force: compression force in a column

Internal Stress: compression stress in a column

Reference
Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures 13th ed.. Steven H Kosmatka and William C. Panarese. Portland
Cement Association, Stokie, IL, 1992.
http://www.bd.gov.hk/english/documents/code/steel/e_steel.htm
http://www.bd.gov.hk/english/documents/code/concrete/e_concrete.htm
Materials in Construction 2nd ed. G. D. Taylor. Longman Press, UK, 1994.

Introduction to Architectural Technology. Pete Silver and Will McLean. Laurence King Pub, London, 2008.