Journal of Management

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The Impact of Role Conflict/Facilitation on Core and Discretionary Behaviors:

Testing a Mediated Model
Holly B. Tompson and Jon M. Werner
Journal of Management 1997 23: 583
DOI: 10.1177/014920639702300405
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Journal of Management
1997, Vol. 23, No. 4, 583.601

The Impact of Role Conflict/Facilitation on

Core and Discretionary Behaviors:
Testing a Mediated Model
Holly B. Tompson
University of Waikato

Jon M. Werner
University of South Carolina
It was hypothesized that individuals perceiving high levels of
conflict between their work and non-work life roles would exhibit
reduced levels of organizational citizenship behaviors (OCB). A new
measure of inter-role conflict and facilitation was tested on 169 fulltime employed MBA students. Results primarily supported the direct
effects of role conflict on OCB. However, organizational commitment
was found to mediate the relationship between role conflict and the
OCB dimension of loyalty. Research and organizational implications
are discussed.

From an organizational standpoint, is it good or bad for employees to be simultaneously engaged in numerous life roles? This is clearly an emotionally charged
question. Consider, for example, the prototypical Superwoman or Superman
seeking to have it all, that is, working full-time, going to school, volunteering
for community or religious service, and functioning effectively as a spouse and
parent as well. Two very different positions have evolved in an attempt to address
such a scenario. On the one hand, role scarcity theorists have argued that accumulating a large number of roles is associated with negative affective and behavioral
outcomes for individuals (Cooke & Rousseau, 1984; Goode, 1960; Kandel,
Davies & Raveis, 1985). According to these theorists, experiencing conflict or
strain between various roles is a typical, even inescapable result of being subject
to the demands of multiple roles. Recent calls for greater balance between work
and family life arise out of a perception that managers and organizations
frequently put pressure on individuals to achieve success at work at the expense of
success in other roles (Coser & Coser, 1974; Korman & Korman, 1980). The
stereotype of the stressed out employee frantically seeking to juggle multiple
Direct all correspondence to: Holly B. Tompson, Department of Strategic Management & Leadership, University
of Waikato, Hamilton, NZ, or to Jon M. Werner, College of Business Administration, Department of Management,
University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208
Copyright 0 1997 by JAI Press Inc. 0149-2063
583
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584

HOLLY

B. TOMPSON

AND JON M. WERNER

roles generally carries the impression that work performance

suffers when
employees must balance work with other life roles.
On the other hand, theorists coming from a role expansion perspective have
argued that multiple role incumbency is associated with improved well-being, i.e.,
positive, rather than negative individual outcomes (Marks, 1977; Thoits, 1986;
Verbrugge, 1982). Seiber (1974), for example, argued that occupying multiple
roles can carry certain privileges (i.e., increased status and security), and that
multiple roles can serve to buffer one another, in that success in one role may
serve to compensate for failure in another. Similarly, Wethington and Kessler
(1989) found that multiple role occupation was related to decreased psychological
distress, i.e., such individuals were more successful in coping with role demands.
Overall, then, past research on role accumulation (i.e., the number of roles
one holds) has produced mixed and even conflicting findings (see Thoits, 1987,
for a detailed review). Further, one of the most commonly used measures of role
conflict, the 14-item scale developed by Rizzo, House and Lirtzman (1970), has
only one item dealing with inter-role conflict. Thus, what seems necessary is to
find new ways of capturing the extent to which involvement in multiple life roles
leads to perceptions of positive versus negative outcomes. Therefore, the question
we began with, i.e., is it good or bad for employees to be simultaneously engaged
in numerous life roles, is in many ways the wrong question. That is, it is not
simply the number of roles one has, but how one perceives each role, and the
interaction between roles, that is most critical. Issues concerning the perceived
valence or value of these roles (Oakley, Kielhofner, Barris & Reichler, 1986) are
likely to be important, as well as perceptions concerning the perceived quality or
instrumentality of the roles one is engaged in (Barnett & Baruch, 1985; Tompson
& Korsgaard, 1995). In this study, we focused on perceptions of inter-role
conflict, i.e., the extent to which individuals perceived that the roles they were
engaged in (regardless of how few or how many) served to facilitate versus
conflict with one another.
The purpose of this study, then, was twofold. First, we developed and tested
a new measure of inter-role conflict, which we have adapted from the goal setting
literature (Emmons, 1986; Emmons & King, 1989). This measure goes beyond
past efforts to count roles, or to ask whether multiple role incumbency is good or
bad. Instead, it asks subjects to evaluate the extent to which each of their major
life roles hinders or facilitates their performance of other roles. We propose that
the relationship between roles be viewed as a continuum-with
role conflict on
one pole, and role facilitation on the other. Previous measures of role conflict have
assessed the extent to which high role conflict or no role conflict exist. This scale
goes beyond this, and taps the degree to which an individuals roles may also
facilitate each other. The second main purpose of this study was to test whether
this perceptual measure of role conflict/facilitation
was predictive of several
important organizational outcomes, in particular, the extent to which individuals
engage in discretionary behaviors. Behaviors such as showing initiative and extra
effort are increasingly critical to organizational survival and success (Waldman,
1994). We present our proposed linkages between role conflict and discretionary
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behaviors below. First, however, we discuss such discretionary,

citizenship behaviors more fully.
Organizational

Citizenship Behaviors

Organ (1988, p. 4) defined organizational

those behaviors which are:
1.
2.
3.

or organizational

citizenship

behaviors

(OCB) as

Discretionary in nature,
Not explicitly recognized by the formal reward system, and
That in the aggregate promote the effective functioning of the organization.

Early research on OCB identified two primary factors, namely: (a) altruism,
aimed at helping a specific individual, and (b) conscientiousness,
more indirect
behaviors which benefit the organization as a whole (Smith, Organ & Near,
1983). Organ (1988) later proposed five categories of OCB: altruism, conscientiousness, civic virtue, sportsmanship, and courtesy. In this study, we made use of
an OCB categorization scheme developed by Graham (1989). Graham and her
associates have proposed four primary factors of OCB (Graham, 1989; Van Dyne,
Graham & Dienesch, 1994). The first two factors, interpersonal helping and
personal industry, are similar to the altruism and conscientiousness
dimensions
proposed by Smith et al. (1983) and Organ (1988). A third factor, individual
initiative, captures active participation in the political life of the organization, and
includes involving oneself in understanding and discussing current organizational
issues and concerns. Organ (1988) labeled this same factor civic virtue. A fourth
factor, loyalty, involves defending the interests and reputation of the organization
to outsiders. Support for this four-factor structure has been found by Graham
( 1989), Karambayya ( 1990) and Moorman and Blakely (1995).
OCB can be further categorized according to the target of such behaviors,
i.e., those aimed at benefitting the organization in general are labeled OCBO,
while those aimed at benefitting specific individuals are labeled OCBI (Werner,
1994; Williams & Anderson, 1991). Both individual initiative and loyalty fit
within the OCBO category, whereas interpersonal helping falls into the OCBI
category. Personal industry can have either a generalized or a targeted focus, and
thus could fit within either category.
In the past decade, several forces have converged to make employees who
consistently engage in citizenship behaviors of even greater value to employers.
Specifically, the recent wave of corporate downsizing has left many organizations with fewer employees available to carry out an undiminished workload. In
these emotionally and physically taxing environments, behavior such as offering
assistance to co-workers or taking the initiative to bring closure to a project is
critical to organizational success (Werner, 1997). This is especially likely when
organizations place a strong emphasis on teams and total quality management
(Waldman, 1994).
The decline of the well-defined, static job as it has been conceptualized
in the past is another trend which is increasing the importance of performance
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above and beyond what is expected. With much drama and more than a little
hyperbole, Fortune magazine headlined a recent cover story, The end of the
job (Bridges, 1994). Business Week also produced a special report recently on
The new world of work (Business Week Special Report, October 17, 1994).
Both accounts discussed the decline in the amount of work which fits neatly
into well-defined job descriptions. In most organizations, it is no longer sufficient for an employee simply to carry out his or her essential job functions.
Employees today are expected to take initiative and engage in those behaviors
which ensure that the organizations goals are realized. Moreover, the rapid
pace of change in many industries today has made the job description per se
somewhat obsolete.
As a result of these and other changes, managers are recognizing the value
of creating a work environment that fosters discretionary behaviors such as organizational citizenship behaviors. In this study, we assessed the extent to which a
link exists between work-nonwork role conflict and OCB. Our first hypothesis
dealt with whether there is a direct relationship between inter-role conflict and
OCB. Several reasons can be advanced for why high role conflict should
decrease the amount of discretionary behaviors exhibited. The most relevant of
these is research showing that role conflict has been associated with diminished
performance in general. For example, role conflict has been associated with
poor work group relationships (French & Caplan, 1972) and declines in group
performance (Liddell & Slocum, 1976). Additionally, Jackson and Schulers
(198.5) meta-analysis reported that the relationship between role conflict and
performance
is significantly stronger when performance
is dependent upon
successful interactions with co-workers, supervisors, etc., as is typical of jobs in
upper levels of organizations. Finally, Stephens and Sommer (1994) recently
reported preliminary
data supporting a negative relationship between role
conflict and citizenship behaviors.
High inter-role conflict, by definition, indicates a situation in which fatigue,
a preoccupation with problems in another role, or difficulties balancing multiple
demands between roles exist. Each of these components may explain a decline in
OCB. In fact, because citizenship behaviors are discretionary, we expected a
stronger relationship between role conflict and OCB than between role conflict
and core job performance. That is, if an individual has limited time at work or
anticipates experiencing interruptions from another role, it is likely the employee
will attempt to complete mandatory tasks as opposed to those which are not
required. For comparison purposes, we included items capturing in-role job
performance in this study. However, hypotheses were only made concerning relationships between inter-role conflict and OCB. Past results concerning the link
between role conflict and performance (variously defined) have not been especially strong (cf. Jackson & Schuler, 1985). Much like Smith et al. (1983) found
that job satisfaction related more strongly to OCB than to core job performance,
we expected similar results with our measure of role conflict/facilitation.
However, given the lack of previous research on inter-role conflict and OCB, we
did not make a priori hypotheses concerning role conflict and specific aspects of
organizational citizenship behavior. Thus:
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Hl: Inter-role conflict will have a direct negative

organizational citizenship behaviors.

relationship

with

Past research on the antecedents of OCB has suggested that factors such as
job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and perceptions of organizational
fairness influence the extent to which employees engage in OCB (George &
Brief, 1992; Moorman, 1991; Organ & Konovsky, 1989). In this study, we
focus on two of these proposed antecedents to OCB, namely job satisfaction and
organizational
commitment. Both of these variables have been found to be
predictive of OCB (OReilly & Chatman, 1986; Smith et al., 1983; Williams &
Anderson, 1991).
In the literature on work-family conflict, inter-role conflict has been related
to numerous outcomes (Bacharach, Bamberger & Conley, 1991; Baird, 1969;
Van Sell, Brief & Schuler, 1981). Two of the stronger findings from this
research are that increased levels of inter-role conflict are associated with
decreased levels of job satisfaction and organizational commitment (Jackson &
Schuler, 1985; Keller, 1975; Van Sell et al., 1981). Thus, the work-family
conflict literature predicts that inter-role conflict influences job satisfaction and
organizational commitment, while the OCB literature predicts that these same
two variables are predictive of the extent to which employees engage in OCB.
In Figure 1, we present a merging of the findings from these two literatures.
The direct relationship between inter-role conflict and OCB was discussed above.
Hypotheses 2 and 3 propose an indirect linkage between inter-role conflict and
OCB. In this study, we assessed the extent to which inter-role conflict functions as
an antecedent of OCB via the mediators job satisfaction and organizational
commitment. More specifically, it is argued that greater inter-role conflict is associated with decreases in both job satisfaction and organizational commitment.
These decreases, in turn, are expected to lead to a decline in OCB. Therefore, the
following hypotheses were tested:
H2: The inter-role confzict/OCB
satisfaction.
H3:
The inter-role conJlict/OCB
organizational commitment.

relationship
relationship

will be mediated by job

will be mediated

by

Methodology
Sample

and Data Collection

The sample in this study consisted of 169 individuals enrolled in one of two
evening MBA programs. At the time of the survey, subjects were enrolled in
either a class in business policy, organization theory, or small business management. In addition to their role as students, all participants were employed full-time
in many different companies and industries throughout two Southeastern states.
During the first class period, respondents completed the portion of the survey that
included the measure of role conflict and facilitation, as well as measures of job
satisfaction and organizational commitment. The second half of the survey, which
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HOLLY B. TOMPSON

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Job
Satisfaction

Organizational
Citizenship
Behaviors

Inter-Role
Conflict

A
Organizational
Commitment

Figure 1. A Model of the Direct and Indirect Effects of

Inter-Role Conflict on Organizational Citizenship Behaviors

included the OCB and in-role dependent variables, was distributed two weeks
later in order to mitigate the potential negative effects of common method variance and consistency bias (Pod&off
& Organ, 1986). Participation was voluntary and, although all students chose to complete the surveys, the ultimate sample
size was 169 due to non-attendance by six subjects during the second data collection period. Mean age of the subjects was 30.4 years, with 115 (68%) males, and
54 (32%) females. One-hundred-thirteen
individuals (67%) reported their marital
status as married or living as married.
Measures
Inter-role conflict was assessed in two ways, namely via a matrix approach
developed for this study, as well as using an existing scale of job- and off-job
interference developed by ODriscoll, Ilgen, and Hildreth (1992). The primary
measure of inter-role conflict and facilitation was a modified version of the matrix
methodology first developed in the goal literature (Emmons, 1986; Payls & Little,
1983). A list of ten roles was given to each individual from which the respondent
was instructed to identify each role that he or she currently occupied. These roles
were taken from the Role Checklist developed by Oakley et al. (1986) and
included the following: student, employee, spouse, primary care giver, volunteer,
home maintainer, friend, religious participant, hobbyist/amateur, and other. No
restrictions were given as to the number of roles one could report, although
subjects were instructed to check only those r,oles where they were involved in
related activities at least once a week. Specifically, respondents were asked to
write the different roles they currently occupied down the left-hand side of the
matrix and to replicate that list across the top of the matrix. Participants were then
asked to compare each role with each other role, and report the degree to which
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MULTIPLE

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589

participation in one role facilitated the achievement of success in the comparison

role, did not affect the comparison role, or if pa~icipation in that role conflicted
with the comparison role.
The instructions for the conflict/facilitation
matrix were patterned after
Emmons (1986), where respondents answered on a scale from -2 to +2. The
numerical values reflected the following responses: -2 = participation in one activity had a harmful or conflictual effect on the other, -1 = a somewhat harmful/
conflictual effect, 0 = no effect, +l = a somewhat facilitative or helpful effect, and
+2 = a very facilitative or helpful effect. For this study, a wor~nonwork total
score was obtained for each subject by summing the ratings made by the individual for potential conflict/facilitation
between their work role and all their other
reported roles. A negative total score indicates high perceived conflict between
work and other roles, while a positive score suggests greater overall facilitation.
Measuring role conflic~facilitation
in this way means that high scores (high facilitation) are expected to correlate with high levels of other variables in this study
(e.g., high job satisfaction), whereas low scores (indicating high conflict) are
expected to correlate with low levels on these other variables. Because role
conflict was measured as the negative pole of the conflict/facilitation
measure, we
were not predicting negative correlations between this measure and the mediating
or dependent variables in this study.
As a check on the convergent validity of this matrix approach, subjects also
completed scales devised by ODriscoll et al. (1992), which measure job- and offjob interference. Each scale contains seven items intended to measure the extent
to which constraints in one domain (i.e., work) interfered with the fulfillment of
goals and responsibilities in the other domain (i.e., non-work; ODriscoll et al.,
1992, p. 274). Sample items from each scale include, I have to put off non-work
things I would like to do because of my work requirements, and There is a
conflict between my job and the number of commitments and responsibilities I
have outside my work. ODriscoll et al. (1992) found scales reliabilities of .87
and .79 for these scales, respectively.
To assess job satisfaction, the short version of Hackman and Oldhams
(1975) General Job Satisfaction (GJS) scale was used. This subscale is frequently
utilized and has consistently produced high reliability estimates. The GJS uses a
7-point Likert format with the endpoints of very satisfied to very dissatisfied.
The Organizational Commitment Questionnaire (OCQ) was used to assess
orga~~~at~o~a~ commitment (Mowday, Steers & Porter, 1979). The 15-item scale
has been widely used and its psychometric properties are considered acceptable
(Allen & Meyer, 1990). In their review, Mowday et al. (1979) found coefficient
alphas ranged between .82 and .93. In the current investigation, the OCQ was
modified to maintain a distinction between organizational commitment and the
citizenship component of loyalty. Specifically, 11 items from the OCQ were used
which reflect the degree to which one agrees with the values, policies, and goals
of the organization and the intention to seek employment elsewhere. Four OCQ
items were dropped, as they were thought to overlap too highly with the OCB
dimension of loyalty, i.e., the extent to which an employee engages in actions that
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HOLLY B. TOMPSON AND JON M. WERNER

support or defend the organization and its members. The OCQ scale employs a 7point Likert rating format with endpoints of strongly agree and strongly disagree.
Organizational citizenship behaviors were measured using scales developed
by Moorman and Blakely (1995). Working from the theoretical framework
provided by Graham (1989), four major dimensions of citizenship behavior are
proposed. First, interpersonal helping describes altruistic behaviors which
respond to the personal needs of co-workers faced with job-related problems. The
second dimension, personal industry or conscientiousness,
describes the adherence to rules and instructions, unusual attention to quality, and the performance of
specific tasks above and beyond the call of duty. Third, individual initiative or
participation, describes communications with others in the work place which seek
to improve individual and team performance, challenge groupthink, and encourage participation in decision making. Fourth, loyalty describes uncritical faithfulness to the organization, defense of its interests, and contributions to its good
reputation and general welfare. Five items were used to measure each dimension,
for 20 items all together. Items were rated on a seven-point Likert scale, with
anchors ranging from 1 = strongly disagree, to 7 = strongly agree. Sample items
for the four OCB subscales include, Goes out of his or her way to help co-workers with work-related problems, Performs his or her job duties with unusually
few errors, For issues that may have serious consequences, expresses opinions
honestly even when others may disagree, and Defends the organization when
outsiders criticize it. Moorman and Blakely (1995) found adequate reliability
estimates for these scales, with only personal industry dropping below r = .70.
In-role behavior was measured using seven items from Williams and
Anderson (1991). These items refer to the performance of expected duties, i.e.,
those which meet the formal requirements of the job. These items were also rated
using a seven-point Likert scale. In their sample, Williams and Anderson
obtained a reliability estimate of r = .91 for in-role behavior. Finally, four
demographic
variables-income,
age, gender, and educational
level-were
included in our study as control variables. Income was coded from 1-7, with 1 =
income less than $15,000 per year, 2 = up to $25,000 per year, 3 = up to $35,000
per year, 4 = up to $45,000 per year, 5 = up to $60,000 per year, 6 = up to
$75,000 per year, and 7 = $75,000 or more. Gender was coded as male = 0,
female = 1. Education was coded from l-5. Subjects were asked to check their
highest level of education completed, as follows: 1 = high school; 2 = some
college or associates degree; 3 = bachelors degree; 4 = masters or other
professional degree; and 5 = doctorate.
Data Analysis
Baron and Kenny (1986, p. 1177) suggested a three-step process for determining the existence of mediating relationships using multiple regression: First,
the independent variable must affect the mediator . . . . Second, the independent
variable must be shown to affect the dependent variable, and third, the mediator
must affect the dependent variable . . . (the independent variable must be included
in this equation). Once these conditions are satisfied, it must be shown that, in
the third equation, the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable
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MULTIPLE LIFE ROLES

591

is less than it was in the second equation. In Equation 3, if the mediator significantly impacts the dependent variable, and the relationship between the independent and dependent variable is no longer significant when the mediator is
included, a mediating model exists. Alternatively, it is possible for both the mediator and the independent variable to significantly impact the dependent variable.
When the mediator is significant and the independent variable is also significant,
but explains less variance in Equation 3 than in Equation 2, a partially mediated
model exists.
H2 and H3 proposed that job satisfaction and organizational commitment
would mediate the role conflict/facilitation-OCB
relationship. To be supported,
role conflict/facilitation
must first be significantly related to the mediators (Equation l), and second, role conflict/facilitation
must have a significant impact on the
OCB variables (Equation 2). Finally, the mediators must be significantly related
to OCB (Equation 3). If full mediation exists, role conflict/facilitation
would no
longer be significant in Equation 3. A conservative test was used for Hypothesis 1,
which proposed a direct relationship between role conflict and OCB. Specifically,
this hypothesis was supported only if the relationship was significant in Equation
3, where inclusion of the mediators made it more difficult for role conflict/facilitation to retain statistical significance.
Results
Descriptive Statistics
Table 1 reports the means, standard deviations, reliability estimates, and
correlation matrix for the independent, mediating, dependent, and control variables. Due to the nature of the matrix methodology used to assess role conflict/
facilitation, a reliability estimate was not available for this scale. Participants in
this sample reported their mean number of major life roles to be 6.04 (S.D.= 1.21).
However, role accumulation, or the number of roles reported, was related to only
one of the variables measured in this study, namely loyalty, in that subjects reporting more roles also reported lower loyalty. Role accumulation was unrelated to
the other OCB dimensions, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, or any of
the role conflict measures. As can be seen in Table 1, our measure of role conflict/
facilitation between work and non-work roles had a mean slightly above zero (a
score of zero indicates that, on average, the individual perceives that performance
in their work role was neither helpful nor harmful to performance of their other
life roles). Mean scores for individuals on this measure ranged from -1.67 to
+2.00.
Evidence of Convergent

Validity for the Role Conflict/Facilitation

Scale

Evidence of the convergent validity of the role conflict/facilitation

measure
can be obtained from data provided by IO5 participants in the current study. These
individuals completed the ODriscoll et al. measures of job- and off-job interference, in addition to the other measures reported in this study. Scores on the worknonwork role conflict/ facilitation matrix were significantly correlated with both
the job and off-job dimensions of the ODriscoll et al. role conflict scale (r = -.26
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7.56

1.42

30.35

9. Income

0.72

0.48

0.74

*p i .05;

***p < ,001

Descriptive

.08

.Ol

.06

.03

.02

.1s*

.24**

.19*

.21**

.27***

.03

.03

-.05

.08

.14**

.28***

.18*

.15*

.18*

-.03

.08

-.07

.04

.35***

.48***

.31***

.28***

.Ol

.15

.03

.05

.38***

.lO

.24***

.02

.07

-.Ol

.17*

.37***

.19*

.22**

.44*** (.75)

.32*** (.67)

4
7

.25***

.03

.28**

.30***

.40*

.08

.lO

.09

.lO

.42*

.34*** (.76)

(.77)

Statistics and Correlation?

.55*** (.90)

.29*** (.89)

1.

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**p < .Ol;

a N = 169. Cronbach alphas are shown in parentheses.

3.17

12. Education Level

Notes:

0.32

11. Gender

10. Age

0.50

5.76

8. In-Role Behavior

0.98

0.84

5.47

4.89

0.92

7. Loyalty

5.52

0.85

1.11

1.02

0.76

s.d.

6. Individual Initiative

5. Personal Industry

Helping

5.34

4.38

3. Organizational

4. Interpersonal

4.84

2. Job Satisfaction

Commitment

0.03

Means

1. Role Conflict/Facilitation

Variables

Table

.44**

.13

.32***

.29*** -.09

.15

.26***

(.80)

.36***

-.21**

10

-.14*

II

12

MULTIPLE

LIFE ROLES

593

and r = -.25, p < .05), indicating that the more subjects perceived facilitation
between work and non-work roles, the less interference they reported on the
ODriscoll et al. measures. Thus, there was a moderate amount of overlap
between these measures. One would not expect exceptionally high intercorrelations, since the matrix measures both conflict and facilitation, while the
ODriscoll et al. scales tap inter-role conflict only. In addition, the ODriscoll et
al. measure compares work and non-work activities in general, without looking at
specific roles.
Tests of Hypotheses
Table 2 presents the results of the regression analyses which were used to
test our hypotheses. Specifically, Table 2 includes the betas and squared semipartial coefficients for each term in the equations suggested by Baron and Kenny
(1986). The demographic variables were included first (as control variables) in
each step of the regression analyses. Since sequential sums of squares are
reported, the semi-pat-Gals reported in Table 2 reflect only the unique variance
explained by that variable on the dependent variable. With this approach, variance
shared between two or more predictors is not included, which explains why the
model R2 does not always equal the sum of the semi-pat-Gals.
With regard to Hypothesis 1, the first-order correlations in Table 1 indicated
that role ~onflic~facilitation
was moderately, but significantly related to each of
the OCB dimensions (i.e., interpersonal helping, personal industry, individual
initiative, and loyalty). Similar findings were obtained in Equation 2, where the
demographic variables were controlled. Note that job satisfaction and organizational commitment were not included in Equation 2. Since the mediators were
included in Equation 3, this equation provided a more Conservative test of
Hypothesis 1. In this case, role conflict/facilitation
was significantly related to
three of the four citizenship components, i.e., interpersonal helping, personal
industry, and individual initiative. Therefore, Hypothesis 1 received strong,
although not total, support.
Hypotheses 2 and 3 tested the extent to which job satisfaction and organizational commitment functioned as mediators for each of the four OCB dimensions.
Although role conflict/facilitation
was significantly related to job satisfaction, job
satisfaction did not mediate the relationship between role conflict/facilitation
and
any of the OCB dimensions. Thus, Hypothesis 2 was not supported.
With Hypothesis 3, organizational commitment was found to fully mediate
the relationship between role conflic~fa~ilitation
and the loyalty dimension of
citizenship. Equation 1 shows a significant relationship between role conflict/
facilitation and organizational commitment. Equation 2 reports significant relationships between role conflict/facilitation
and the four OCB dimensions. In
Equation 3, not only was organizational commitment found to be significantly
related to loyalty, but role con~ic~facilitation
was no longer significant for this
OCB dimension, and the squared semi-partial dropped to virtually zero. For the
other three OCB dimensions, neither full nor partial mediation was found to exist.
That is, organizational commitment was strongly related to interpersonal helping,
personal industry, and individual initiative, but as noted above, this did not reduce
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5.I

3
:*

f
G!
.-

Notes: p < .05

.07
.Ol
.03
.Ol
.39

J3
.Ol
.Ol
.oo
.oo
.OS*
.lO

sr2
.04
02
.22
.I1
.42

P
.Ol
.Ol
.Ol
.oo
.08*
.ll

sr2

.oo
.oo
.14
.05
.30
.05
.32

.Ol
.oo
.22
.Ol
.28

Downloaded from jom.sagepub.com at University of Newcastle on September 6, 2014

Age
Gender
Education Level
Role Conflict/Facilitation
Job Satisfaction
Organizational Commitment
Overall R2

.Equation 3
Income

Age
Gender
Education Level
Role Conflict/Facilitation
Overall R2

Equation 2
Income

Age
Gender
Education Level
Role Couflict/Facilitation
Overall R2

Equation I
Income

Variables

.oo
.oo
.Ol
.oo
.05*
.oo
.08*
.I7

*oo
.OO
.Ol
.oo
.04*
.05

Analyses

.08
.Ol
.17
.08
.26
.07
.32

.lO
.Ol
.24
.04
.25

j3

.03*
.Ol
.Ol
.OO
.04*
.oo
.07*
.17

.03*
.OO
.Ol
.oo
.03*
.07

sr

Personal
industry

.07
.02
.21
.I6
.28
.Ol
.29

.Ol
.28
.I3
.28

.08

.03*
.02*
.Ol
.Ol
.04*
.oo
.07*
.25

.03*
.Ol
.03*
.oo
.04*
.14

srL

Individual
Initiative

Organizational Citizenship Behaviors

of Regression

~..
Interpersonal
Helping
sr 2
J

Results

Organizational
Job Satisfaction Commitment

Mediators

Table 2.

.Ol
.Ol
.12
.O4
.Ol
.04
.36

.05
.oo
.24
.02
.24

.Oo
.oo
.oo
.oo
.oo
.oo
.19*
.24

.Ol
.oo
.Ol
.oo
.03*
.05

byalty
--srL
B

.05
.oo
.31
.12
.14
.07
.31

.08
.oo
.39
.08
.08

.03*
.oo
.04*
.Ol
.02
.Ol
.11*
.27

.03*
.oo
.06*
.Ol
.Ol
.ll

sr2

In-Role
Behavior

MULTIPLE LIFE ROLES

595

or remove the effects of role conflict/facilitation

on these variables. Thus, Hypothesis 3 received only weak support.
While no formal hypotheses were tested concerning in-role or core job behaviors, Table 1 indicates that, unlike the OCB measures, there was little relationship
in this sample between role conflict/facilitation
and in-role behavior (r = .02). Similar findings were obtained in Equation 2 of Table 2, where demographics were
controlled. The relationship between role conflict/facilitation
and in-role behaviors
was strongest in Equation 3, where the full set of variables was entered simultaneously. However, even here, results were in line with our expectations that role
conflict would have a stronger influence on discretionary behaviors than on behaviors which are expected for a given work role.

Discussion
This study asked whether conflict/facilitation
between work and non-work
roles was related to individual performance, and if so, how? As noted, carrying
out core elements of a job was not strongly related to the extent to which individuals reported role conflict versus facilitation. This is not surprising, in that even
individuals perceiving high levels of role conflict will generally seek to carry out
their expected job requirements. We did not expect to find much of a relationship
here, and in fact little was observed.
The question of whether role conflict/facilitation
was related to discretionary
behaviors can be answered, generally, in the affirmative. That is, in analyses without mediating variables, role conflict/facilitation
was significantly related to all
citizenship dimensions. What is more important, when the mediators were added,
role conflict retained significant direct relationships with interpersonal helping,
personal industry, and individual initiative. This provides fairly strong support for
the notion that worWnonwork conflict is an important antecedent of OCB. Given
the competitive pressures facing organizations and individuals, many employees
are likely currently experiencing high levels of such conflict (Bridges, 1994;
Wexley & Silverman, 1993). If these findings generalize to other samples and
types of workers, this has practical and research implications.
There was little support for job satisfaction or organizational commitment as
mediators of this relationship. We felt our model was plausible, given past support
for the linkages from role conflict to these two variables (Jackson & Schuler,
1985), and from these two variables to OCB (Organ, 1988). However, only organizational commitment was found to mediate the relationship between role
conflict/facilitation
and OCB, and then only for the loyalty dimension. Although
we did not make a priori hypotheses concerning specific OCB dimensions, it is
interesting that organizational commitment had a mediating effect on a citizenship
dimension which is organizational (rather than individual) in focus. This suggests
that when individuals experience high levels of work/nonwork
conflict, this
impacts negatively on their commitment to their organizations, which in turn
leads to lower organizational loyalty. While organizational commitment was also
significantly related to the other OCB dimensions, it did not function as a mediator of the role conflict-OCB relationship, since for these OCB dimensions, the
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HOLLY

B. TOMPSON

AND JON M. WERNER

direct relationship between role conflict and OCB remained statistically significant. Future research is needed to determine whether similar findings occur in
other samples.
As Tables 1 and 2 indicated, organizational commitment had a strong relationship with the OCB dimensions. This is in line with previous research
(Manogran & Conlon, 1994; OReilly & Chatman, 1986; Shore & Wayne, 1993),
but is reverse from what Williams and Anderson (1991) obtained. Williams and
Anderson found that two dimensions of job satisfaction significantly predicted
either OCBO or OCBI. Organizational commitment added little to hierarchical
regressions when job satisfaction was included. Conversely, in our study, when
these variables were simultaneously
added into our regression equations,
commitment had the stronger influence on OCB. We urge OCB researchers to
continue measuring organizational commitment in future investigations.
Strengths and Weaknesses of the Study
A primary strength of this study is that we have tapped a large literature on
roles across several disciplines, and combined this with recent research on organizational citizenship behavior. While our model in Figure 1 is simple, it has both
theoretical and empirical grounding, and provides a good starting point for continued study. A second strength of this research is the role conflict/facilitation
measure we presented. Research on multiple life roles has moved beyond simply
counting roles, yet we are aware of no similar procedure to ascertain individual
perceptions concerning whether life roles conflict with versus facilitate one
another. The matrix methodology allows individuals to select only those roles in
which they are currently involved. Further, our scale goes beyond previous efforts
by simultaneously asking subjects to rate whether their involvement in particular
roles conflicts with versus facilitates their performance in other roles. We believe
this adds a new dimension to the study of inter-role conflict.
As for study limitations, first, we did not get the level of support for our
hypotheses we had anticipated. Even with 169 subjects, this is partly a function of
statistical power. Further, the reliabilities of the OCB scales were acceptable,
though less than ideal, ranging from r = .67 to r = .77. More reliable scales may
influence the strength and pattern of findings obtained. In this regard, new OCB
measures have recently been proposed (Van Dyne et al., 1994). These appear
promising, although the Van Dyne et al. measures do not include a dimension
tapping interpersonal helping (i.e., altruism). Given the increased emphasis on
teams and teamwork in many organizations today, we recommend that future
OCB scales include a dimension tapping interpersonal helping.
Another limitation of this study was that all the data was obtained from the
same source. A concern when self-report data is used is that this will inflate the
correlations obtained between the variables. Excluding the control variables, the
mean intercorrelation among the variables in Table 1 was r = .28, with a range
from r = .02 to r = .55. However, the size of the intercorrelations differed dramatically. Had common method variance been driving these results, intercorrelations
would have been more uniformly positive. Both the two-step data collection
procedure we utilized (following Podsakoff & Organ, 1986), as well as the pattern
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MULTIPLE

LIFE ROLES

597

of findings in Tables 1 and 2, diminishes the likelihood that common method variance was a major factor influencing our results.
To check for correspondence between self- and other-ratings, subjects were
asked to provide the name of a co-worker, whom we asked to complete the in-role
and OCB measures, and mail directly back to us. Completed responses that could
be matched with self-ratings were received from 33 peers. This was not sufficient
for our data analyses. However, correlations between self and peer ratings were
significant for all four OCB dimensions (interpersonal helping, r = .41; personal
industry, r = .38; individual initiative, r = .41; and loyalty, r = 54; all significant
at p < .05; in-role behaviors, r = .29, n.s.). We feel that these correlations are large
enough to reduce major concerns about self-reported performance data. We also
note that self-ratings are most likely to be inflated when used for administrative
purposes, a condition that was not present in the current study.
A final potential limitation is that we have made causal inferences in this
study, based on our model in Figure 1. There were two weeks between when
subjects completed the role conflict/facilitation
scale and the OCB scales.
However, this is not long enough to make a strong argument that role conflict
perceptions caused the OCB ratings. To better test causal inferences, a longer
interval is needed between measurements.
Research Implications
Future research appears promising along several lines. First, we urge a replication of this study with other, larger samples. For instance, our sample was
selected because they were engaged in many roles, i.e., role conflict was highly
salient to them. Would results be different for individuals reporting fewer life
roles, or for other classes of workers? Second, we urge that future OCB research
use external evaluations of in-role and citizenship dimensions, and that ratings be
collected from supervisors and peers. Research on multiple feedback sources
(360-degree feedback) would seem to hold much promise for rating both core
and citizenship performance dimensions (Tomow, 1993).
A third recommendation
has to do with the method of aggregating across
roles to determine role conflict/facilitation
scores. As noted, we computed an
average score for each subject based on their reported conflict/facilitation
between
work and other roles. Given our work-related dependent and mediating variables,
this was a reasonable approach. However, there may be other situations where
researchers may want to take the average reported conflict/facilitation
score
across all roles. Other variables of interest to OB researchers are likely to be influenced by this larger measure of conflict and facilitation, e.g., anxiety, life satisfaction, or intention to terminate involvement in a particular role (Thompson &
Korsgaard, 1995), and thus the choice of aggregation method will likely vary
depending upon the research area.
Our fourth recommendation regards synthesizing the current study with other
research on roles (Ilgen & Hollenbeck, 1991; Jackson & Schuler, 1985). We used
the term role to refer to the various activities or positions across life domains in
which an individual may participate. These roles, taken from the Role Checklist of
Oakley et al. (1986), can be seen as static, in that subjects identified whether they
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HOLLY B. TOMPSON

AND JON M. WERNER

occupied each role or not at a specific point in time. In the OB literature, the
dynamic nature of roles is often discussed (Graen & Scandura, 1987; Ilgen &
Hollenbeck,
1991). Graen and Scandura (1987) described a process of role
making, whereby role senders and receivers (e.g., organizational leaders and
subordinates) mutually negotiate how the subordinate will carry out his or her
work role. In a similar fashion, Ilgen and Hollenbeck (199 1) discussed how some
task elements in a job emerge over time. The current study demonstrated that one
response to perceived conflict between work and nonwork roles is to reduce the
amount of discretionary behaviors exhibited at work, thus changing the nature of
the work role. In effect, this response to role conflict can be seen as a renegotiation of how one carries out the work role. Future research might study the strategies employees utilize when they experience high levels of work-nonwork
conflict. What negotiations occur within the work role (e.g., reducing the face
time spent in the office at night or on weekends)? What role negotiations occur in
other life roles (e.g., increasing or decreasing the time spent with family members
or significant others, removing oneself from particular roles or relationships)?
Can meaningful patterns of responses to role conflict be identified? Finally, to
what extent is such role making coterminous with the discretionary behaviors
described by Organ (1988) and others?
Our final recommendation concerns the demographic variables used in this
study. There was reasonable variation on these variables in our sample, and a
small but not insubstantial amount of variance was explained by these variables.
For example, females in our study reported higher levels of organizational
commitment and OCB. By including these as control variables, we have, in effect,
downplayed differences due to gender, age, income, and education. We feel this
was legitimate, given the objectives of our study. Nonetheless, such demographic
differences can add spice to studies such as ours. Documenting such effects is
both interesting and important. For example, much of the popular interest in this
topic concerns the ability of organizations to best utilize the talents of working
individuals (especially women) with children at home, aging parents-or
both.
Future research should study these demographic issues in more detail.
Practical Implications
We would briefly mention some practical implications of this study. First,
managers may not always take seriously conflicts between work and non-work
roles, perhaps because they do not see the negative effects such conflicts can have
on work performance.
Our study suggests that conflict between work and
nonwork roles influences organizational commitment and job satisfaction, as well
as an important aspect of overall job performance, namely, OCB. Managers,
therefore, do not need to be especially altruistic to develop human resource
policies and practices (e.g., flextime, telecommuting, child care assistance) which
address areas of work/non-work conflict. This research suggests that by helping
employees develop synergy, or at least avoid conflict between work and nonwork
roles, work outcomes should improve as well. Second, efforts to strengthen
employee commitment, satisfaction, or citizenship behavior will only be partially
effective if issues of work/non-work conflict are neglected.
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LIFE ROLES

Third, based on our findings, one might ask whether organizations should
avoid hiring people with multiple life roles, out of a concern that this will affect
their subsequent levels of citizenship behaviors. A primary objection to this, of
course, is that such a selection strategy is highly questionable from a legal standpoint, especially if it were found to have adverse impact on a class of workers
protected by civil rights legislation (e.g., women). We would also respond by
noting once again our non-findings concerning role accumulation, i.e., with the
singular exception of loyalty, the number of roles subjects were involved in was
rapt related to their performance. Employee perceptions of conflict versus facilitation between roles were much stronger predictors of discretionary behavior than
the number of roles per se.
In summary, we have .presented a new measure of inter-role conflict and
facilitation based upon a matrix approach. Significant relationships were obtained
between scores on this measure and other variables of interest to organizations
and OB researchers. Support was obtained for both direct and indirect effects of
role conflict/facilitation
on four dimensions of organizational citizenship behavior. More research is needed in this area to replicate and extend our findings using
other samples and other variables. Ultimately, we believe that the role matrix, as
well as the role literature cited in this study, can be usefully incorporated into
current organizational behavior research.
NOTES
I

For comparison pm-poses, we ran our analyses using both the workhronwork measure of conflict and facilitation reported here, as well as with the full measure of conflict/facilitation,
where the mean of all role
comparisons was used as the measure of role conflict/facilitation.
The mean for the full measure was almost
identical to that of the workhronwork subscale. Further, there was very little difference between the results of
the regression analyses using the two scales, with the same general pattern of statistical significance. Nonetheless, we expect that in other situations, a different pattern of results is likely to result, depending on which
type of role conflict/facilitation
scale was used.

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