Title

Author(s)

Nonlinear analysis of reinforced concrete structures

Huang, Yuping.;

Citation

Issued Date

URL

Rights

1993

http://hdl.handle.net/10722/34660

The author retains all proprietary rights, (such as patent rights)

and the right to use in future works.

NONLINEAR ANALYSIS OF REINFORCED

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Huang Yuping
B . S c . , M.Sc. (S.C.U.T.)

A T h e s i s P r e s e n t e d f o r the Degree o f
Doctor o f Philosophy
a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Hong Kong

Department o f C i v i l a n d S t r u c t u r a l E n g i n e e r i n g
The U n i v e r s i t y o f Hong Kong
J u l y , 1993

DECLARATION

I hereby d e c l a r e t h a t the t h e s i s e n t i t l e d "Nonlinear A n a l y s i s

of

Reinforced

Concrete

submitted

in

this

admission

to

or

Structures"
other

degree,

has

not

Institution i n

diploma

or

other

been

previously

application
qualification,

for
and

c o n t a i n s no m a t e r i a l p r e v i o u s l y p u b l i s h e d o r w r i t t e n b y a n o t h e r
p e r s o n , e x c e p t where due r e f e r e n c e i s made i n t h e t e x t .

Huang Y u p i n g

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The a u t h o r w i s h e s t o e x p r e s s h i s s i n c e r e g r a t i t u d e t o h i s
supervisors, Professor Y. K.

Cheung,

Head o f t h e Department o f

C i v i l and S t r u c t u r a l E n g i n e e r i n g and P r o - V i c e - C h a n c e l l o r o f t h e
U n i v e r s i t y o f Hong Kong, and D r . H. C. Chan, f o r h a v i n g p r o v i d e d
the

opportunity o f

inspiration,

this

continuing

research

and f o r

encouragement

and

their

enlightening

invaluable

advice

throughout t h e course i n c a r r y i n g out t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

S p e c i a l a p p r e c i a t i o n i s due t o P r o f e s s o r W. F . Chen o f Purdue
University

for

sending

the

author

the

valuable

reference

materials.
Deep

thanks a r e

Laboratory o f C i v i l
their

kind

extended t o

the s t a f f s o f

the

Computer

and S t r u c t u r a l E n g i n e e r i n g Department f o r

assistance

and

to

Mrs.

Belinda

Cheung

and

M r s . V i v i a n Ng f o r t h e i r c o r d i a l h e l p .
G r a t e f u l t h a n k s a r e e x p r e s s e d t o t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Hong Kong
for

offering

the

author

the

research

assistantship

and

the

postgraduate studentship.
F i n a l l y , i n f i n i t e t h a n k s a r e go t o t h e author* s f a m i l y , t o
h i s w i f e and h i s s o n , f o r t h e i r b o u n d l e s s s u p p o r t d u r i n g t h e
a u t h o r ' s pursue o f t h i s study.

To my wife and my son

ABSTRACT OF THESIS ENTITLED:

NONLINEAR A N A L Y S I S OF REINFORCED
CONCRETE STRUCTURES

S u b m i t t e d b y Huang Y u p i n g
f o r t h e degree o f D o c t o r o f P h i l o s o p h y
a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Hong Kong i n J u l y o f 1993

i i i

ABSTRACT

I n t h i s t h e s i s , a model i s p r o p o s e d f o r n o n l i n e a r a n a l y s i s o f
r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s . The model c o n s i s t s m a i n l y o f two
p a r t s the constitutive relation for concrete and the simulation
of the post-cracking behaviour of a reinforced concrete structure.
The constitutive relation for concrete is developed based on
the proposed heterogeneous hardening plasticity theory adopting
the associated flow rule.
hardening

plasticity

Being different

theory,

in

which

to

the usual

the

strain

expansion

and

translation of the subsequent yield surface from the initial yield

surface is at an uniform rate with respect to the variation of the
hardening parameter, the heterogeneous hardening plasticity theory
deems that the development of the subsequent yield surface is at a
nonuniform

rate

with

regard

to

the

change

of

the

hardening

parameter. A variable heterogeneous index Is therefore introduced.

The

constructed

failure

function,

initial

yield

function

and

loading function include the effect of the hydrostatic pressure on

the behaviour of concrete and possess the continuous derivative
over

the

common

boundary

tension-compression

of

zone. With

compression-compression
this

nonlinear stress-strain behaviour and

constitutive
the

zone

and

relation,

the

inelastic contraction

and dilatation behaviour of concrete under various combined stress

states can be successfully represented. The proposed constitutive
relation

can

be degenerated as a usual uniform

_
*
relation by adjusting the heterogeneous index.

constitutive

new

bond s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n i s

put

forward

i n s t e a d o f t h e g e n e r a l l y adopted bond s t r e s s - s l i p f u n c t i o n f o r t h e
s i m u l a t i o n o f the p o s t - c r a c k i n g behaviour o f a r e i n f o r c e d concrete
s t r u c t u r e . The e f f e c t o f t h e n o n u n i f o r m i t y o f c o n c r e t e s t r e s s e s i n
t r a n s v e r s e and l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n s on the c r a c k s t r e n g t h o f a
reinforced

concrete

member

or

segment i s

considered

by

the

suggested e x p r e s s i o n f o r the crack s t r e n g t h o f concrete.

B a s e d o n t h e p r o p o s e d bond s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n ,
two-dimensional
reinforced

tangential

concrete i s

stress-strain relation for

established.

Under

this

cracked

relation,

the

t e n s i o n s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t c a n be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t i n a more
a p p r o p r i a t e manner. The magnitude o f t h e t e n s i o n s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t
is

related

to

several

parameters,

namely,

the

ratio

of

r e i n f o r c e m e n t , t h e d i a m e t e r o f a s t e e l b a r , t h e s t r e n g t h and t h e
c o v e r o f c o n c r e t e and t h e m o d u l i o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t and c o n c r e t e .
Combining the c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n f o r

concrete

and t h e

t a n g e n t i a l s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n f o r cracked r e i n f o r c e d concrete,
a finite

element

model f o r

nonlinear

analysis

of

reinforced

concrete structures i s created.

Various
specimens,

experimental
reinforced

specimens,

concrete

including p l a i n

tension

members,

concrete

reinforced

c o n c r e t e deep beams and r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s h e a r w a l l s have been

a n a l y z e d u s i n g t h e p r o p o s e d model.

Good agreements between t h e

a n a l y t i c a l and e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s a r e o b t a i n e d . The a n a l y t i c a l
r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e p r o p o s e d model c a n be a p p l i e d t o t h e
nonlinear

analysis

reasonable accuracy.

of

reinforced

concrete

structures

with

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

DECLARATION

i i

ABSTRACT

i i i

CHAPTER

PAGE

1.

INTRODUCTION

1.1

Background

1.2

Review

of

Literature

on

Nonlinear

Analysis

of

Reinforced Concrete S t r u c t u r e s
1.3

2.

3.

R e s e a r c h O b j e c t i v e a n d Scope

3
13

EXISTING CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS FOR CONCRETE

17

2.1

I n t r o d u c t o r y Remarks

17

2.2

E l a s t i c i t y - B a s e d Models

18

2 . 3 S t r a i n Hardening P l a s t i c i t y Models

27

2 . 4 P l a s t i c F r a c t u r i n g Models

41

2.5

Endochronic Models

47

2.6

Conclusions

52

HETEROGENEOUS HARDENING PLASTICITY THEORY FOR CONCRETE

3.1

I n t r o d u c t o r y Remarks

3.2

F a i l u r e F u n c t i o n and I n i t i a l Y i e l d F u n c t i o n

3.3

Loading Function

3.4

C o n s t i t u t i v e R e l a t i o n f o r Concrete

54
54
55
63
71

4.

5.

3.5

P l a s t i c H a r d e n i n g Modulus H

3.6

S o l u t i o n Technique f o r H a r d e n i n g Parameter

3.7

N u m e r i c a l Examples

82

3.8

Conelusions

89

74
81

SMEARED CRACKING MODELS FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

4.1

I n t r o d u c t o r y Remarks

4.2

E m p i r i c a l Approach f o r T e n s i o n S t i f f e n i n g

4.3

T h e o r e t i c a l Approach f o r T e n s i o n S t i f f e n i n g

4.4

Conclusions

BOND STRESS

DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

90
91
107
129

AND ITS

APPLICAION

TO

CRACK ANALYSIS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE TENSION MEMBERS

5.1

I n t r o d u c t o r y Remarks

5.2

Bond S t r e s s D i s t r i b u t i o n F u n c t i o n and S t r e s s - S t r a i n

6.

131

U l t i m a t e Bond S t r e s s , C r a c k S t r e n g t h o f a R e i n f o r c e d
C o n c r e t e Member and t h e C o n s t a n t K

5.4

130
130

R e l a t i o n f o r Cracked R e i n f o r c e d Concrete
5.3

90

140

A p p l i c a t i o n t o Crack A n a l y s i s o f R e i n f o r c e d Concrete
T e n s i o n Members

147

5.5

A n a l y t i c a l Examples

148

5.6

Conclusions

155

CRACK ANALYSIS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES INCLUDING

TENSION STIFFENING

156

6.1

156

I n t r o d u c t o r y Remarks

6.2

D e s c r i p t i o n o f Cracked R e i n f o r c e d C o n c r e t e under P l a n e
Stresses

157

6.3

B a s i c E q u a t i o n s f o r Cracked C o n c r e t e and ReInforcement

6.4

Tangential

Stress-Strain

Relation

for

163

Cracked

R e i n f o r c e d Concrete
6.5

The Parameters Used i n t h e Model

6.6

Conclusions

169
175
179

SOLUTION TECHNIQUES FOR NONLINEAR EQUATIONS

180

7.1

I n t r o d u c t o r y Remarks

180

7.2

Newton-Raphson Scheme

181

7.3

I n i t i a l S t i f f n e s s Scheme

184

7.4

M o d i f i e d Newton-Raphson Scheme

185

7.5

Convergence C r i t e r i a

188

7.6

E v a l u a t i o n and A p p l i c a t i o n

189

7.7

Conclusions

190

PREDICTION OF THE ULTIMATE STRENGTH AND THE FAILURE MODE OF

REINFORCED CONCRETE DEEP BEAMS
8.1

I n t r o d u c t o r y Remarks

8.2

P r e d i c t i o n o f t h e Deep Beams T e s t e d b y Ramakrishnan

191
191

and Anathanaryana
8 . 3 P r e d i c t i o n o f the Deep Beam T e s t e d b y Leonhard and
Waltzer
8.4

8.5

199

The Comparison o f t h e Deep Beams w i t h D i f f e r e n t R a t i o s

o f Span Over Depth

203

Conclusions

215

viii

9.

PREDICTION OF THE ULTIMATE STRENGTH ANDTHE FAILURE MODE OF

SHEAR WALL STRUCTURES
9.1

I n t r o d u c t o r y Remarks

9.2

P r e d i c t i o n o f t h e S i n g l e Shear W a l l T e s t e d b y Hsu

217

9.3

P r e d i c t i o n o f t h e C o u p l e d Shear W a l l s T e s t e d b y Kuang

225

94

10.

216
216

Conclusions

236

CONCLUSIONS

238

10.1

Summary

238

10.2

Conclusions

240

10.3

Further Research

242

REFERENCE

245

NOTATION

259

APPENDIX I

269

APPENDIX II

271

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1

BACKGROUND

Reinforced concrete i s

a composite m a t e r i a l c o n s i s t i n g o f

concrete and s t e e l b a r s . Concrete i s a mixture o f crushed r o c k ,

sand, o r o t h e r a g g r e g a t e s h e l d t o g e t h e r w i t h a p a s t e o f cement and
water.

The

main m e c h a n i c a l b e h a v i o u r o f

compressive

strength

and

low

in

concrete i s h i g h i n

tensile

strength.

The

reinforcement i n r e i n f o r c e d concrete i s capable o f r e s i s t i n g both

t e n s i l e and c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s , b u t i t s main e f f e c t i s t o p r o v i d e
t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h l a c k i n g i n c o n c r e t e and i n c e r t a i n range
r e s t r a i n the crack
loading,

the

development i n c r a c k i n g zone.

reinforced

concrete

can

be

considered

homogeneous a n d i s o t r o p i c l i n e a r e l a s t i c m a t e r i a l .
severe l o a d i n g i s a p p l i e d t o a s t r u c t u r e ,

Under s m a l l
as

However, i f

c o n c r e t e under pure

t e n s i o n w i l l c r a c k w i t h q u i c k r e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s t r e s s between
c o n c r e t e a n d r e i n f o r c e m e n t c o n c r e t e under p u r e c o m p r e s s i o n w i l l
e x h i b i t t h e n o n l i n e a r s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n and c r u s h f i n a l l y
concrete under tensile and compressive stress state may crack or
crush depending on the stress ratio and loading path. In all these
cases, reinforced concrete shows the complicated heterogeneous and
anisotropic

behaviour.

In

the

past,

due

to

the

complicated

nonlinear behaviour of reinforced concrete under severe loading,

it is a very difficult issue to carry out an ultimatic analysis of

a r e i n f o r c e d concrete structure.
With the a i d o f

computer r

various

models have b e e n p u t

forward f o r nonlinear analysis o f reinforced concrete structures

i n t h e p a s t two decades. I n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f s u c h a model, two
problems a r e o f concern:

one i s t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n f o r

concrete, the other i s the p o s t - c r a c k i n g behaviour o f r e i n f o r c e d

concrete.

A l t h o u g h g r e a t p r o g r e s s h a s b e e n made o n t h e s e

two

a s p e c t s , t h e r e i s s t i l l much room f o r improvement o n t h e e x i s t i n g

models.
The n o n l i n e a r b e h a v i o u r o f a s t r u c t u r e may r e s u l t f r o m t h e
material

n o n l i n e a r !t y

nonlinearity

is

nonlinearity

which

or

geometrical

common
can

and

be

nonlinearity.

major

attributed

source
to

of

(1)

Material
structural

the

nonlinear

stress-strain relation of concrete and steel; (2) the cracking of

concrete

(3

the transmission of normal stress by bond stress

surrounding the reinforcing bar, and the transfer of shear stress

by

the

aggregate

interlock

between

the

crack

faces;

and

(4)

time-dependent effects such as creep, shrinkage, temperature and

load

history.

concrete

structures

geometric
special

Material

when

nonlinearity

structures

nonlinearity
severe

its

loading

effect

in which the

exists

is

axial

in

is

all

applied.

apparent
stress

reinforced

only

As
In

Is high and

for
some
the

lateral deflection is considerably great, or the plane stress is

great and the out of plane displacement is large. Frame structures
with long columns and shells under heavy loading may be classified
into this type of structure. In this research, only the material
nonlinearity is considered.

1.2

REVIEW

OF

LITERATURE

ON

NONLINEAR

ANALYSIS

OF

REINFOBCED

CONCRETE STRUCTURES

1.2.1

The Development of Constitutive Relation f o r Concrete

The

nonlinear

behaviour

of

concrete

c o m p r e s s i o n h a s been r e c o g n i z e d a t
application

of

concrete.

The

under

uniaxial

t h e v e r y e a r l y age o f t h e

experiments

on

concrete

under

u n i a x i a l c o m p r e s s i o n show t h a t t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e o f c o n c r e t e
i s l i n e a r l y e l a s t i c up t o 30% o f t h e maximum c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h .
Above t h i s p o i n t , t h e I n c r e a s e r a t e o f t h e s t r a i n i s sped up.
A f t e r t h e peak v a l u e o f s t r e s s i s reached the curve will descend.
It means that the strain of concrete continues to increase with a
reduction

In

stress.

The peak

value

compressive strength of concrete.

of

In

stress

is

1964 S a e n z

called

the

proposed a

m a t h e m a t i c a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n f o r t h e b e h a v i o u r o f c o n c r e t e under
u n i a x i a l c o m p r e s s i o n . The r e p r e s e n t a t i o n and I t s v a r i o u s m o d i f i e d
versions are

later

found u s e f u l i n the

establishment o f

the

c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n f o r concrete.
I n 1968, S a e n z ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n h a s been d i r e c t l y adopted b y
Nilson

[2 ]

i n his

nonlinear

analytical

model

for

reinforced

c o n c r e t e b y f i n i t e element method. P r a c t i c a l l y , t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n
relation of
different
Gerstle

concrete

from that

ro]

hydrostatic

in

1973

and

under m u l t i a x i a l s t r e s s s t a t e i s q u i t e
under u n i a x i a l s t r e s s s t a t e .
decomposed

deviatoric

the

portion,

stress

and

relating

the

Kupfer
strain

and
into

hydrostatic

s t r e s s w i t h t h e h y d r o s t a t i c s t r a i n and. t h e d e v i a t o r i c s t r e s s w i t h

the d e v i a t o r i c s t r a i n by mathematical expressions d e r i v e d from the

e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a o n c o n c r e t e u n d e r m u l t i a x i a l l o a d i n g . The common
feature of

the

above

two c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n s i s

that

the

c o n s t i t u t i v e m a t r i x i s o b t a i n e d o r deduced d i r e c t l y b y i n t u i t i v e
o r a p p r o x i m a t e c o n s i d e r a t i o n . They a r e c l a s s i f i e d a s t h e v a r i a b l e
m o d u l i method, o r e l a s t i c i t y - b a s e d method.
A t t h e same t i m e a s K u p f e r a n d G e r t i e s method was proposed
Suidan and Schnobrich
concrete

into

concrete

[4]

introduced a perfect plastic relation for

their model for nonlinear analysis of

structures.

In

1975

Chen

and

Chen [5 ]

reinforced
proposed

constitutive relation for concrete under multiaxial stress state

using the theory of strain hardening plasticity. This method can
be considered as the generalization of the elasticity-based method
and

gives

good

simulation

constitutive relations
applied

of

the

experimental

data.

The

in this classification have been widely

In nonlinear analysis of reinforced concrete structures

for its rigorous satisfaction of all the principles of continuum

mechanics.
In

1974,

Bazant [6 3

applied

the

endochronic

theory

of

inelasticity in describing the nonlinear behaviour of concrete.

The

theory

consists

in

characterizing

the

inelastic

strain

accumulation by certain scalar parameter called intrinsic time,

whose increment is a function of
the

development

of

the

strain

constitutive

mainly based on four methods:

increments. Since

relation

for

then,

concrete

the elasticity-based method,

strain hardening plasticity method,

later the plastic fracturing method.

the endochronic method

is
the
and

Employing
Pecknold

the

elasticity-based

approach,

Darwin

[7],

i n 1977, proposed a c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n f o r c o n c r e t e

based on a n equivalent u n i a x i a l s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve.

Cedolin,

and

Crutzen

and

rgi

Poll

after

the

I n 1977,

examination

of

the

available constitutive relations deemed that until more extended

and appropriate investigations become available, a type of

law

that allows a direct Inclusion of the experimental data should be

preferred. In their model, The octahedral components of stress and
[9]

strain are related by curve fitting. In 1979, Elwi and Murray

proposed a three-dimensional (axisymmetric) constitutive relation

from the concepts put forward by S a e n z and D a r w i n . T h e model
c a n be r e g a r d e d a s t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e e q u i v a l e n t s t r e s s - s t r a i n
a p p r o a c h and t h e o c t a h e d r a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n approach.
Gerstle[103

suggested

I n 1981,

a s i m p l i f i e d formulation describing the

v o l u m e t r i c and d e v i a t o r i c r e l a t i o n s f o r c o n c r e t e under b i a x i a l
s t r e s s s t a t e s . The c o n c r e t e b e h a v i o u r i s r e p r e s e n t e d b y v a r i a b l e
t a n g e n t i a l b u l k and s h e a r modulus. The a c c u r a c y o f t h e model i s
more commensurable compared w i t h t h e t e s t measurement.
A l a r g e amount o f r e s e a r c h o n s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g p l a s t i c i t y
method h a s b e e n c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e p a s t

two decades. I n 1977,

Buyukozturk^113 presented a c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n f o r concrete by

i n t r o d u c i n g a new f o r m o f t h e l o a d i n g f u n c t i o n . I n 1979, M u r r a y
etc.

[12]

developed

constitutive

model

for

concrete

with

" d e c o m p o s i t i o n p a r a m e t e r s " , t h e p a r a m e t e r s s e r v e t o decompose t h e

t o t a l e q u i v a l e n t p l a s t i c s t r a i n r a t e i n t o e q u i v a l e n t t e n s i l e and
compressive p l a s t i c s t r a i n r a t e s .

In

1987,

Han

and

Chen

[13]

p r e s e n t e d a c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n employing n o n u n i f o m hardening

rule

and n o n a s s o c i a t e d f l o w r u l e f o r

concrete

hardening

and

s o f t e n i n g a n a l y s i s . The s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g b e h a v i o u r i s modeled b y
s t r e s s - s p a c e p l a s t i c i t y w h i l e the s t r a i n s o f t e n i n g behaviour i s
modeled b y s t r a i n - s p a c e p l a s t i c i t y . I n 1989, Hu and Schnobrich 1 " 1 4 3
put

forward

nonassociated p l a s t i c i t y

model.

generalized

e q u i v a l e n t s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e I s d e r i v e d i n t h e model f o r t h e
[IS
In 1988, Ohtani and Chen

calculation of the plastic modulus.

introduced a loading function which has a closed shape at initial

and an open-up shape at the end in their plasticity constitutive
relation for concrete. Multiple hardening parameters are used to
distribute
material

the

into

effect

of

the

total

each damage modes,

It

damage
shows

increment
that

the

of

the

inelastic

contraction and dilation behaviour of concrete can be represented

by the model.
The

research

on

the

extension

of

endochronic

theory

to

concrete has been first carried out by Bazant and his co-workers.
In 1976, Bazant and Bhat[16 developed several novel concepts in
detail

for

this

extension.

Their

concepts

include:

(1)

the

sensitivity of Intrinsic time increment to hydrostatic pressure;

(2)

the

Inelastic

dilatancy

due

to

shear

description of strain-softening tendency;

straining;

(3)

the

(4) the dependence of

tangent moduli on dilatancy; and (5) the introduction of more than

one intrinsic time.

In 1980, Bazant and Shieh C 1 7 3

improved the

endochronic nonlinear triaxial constitutive relation for concrete.

The

constitutive

relation

therefore

can

correctly predict

the

strain hardening, unloading diagrams, contraction of hysteresis

loops In cyclic loading and the effect of strain, rate. Howeveir, at

present,

this

constitutive

relation

should

be

applied

with

c a u t i o n , b e c a u s e some t h e o r e t i c p r o b l e m s a b o u t . t h i s c o n s t i t u t i v e
f18 1 Q1

r e l a t i o n a r e r e q u i r e d t o be s o l v e d
The

first

appearance

of

the

method was in 1979. Bazant and Kim

fracturing

so-called

[201

(microcraking) material

plastic

fracturing

combined the plasticity and

theory

to obtain a

triaxial

constitutive relation for concrete. A new hardening rule, called

jump-kinematic hardening.
cyclic

loading.

established

in

In

Is used for unloading,

1986 Han

strain-space,

fracturing theory of Dougill

The

model

is

fracturing

an

theory

attempt
to

and

Chen

based

on

[21]

reloading and

presented

plasticity

model

theory

and

for hardening-softening materials.

to

apply

simulating

the

the

plasticity

hardening

theory

and

and

softening

behaviour of the rock-like materials, such as concrete, rock and

soil.

1.2.2

The Development on Cracking Modeling of Reinforced Concrete

Cracking modeling

stages:

the

discrete

of

concrete

cracking

is mainly divided

modeling

and

into

smeared

two

cracking

modeling.
In
cracking

1967,

Ngo

modeling

and

Scordelis [ 2 2 1

approach

for

crack

originated
analysis

the
of

discrete
reinforced

concrete structure with a predefined crack pattern. This approach

is later improved by Nilson
loaded
tensile

incrementally.
stress

in

two

If

r 2

. By this approach, structure is

the

average

adjacent

value

elements

of

exceeds

the

principal

the

tensile

strength, then a crack is formed between those two elements aloiig

their

common b o u n d a r i e s b y d i s c o n n e c t i n g t h e element a t t h e i r

common c o r n e r s . When t h e p r i n c i p a l t e n s i o n a c t s a t a n a n g l e t o t h e
b o u n d a r i e s o f a n element, t h e c r a c k i s formed a l o n g t h e s i d e most
n e a r l y normal t o t h e p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n . A f t e r a c r a c k i s
formed,

the

member

is

completely

unloaded

i n c r e m e n t a l l y w i t h a newly d e f i n e d body.

and

reloaded

The t o p o l o g y o f

the

s t r u c t u r e must be r e d e f i n e d a f t e r each c r a c k i s formed. T h i s

a p p r o a c h had
cracking

been a p p l i e d c o n s t a n t l y a t

analysis

of

reinforced

l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h i s model a r e :

the

concrete

early

stage

structure.

of
The

(1) v e r y f i n e d i v i s i o n o f element

i s r e q u i r e d i n o r d e r t o o b t a i n a more r e a l i s t i c r e s u l t ; (2) heavy

work I s needed t o be c a r r i e d o u t on r e d e f i n i n g t h e g r i d o f t h e
structure

after

the

Is

crack

formed;

and

(3)

excessive

c o m p u t a t i o n a l t i m e i s consumed.
a s t h e appearance o f t h e d i s c r e t e

N e a r l y a t t h e same t i m e

s o - c a l l e d smeared c r a c k i n g approach

c r a c k approach, a n a l t e r n a t i v e
is

introduced by RasMd[23]

for

crack a n a l y s i s o f

reinforced

c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s . T h i s a p p r o a c h was f u r t h e r d e v e l o p e d b y S u i d a n
and S c h n o b r i c h [ 4 ] i n 1973, and C o l v i l l e and A b b a s i [ 2 ] i n 1974.
The a p p r o a c h i s now w i d e l y u s e d . I n t h i s approach, i f t h e s t r e s s
or

strain

reaches

the

crack

criteria,

concrete

cracks w i t h

e q u i d i s t a n t p a r a l l e l c r a c k s o v e r t h e whole element o r w i t h i n t h e
zone o f

an integration point

where

the s t r e s s o r s t r a i n i s

e v a l u a t e d when i s o p a r a m e t i c element i s u s e d . The m e r i t s o f t h i s

approach a r e :

(1) i t p e r m i t s t h e a u t o m a t i c c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n

w i t h o u t t h e r e d l v i s i o n o f t h e element;
independent

on

the

(2) t h e c r a c k

mesh c o n f i g u r a t i o n and

element

mode i s
type;

and

(3) l e s s c o m p u t a t i o n a l e f f o r t i s n e e d e d 1 2 5 ] .
According t o

the

assumptions

on t h e

orientation of

the

s e c o n d a r y c r a c k i n g o f c o n c r e t e , t h e smeared c r a c k i n g approach i s
subdivided

into

the

fixed-orthogonal

crack

approach,

the

n o n - o r t h o g o n a l c r a c k a p p r o a c h and t h e s w i n g - c r a c k a p p r o a c h

[26]
.

The f i x e d - o r t h o g o n a l c r a c k a p p r o a c h assumes t h a t t h e s eco n d a ry

cracking i s either p a r a l l e l to or
cracks[27^.

I n 1980,

orthogonal t o

Cope e t a l . [ 2 8 3

the primary

proposed the swing-crack

a p p r o a c h o r r o t a t i n g c r a c k a p p r o a c h . T h e r e a f t e r t h i s approach i s
improved by Gupta29]

further

and C r i s f i e l d [ 2 6 ] . I t I s assumed

t h a t c r a c k s a r e formed i n t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e major p r i n c i p a l
t e n s i l e s t r e s s o r s t r a i n . The c r a c k d i r e c t i o n i s a l t e r e d w i t h t h e
change i n s t r e s s o r s t r a i n . I n o t h e r words there is always one
crack

only

or

one

series

of

parallel

cracks

existing

in

the

cracked zone no matter how heavy the applied loading is. In the
non-orthogonal crack approach1"30'1, the secondary crack is allowed
to

form

after

the

change

of

the

principal

stress

directions

exceeds a certain threshold value, say 30 or 45 . If the loading

is increased continuously, a further rotation in principal stress
directions would occur. Even a third crack is allowed to happen
under this model.

1.2.3

The Modelling of Crack Stiffening

In a reinforced concrete structure, the actiial re infor cement

is usually represented by equivalent anisotropic steel

layers.

These layers can carry uniaxial stress only in the same directioia
that

the

reinforcement

is

laid

out.

Before

cracking

occurs,

c o n c r e t e and r e i n f o r c e m e n t s h a r e t h e n o r m a l s t r e s s o n t h e s e c t i o n .
I f c r a c k i n g happens, t h e s t r e s s i n c o n c r e t e o n t h e c r a c k f a c e s i s
r e l e a s e d . S i n c e t h e r e a r e some r e i n f o r c i n g b a r s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h
the cracks,

a p a r t o f t h e s t r e s s i n t h e r e i n f o r cement i s t h e n

t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e i n t a c t c o n c r e t e between t h e two c r a c k s b y t h e
bond s t r e s s s u r r o u n d i n g t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t . T h e r e f o r e t h e i n t a c t
c o n c r e t e between t h e two a d j a c e n t c r a c k s h a s t h e c a p a c i t y t o c a r r y
the t e n s i l e f o r c e t r a n s f e r r e d from the reinforcement. T h i s e f f e c t
i s c a l l e d c r a c k s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t . The most s i g n i f i c a n t work i n
establishing

crack

analysis

model

for

reinforced

concrete

s t r u c t u r e s I s the modeling o f the c r a c k s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t .

In

1968,

Nilson

[2]

used

discrete

closely

spaced

spring

l i n k a g e s t o model t h e bond s t r e s s . E a c h l i n k a g e c o n s i s t s o f two

springs

one

acts

parallel

to

the

bar

axis

and

the

other

perpendicular to It, Every short segment of the bar is directly

joined

to

the

adjacent

bar

segment

and

is

connected

adjacent concrete by the linkage springs. Considering

stress

as

shear

stress

existing

on

the

to

the

the bond

Interface

of

reinforcement and concrete, only the longitudinal springs are to

be Included. The force-disp1acement relations of the longitudinal
springs

are

established

based

on

the

characteristics

of

bond

stress in the actual member. The equivalent spring stiffness is

obtained by differentiating
respect

to

the

bond

slip.

the bond
Only

stress-slip equation with

the

structure

with

few

reinforcement embedded can be analyzed by this approach.

In 1982, in the model presented by Floegl and Mang

[27 ]
, the

crack stiffening effect for cracked reinforced concrete is taken

i n t o a c c o u n t b y means o f a s o - c a l l e d " s t i f f e n i n g f a c t o r " , w h i c h i s

d e r i v e d f r o m t h e bond s l i p v a l u e . The a d o p t i o n o f a n a p p r o x i m a t i o n
o n a v e r a g e b o n d s l i p v a l u e makes t h e s t i f f e n i n g f a c t o r s f i n a l l y
h a v e no r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e bond s l i p v a l u e . The s t i f f e n i n g f a c t o r s
are d i r e c t l y

proportional

to

the

average

bond

stress

crack

spacing, the cosine of the angle between the normal to the crack
and the reinforcement, and inversely proportional to the average
steel stress and the diameter of the reinforcement. Virtual work
method is used to obtain the equilibrium equations for the model.
In

1985,

competition

Cervenka

in

[31]

predicting

the
the

winner

of

behaviour

an

of

international

four

reinforced

concrete panels tested at the University of Toronto, employed the

classical fixed crack approach with the refined formulations for
cracked concrete to construct the cracking analysis model. In his
model, the tension stiffening effect is described by a decreased
curve for

cracked

concrete.

The

shear modulus for

concrete on

crack plane is also reduced in the same manner as that for the
tension stiffening effect.
In

1986

Vecchio

compression-field

and

theory

Collins
for

ro 2 1

presented

reinforced

concrete

modified
elements

subjected to shear. The model is derived from simple equilibrium

conditions
cracked

and

compatibility

concrete

stress-strain

is

treated

characteristics

requirements.
as

new

obtained

In

the

material
from

the

model,

with

its

the
own

experimental

results.
In 1988, Balakrishnan and Murray [ 3 3 * , 3 5 ]

described a simple

c o n s t i t u t i v e model f o r smeared c r a c k i n g a n a l y s i s o f r e i n f o r c e d

c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s i n c l u d i n g s o f t e n i n g and s t i f f e n i n g . The model

d i v i d e s t h e u n i a x i a l response c u r v e f o r c o n c r e t e i n t o f i v e damage
regions.

The c r a c k i n g s o f t e n i n g and s t i f f e n i n g a r e

taken i n t o

a c c o u n t b y a d e c r e a s e d e l a s t i c i t y modulus and s h e a r modulus. F o r

crack softening,

t h e parameters a r e d e r i v e d based on f r a c t u r e

mechanics c o n c e p t .

As f o r c r a c k s t i f f e n i n g ,

t h e parameters a r e

o b t a i n e d f r o m a s i m p l e i d e a l i z a t i o n f o r t h e t r a n s v e r s e l y average
concrete s t r e s s .
I n 1989, V e c c h i o
the

modified

iterative

[363

proposed a c r a c k a n a l y s i s model based on

compression f i e l d

scheme i s

used f o r

the

theory

[32]
.

Secant

solution of

the

stiffness
nonlinear

equations.
I n the
crack

same y e a r ,

stiffening

Gupta and M a e s t r i n i

effect

by

considering

[37 38]

studied the
the

steel-concrete

i n t e r f a c e i n t e r a c t i o n , t h e bond s t r e s s e x i s t i n g i n t h e i n t e r f a c e
i s given by

linear

bond s t r e s s - s l i p r e l a t i o n .

The d e r i v e d

e x p r e s s i o n a r e q u i t e complex, z e r o - P o i s s o n r a t i o has t o be adopted

t o s i m p l i f y the expressions.
I n 1990, i n t h e model p r e s e n t e d b y Hu and S c h n o b r i c h
crack

stiffening effect i s

taken

into

account

by

[39]
the
set

of

s o - c a l l e d c r a c k - s t i f f e n i n g c u r v e s . The c u r v e s a r e v a r i e d w i t h t h e
magnitude o f t h e a n g l e between t h e c r a c k and t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t .
In

the

developed

same

period,

model i n

Massicotte,

which,

the

crack

Elwi

and

MacGregor

[40]

stiffening effect i s

c o n s i d e r e d b y a p o s t - c r a c k i n g s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e f o r p l a i n and
r e i n f o r c e d concrete.
R e c e n t l y , Wu, Yoshikawa and T a n a b e [ 4 1 3 p r o p o s e d a model b a s e d

12

o n bond s t r e s s - s l i p mechanism. I n t h e model, t h e c r a c k s t r a i n I s

d e f i n e d a s t h e d e r i v a t i v e o f t h e bond s l i p . Bond c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
a r e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e c r a c k s p a c i n g and c r a c k w i d t h . The
c r a c k s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t i s evaluated by a f a c t o r X which v a r i e s
f r o m z e r o t o one.

1.3

RESEARCH OBJECTIVE AND SCOPE

A l t h o u g h i n t e n s i v e and e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h has been c a r r i e d

o u t and g r e a t p r o g r e s s has been made i n r e c e n t y e a r s i n m o d e l i n g
the n o n l i n e a r behaviour o f r e i n f o r c e d concrete s t r u c t u r e s , there
a r e s t i l l many problems u n r e s o l v e d .
In

modeling

the

e l a s t i c i t y - b a s e d models
models

cannot

satisfy

nonlinear

behaviour

are r e l a t i v e l y
the

principles

of

simple.
of

concrete,
However,

continuum

the
these

mechanics

r i g o r o u s l y , s u c h a s t h e u n i q u e n e s s , s t a b i l i t y and c o n t i n u i t y . The
models c o n s t r u c t e d based on t h e s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g p l a s t i c i t y a r e
r e g a r d e d a s t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e e l a s t i c i t y - b a s e d models and
f u l f i l l a l l t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f continuum mechanics. The c o n c r e t e
p a r a m e t e r s i n v o l v e d i n t h e models c a n be d e t e r m i n e d r e l a t i v e l y
e a s i l y f r o m t h e t e s t d a t a . The models a r e c o n s i d e r e d a s r e l i a b l e
and s u i t a b l e modeIs f o r n o n l i n e a r a n a l y s i s o f r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e
structures.
models

However,

cannot

well

the a v a i l a b l e s t r a i n hardening p l a s t i c i t y
represent

the

contraction

and d i l a t a t i o n

behaviour o f concrete. Presently, nonassociated p l a s t i c f l o w r u l e

i s i n t r o d u c e d i n t h e s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g p l a s t i c i t y models f o r t a k i n g
account o f t h i s behaviour, but t h i s i n t r o d u c t i o n r e s u l t s i n a

13

nonsymmetric

material

matrix

and i s

difficult

to

apply

to

p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m . The e n d o c h r o n i c method i s r a t h e r s o p h i s t i c a t e d
and many p a r a m e t e r s a r e u n c e r t a i n a t t h e moment. A l t h o u g h , t h e
p l a s t i c f r a c t u r i n g method i s c o n s i d e r e d a s a method p o s s e s s i n g
g r e a t p o t e n t i a l i n d e v e l o p i n g a more u n i f i e d and comprehensive
m a t e r i a l f o r c o n c r e t e , t h e method I s s t i l l h a r d t o be a p p l i e d t o
p r a c t i c a l p r o b l e m because o f I t s nonsymmetric s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x
outcome.
I n modeling t h e n o n l i n e a r behaviour o f r e i n f o r c e d concrete,
the

approaches

available

are

having

various,

more

or

less,

d e f i c i e n c i e s . The e a r l i e s t approach b y u s i n g l o n g i t u d i n a l s p r i n g
l i n k a g e s t o model t h e bond s t r e s s e x i s t i n g I n t h e I n t e r f a c e o f
r e i n f o r c e m e n t and c o n c r e t e l e a d s t o a v e r y f i n e d i v i s i o n o f t h e
structure

and

excessive

computational

efforts.

The

second

a p p r o a c h , b y e m p l o y i n g t h e parameter independent c u r v e s f o r c r a c k
stiffening of

the

structures,

is

associated w i t h

an

obvious

l i m i t a t i o n t h a t curves f o r the c a l c u l a t i o n o f crack s t i f f e n i n g are

parametersindependent.

It

is

very

well-known

that

the

crack

stiffening of a reinforced concrete structure is greatly affected

by the ratio of reinforcement, the strength of concrete, the cover
of concrete,

etc.

This approach

is weak

in representing these

influences. The third approach studying the cracking stiffening

effect by bond stress-slip relation involves a quite complicated
procedure in the calculation of the quantity of bond slip.
The objective of this research is to develop a feasible and
accurate

model

for

nonlinear

analysis

structures by finite element method. The

14

of

reinforced

scope

of

the

concrete
research

Includes:
(1)
simulate

To

set

the

dilatation

up

constitutive

stress-strain relation

behaviour

of

concrete.

r e l a t i o n which
and
It

the
has

can w e l l

contraction
been

shown

and
by

e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s t h a t under compressive o r t e n s i l e - c o m p r e s s i v e
l o a d i n g , concrete s t r a i n i s hardening a t a nonuniform r a t e . T h i s
behaviour

of

concrete i s

studied f i r s t i n t h i s

research.

heterogeneous s t r a i n hardening p l a s t i c i t y c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n
e m p l o y i n g a s s o c i a t e d p l a s t i c f l o w r u l e w i l l be s e t up t o s i m u l a t e
the

stress-strain

behaviour,
concrete.

relation

as w e l l as

and

the

contraction

the h y d r o s t a t i c s e n s i t i v e

dilatation

behaviour o f

The c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n c a n be d e g e n e r a t e d i n t o t h e

u n i f o r m one b y a d j u s t i n g heterogeneous i n d e x .
(2)

To d e v e l o p a method f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e c r a c k s t i f f e n i n g

e f f e c t o f concrete a f t e r concrete cracking. I n modeling the s t r e s s

t r a n s f e r from reinforcement t o concrete i n a r e i n f o r c e d concrete
s t r u c t u r e , t h e bond s t r e s s - s l i p method i s v e r y d i f f i c u l t t o a p p l y
except

that only

a few r e i n f o r c i n g b a r s a r e

embedded i n t h e

s t r u c t u r e . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e measurement o f t h e q u a n t i t y o f bond
s l i p and t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e bond s t r e s s - s l i p f u n c t i o n i s
never an easy j o b .

A bond s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n w i t h a

v a r i a b l e t r a n s f e r length i s therefore created i n t h i s research.

The f u n c t i o n i s f i r s t a p p l i e d t o t h e n o n l i n e a r a n a l y s i s o f t h e
r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e t e n s i o n member*
(3)

To

dimensional
cracking

establish
analysis

modeling

of

smeared

cracking

model

for

of

reinforced

concrete

structures.

reinforced

concrete

structure/

15

two
On
the

s w i n g i n g - c r a c k approach i s t o s i m u l a t e m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e
c r a c k e d c o n c r e t e b y a r o t a t i n g c r a c k system i n w h i c h t h e e x i s t i n g
c r a c k d i r e c t i o n i s changed w i t h t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e s t r e s s o r
s t r a i n i n concrete.

Many p a p e r s have been p u b l i s h e d on t h i s

a p p r o a c h r e c e n t l y ^ 3 4 ' 3 5 36 3 7 > 3 8 > 4 1 3 ^ However, further research is

required

on

the

theoretical

bases

for

this

approach.

The

nonorthogonal crack approach Is the most complicated one among the

various

existing

encountered

in

approaches.

implementing

Some
the

thorny

approach

problems

[27 ]

have

been

. Fixed-orthogonal

crack approach neglects the effect of shear stress existing on the

crack surfaces and assumes that secondary cracking takes place in
the direction either parallel or normal to the primary crack. This
approach has been widely

used.

Even

though

It

possesses

some

shortcomings, it can be regarded as a mature approach. Based on

the proposed bond stress distribution function, a two dimensional
smeared

cracking

analysis method

cracks

assumption

is

put

adopting

forward

for

the

fixed-orthogonal

reinforced

concrete

structures. The tension stiffening effect can be considered in a

relative simple way compared with the methods available.
(4)

To study the nonlinear behaviour of reinforced concrete

deep beams,

shear walls with

the proposed model.

Some useful

conclusions for these structures are drawn through the analysis.

16

CHAPTER 2

EXISTING CONSTITUTIVE RELATIONS FOR CONCRETE

2.1

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

D u r i n g t h e p a s t two decades, e x t e n s i v e r e s e a r c h e f f o r t has

been devoted t o

study the complicated nonlinear s t r e s s - s t r a i n

b e h a v i o u r o f c o n c r e t e under combined s t a t e s o f s t r e s s . V a r i o u s
models d e s c r i b i n g t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n f o r c o n c r e t e have been
p r o p o s e d . Among t h e s e models, some a r e r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e I n w h i c h
t h e r e q u i r e d p a r a m e t e r s c a n be e a s i l y determined,

however t h e

p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e n o n l i n e a r b e h a v i o u r o f c o n c r e t e b y those models
may n o t be s o s a t i s f a c t o r y under c e r t a i n l o a d i n g c o n d i t i o n s .
t h e o t h e r hand,
are

constructed

On

some o f t h e s e models a r e v e r y s o p h i s t i c a t e d and

to

reflect

more

realistically

the

nonlinear

b e h a v i o u r o f c o n c r e t e . But t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e parameters may

not

be e a s y a s l i t t l e r e l e v a n t e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a on r e l a t i v e

aspects a r e a v a i l a b l e a t current time. According t o the theory i n

c o n s t r u c t i n g a model,

t h e e x i s t i n g models f o r c o n c r e t e can be

c l a s s i f i e d i n t o f o u r main groups: (1) e l a s t i c i t y - b a s e d models; (2)

s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g p l a s t i c i t y models; (3) p l a s t i c f r a c t u r i n g models;
and

(4) p l a s t i c e n d o c h r o n i c models. I n t h i s c h a p t e r , t h e b a s i c

a s s u m p t i o n s , c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n s , advantages and d i s a d v a n t a g e s
o f some t y p i c a l models i n each group a r e g i v e n .

17

2 2

ELASTICITY-BASED MODELS

The

elasticitybased

models

are

those

models

whose

constitutive relations are deduced from the elasticity theory. The

elastic modulus and the poissons ratio are directly obtained from
the derived curves from experimental data of concrete testing. The
constitutive relations may be expressed

in tangential or secant

form in principal stress space or octahedral stress space.

The constitutive relation for concrete in the model proposed
by Nilson

[2 ]

may be the earliest and

simplest model among

the

elasticity-based models. The constitutive relation for an elastic

orthotropic material in biaxial stress states is directly used in
the model,

where
<
r

c
r

Poissons

ratio

in

direction

and

= minimum and maximum principal stresses; x

stress:

21

elastic

moduli

In

direction

1;

= shear
and

and u = E / E .

2
1
For concrete under compression, the values of

( i = 1, or

2 ) is taken as a function of the corresponding principal strain

in accordance with the equation proposed by Saenz

18

[2]

i n which f

= s t r e s s a t s t r a i n e f

= failure stress at failure

strain e ; e = strain corresponding to maximum stress f E = the

i
o
o
initial
R

tangent modulus; E

= E / E ; R
s

p =

RE (Rf

_ m

Eq.

= f

- 1)

/ f ;R

= e

the
f

secant

modulus = f

/ e
0

/ e and
o

L.

2
(2.2),

plotted

in

Fig.

2.1,

is

differentiated

with

respect to strain e to obtain the instantaneous tangent modulus.

For concrete under tension, it is assumed that concrete is in
elastic linear state up to failure.
The

analysis

of

the

nonlinear

stress-strain behaviour

of

concrete can be carried out if loading is applied incrementally.

In the model developed by Kupfer and Gerstle

and

strain

are

decomposed

Into

hydrostatic

[3 ]

and

the

stress

deviatoric

components. The constitutive relation is written in terms of total

stress and total strain.
The
strain e

octahedral
o

normal

stress

and shear strain z

o

shear

stress

normal

are defined first. Under biaxial

stress states, these quantities are expressed as

(2,3a)

5000

(300)
crsd

4000

)
3000

(200)
(kg/cm

2000

1+( R + R e " " " 2 ) - ( 2 R

()

S S O J I S 9 > j ^ s3

1000

(0)

unit strain

F i g . 2,1

002

001
e

Compressive Stress-Strain Curve for Concrete

2 (0^

c
r

<
r

+ <r^)

(2.3b)

(2.4a)

(e - e^) + (e - e ) + (e - e

(2.4b)

The relations between the normal and shear components on the

octahedral

plane

can

be

expressed

by

bulk

modulus

and

shear

modulus:

3c

The m o d u l i

and

,
_

r9 5} )

27

G are variable with stress

and s t r a i n

s t a t e s . From t h e c o r r e l a t i o n a n a l y s i s o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a ,
t h e d i m e n s i o n l e s s s e c a n t s h e a r and b u l k m o d u l i a r e

-(cr )p

(2.6a)

and the tangent shear and bulk moduli are

[ 1 - a ( ^

)m]2

1 + ( m - 1 ) a (
f

( C

)m

V [ 1 - P(cto)p]

(2.6b)
where G

and K

= the initial shear and bulk moduli; fc u

= the

ultimate uniaxial compressive strength of concrete; and a , m, c

and p = material constants.

21

The c o r r e l a t i o n s o f G - x , G - * r
s
o T
0 '
T

and

, x"" s"

rQ

are shown in Figs. 2.2 to 2.5.

By replacing the common material properties E and

elastic isotropic stiffness matrix by K

in the

and G t h e f i n a l f o r m o f

the c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n i s given as

3K

2G

2(3K + G

3K +G
4G

3K + 4G
3K + 4G
s

sym.

4(3K + G

(2.7)
In

finite

element

analysis

employing

step-by-step

incremental s o l u t i o n procedure, the secant moduli o f K

and G I n

E q . ( 2 . 7 ) s h o u l d be r e p l a c e d b y t h e t a n g e n t m o d u l i o f K ! and .

In

the

model

proposed

by

Gerstle110],

the

previous

c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n expressed i n o c t a h e d r a l c o o r d i n a t e system i s
modified.

The

constitutive

relation

is

represented

by

the

s i m p l i f i e d t a n g e n t b u l k and s h e a r m o d u l i .
The o c t a h e d r a l s t r e s s and s t r a i n i n i n c r e m e n t a l f o r m a r e
defined as
ACT

=~

A T

= /

ACT

ACT -

+ A<r

A(r )

ACT

ACT

( 2 . 8 A )

~ Acr ) + ( A<r - Act )

22

(2 . 8b)

-G 0

42S f C44 f C i l 3 2 4 k p / c m ^

" c T '

"

11

Fig. 2.2 Shear Modulus G-Octahedral Shear Stress

* 4,25 -l

C v

j f

c u

324 kp/cru^

Relation

{Concri

Fig. 2.3 Shear Modulus G-Octahedral Shear Strain

Relation

* J l e u * 1 2 4 tco/cm

Fig. 2.4 Bulk Modulus K-Octahedral Shear Stress

ssc.

Relation

{C0rt<r(* 2 )

Fig. 2.5 B u l k Modulus K-Octahedral Shear Strain 7o Relation

24

(Ae

Ar.

( A e - Ac ) 2 + ( Ae - Ae ) 2 + ( Ae - Le Y

+ Ae

+ Ae

(2.8c)

(2.8d)

in which Acr^ and A t a r e the octahedral normal and shear stress

increments respectively and Ae^ and Ar are the octahedral normal
o
o
and shear strain.
The bulk modulus K, and shear modulus G are expressed

in

tangent form:
A(r

"3AF =

(2.9a)

Ax

(2.9b)

2(1 +

2Lr

K and G c a n be d e t e r m i n e d a s t h e s l o p e s o f * t h e v o l u m e t r i c (cr
-

) and deviatoric

(T

- y
0

) stress-strain curves shown

in

Figs. 2.6 and 2.7. The moduli are expressed as

K = K

G = G

where K ' G
0

(2.10a)

(2.10b)

= initial bulk and shear moduli; cr

ou

stress corresponding to failure;

= hydrostatic

= octahedral shear strength;

c
r , x = octahedral normal and shear stress; and c = experimental
o
o
2
constant, is equal to 0.67.
Additional

condition

Is

required

strain obtained from Eqs.

(2.9a) and

increments Ae

It

,Ae ,

Ae .

is

25

to

transform

octahedral

(2.9b) to principal strain

assumed

that

the

deviatoric

Fig. 2.6 Variation of Bulk Modulus with Octahedral Normal

Stress, (a) From T U M Results, (b) From BAM Results

Fig. 2.7 Variation of Shear Modulus according to Cedolin's

and Current Formulation

s t r e s s e s and s t r a i n s w i l l c o i n c i d e . T h i s y i e l d s
A<t

o _
2
o
A<r " Ae - Ae
0 1
0

A(r 1

2.11)

From Eqs.(2.9a), (2.9b) and

(2.11) the following equations

are obtained
A = A e + C ArQ
A e

= Ae

+ B C A7

(2.12a)

(2.12b)

Ae 3 = A e - (B + 1) C A

(2.12c)

where

=/ 3

(1 + B + B 2 ) ]

/ [ 2

In tangential or incremental elasticity-based models, under

general stress history involving unloading, a loading criteria may
be introduced to distinguish loading from unloading.

2.3

STRAIN HARDENING PLASTICITY MODELS

The constitutive relations for concrete given by the strain

hardening plasticity models are established based on the strain
hardening plasticity theory. By this theory, if the stress state
reaches

the

surface),

initial

concrete

yield

surf ace

is entering

(or

initial

the yielding

discontinuous

state with strain

hardening. A subsequent yield surface or loading surface will be

developed as loading continues
place,

to

increase.

If unloading takes

irrecoverable deformation will be resulted

Increasing

the

loading

again,

the

stress-strain

in concrete.
relation

of

concrete w i l l

be e l a s t i c

linear

up t o

the

previous

loading

s u r f a c e . E v e n t u a l l y , f a i l u r e o f c o n c r e t e o c c u r s when t h e l o a d i n g
s u r f a c e reaches the f a i l u r e surface.
I n Chen and C h e n ' s model[the initial yield function and
failure function are taken as

f (<r.)

(cr

ij

36

36

12

i -

12

C2.13)

(2.14)

where t h e p o s i t i v e s i g n i n f r o n t o f t h e term 1^/12 i s f o r t h e

compression

region

and

the

t e n s i o n - c o m p r e s s i o n region
state tensor,

cr
ij

stress tensor,

and

J
2
ij

material

negative

sign

is

for

= the first invariant of the stress

= t h e second i n v a r i a n t o f t h e d e v i a t o r i c
I s s e t e qnu a l t o t h r e e ;

constants

given i n

following

, A

o
forms

for

c o m p r e s s i o n - c o m p r e s s i o n zone

2f

- f

f f

(f r

3( 2f

2f
2f

- 1

(f r

(2f

2.15)

- f

(2.16)

3(

the material constants for tension-tension and tension-compression

zones are

i n which f

DC

, f
7

quantities of f
/

DC

DC

, f

Herein, f c

be

f.t , and f t are the non-dimensionalized

, f

, f

/
t

, and f

with respect to f
^

> and f d e n o t e the ultimate strength of concrete

under uniaxial compressive loading, uniaxial tensile loading and

equal biaxial compressive loading respectively, while f
and

denote

the

initial discontinuous strength

of

, f

concrete

under uniaxial compressive loading, uniaxial tensile loading and

equal biaxial compressive loading respectively.
The

initial

yield

function

and

the

failure

function

are

plotted in Figs. 2.8 and 2.9 in octahedral normal and shear stress
space and in biaxial principal stress space respectively.
The loading function takes the following form

in which a and /3 are expressed as

F i g , 2 . 8 Failure a n d Initial Discontinuous Surfaces

in P r i n c i p a l S t r e s s S p a c e

Enperimcnial Data
o Elastic Limit
* Failure

Compression
Experimental Da
o Oiscontinuous
Failure
Present:

R g . 2.9 Failure a n d Initial Discontinuous Curves in Biaxial

Principal Stress Space: (a) Experimental Data from Kupfer
et al. (1969); (b) Experimental Data from Ville (1968)

30

The e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n i s o b t a i n e d a s

af

ar

6<r d<T
ij

ij

ijkl

kl

df

af

dcr

(2.20)

kl

dcr

i n which = t h e e l a s t i c

compliance m a t r i x ;

w o r k - h a r d e n i n g r a t e which depends

upon

the

and H = t h e

current

state of

s t r e s s , s t r a i n and s t r a i n hardening h i s t o r y .
The

equivalent

stress

and e q u i v a l e n t p l a s t i c s t r a i n a r e

defined as
cr

e p = / d P = S / d e p d e p
V

rs

sr

The stress-strain relation from

established
dcr
H = 2(r .
e

in

terms

of

c
r

the experimental data

cp.

and

can

be

written

is
as

dGP

In

the

model

proposed

by

strain-hardening~softening behaviour

Han
of

and

concrete

[13]
Chen
,
is

the

studied

by

employing two loading functions.. For concrete at strain hardening

stage,

loading

function

in

stress

space

is

used,

and

for

concrete at strain softening stage, another loading function in

strain space

is applied instead. Nonuniform hardening rule and

nonassociated flow rule are employed in the establishment of the

material

constitutive

relation.

The

model

covers

the

whole

deformation process of concrete.

The loading function for strain hardening branch is generally

31

expressed
(2.21a)
r =yTTT

(2.21b)

where

= the

Willam-Warnke *s f i v e - p a r a m e t e r

function^455

Hs i e h - T i n g - C h e n *s

f our-parameter function C46] and k

factor

which i s

function

stress

of

(r
and
m

= a

the

or

shape

hardening

p a r a m e t e r k.
The p l a s t i c p o t e n t i a l f u n c t i o n i s g i v e n a s
g

where a a n d k

- k

= 0

(2.22)

a r e constants.

The e l a s t i c - p l a s t i c c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n i s f o r m u l a t e d a s

d cr

= ( C

ij

h =

i jk 1

acr

mn

i n which

mnpq

- J C
n

i jmn

OCT
mn

pq

OCT
pq

Ce

) de

pqkl

kl

(2. 23)

ij

= i s o t r o p i c e l a s t i c tensor;

and H p

= plastic

modulus.
F o r t h e s t r a i n s o f t e n i n g branch, a l o a d i n g f u n c t i o n i n s t r a i n
s p a c e i s u s e d b e c a u s e i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o model t h e s o f t e n i n g
behaviour o f concrete w i t h the l o a d i n g f u n c t i o n i n s t r e s s space.
The l o a d i n g f u n c t i o n i s g i v e n a s
F(e
where

ep

i j , "

Wpf)

= 0

(2.25)

= c u r r e n t v a l u e s o f p l a s t i c s t r a i n ; and W pf = p l a s t i c

f r a c t u r i n g work w h i c h i s

the t o t a l energy d i s s i p a t i o n d u r i n g

32

l o a d i n g and u n l o a d i n g .
The s t r e s s increnient dtr
dcr

- dcr^
i 1
i

(2.26)

dcrpf = d(rp + d<r

ij
ij
ij

(2.27)

i 1

= dcr

c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e components

d(Te

where

elastic

strain

increment

p
dcr
ij

plastic strain

f
increment and dcr^ = f r a c t u r e s t r a i n increment.
The p l a s t i c p o t e n t i a l f u n c t i o n i s g i v e n a s
G
where

- k

(2.28)

= f i r s t i n v a r i a n t o f s t r a i n and

= second invariant of

deviatoric strain.
Employing the normality rule , dcr^ is expressed as
do^
dcr^
f

dcr

dX
is

dG

(2.29)

ae~

separated

into

dcrp( plastic

stress

Increment) and

(fracturing stress increment)

dcr1"

Tp
dcrpf
i ikl
kk

(2.30)

,
, pf
dcr
= T
dcr
ij
i jkl
kk

(2.31}

where T p
and T f
are the transformation tensors.
i jkl
i jkl
The schematic descriptions of the stress and strain increment
and

the

plastic-fracturing

work

33

are

given

In Fig. 2.10.

The

_
4^

I /24<rb

Fig. 2*10 S c h e m a t i c Description of the Combined Formulation:

(a) Stress a n d Strain Increments; (b) Plastic-Fracturing Work

34

const.itutiv6 r e l a t i o n f o r s t r a i n softening o f concrete i s

,
dcr

ij

(
=
Ir u

i jkl

h = -

oe

1 dG
- r- T
h de

dF . ^

j dc
de
kl

ij

(9

kl

TP

derived

i j m n mnk O C

kl

i j

pf

ow

mn

( Tp

+ I Tf

mnkl

0 G

k l -

K A

(2.33}
where C,i .jmn = c u r r e n t e l a s t i c t e n s o r w h i c h i s a f u n c t i o n o f Wpf
and D

= c u r r e n t compliance t e n s o r .

i jmn

Ohtani

and

Chen

[15]

(1988)

proposed

multiple

hardening

concept for concrete. In their model, the Initial yield function,

failure function and the subsequent yield function take the same
form

as

in

Chen

and

hardening means that

Chen s m o d e l .
the

total damage

The

concept

increment

of

multiple

Is distributed

Into several damage increment or damage parameters for several

damage

modes,

such

as

the

damage

modes

of

uniaxial

tension,

uniaxial compression and equal-biaxial compression mode etc. With

these

damage

parameters,

the

hardening

parameters

are

then

determined.
For

compression-compression

region,

the

subsequent

yield

function is written in the following forms

f (cr

i j

) = J

+ j

A - t
c

= 0

i n which .

35

(2.34)

For

t e n s i o n - t e n s i on

and

tension-compression

zones,

the

subsequent y i e l d f u n c t i o n i s

f (<r ) = J ij
2

(2.36)

i n which

(2.37)

The g e n e r a l form o f E q s . ( 2 . 3 4 ) and ( 2 . 3 6 ) i s

f = f(cr. * ,
i n which
cr

cr

ij

( f < cr
c

<r

= the

^ f

(2.38)
stress

tensor;

) and cr

( f

be

be

cr

be

s f

),

the hardening

be

parameters, they a r e the c u r r e n t u n i a x i a l t e n s i l e

y i e l d stress.

u n i a x i a l c o m p r e s s i v e y i e l d s t r e s s , and e q u a l - b i a x i a l compressive
y i e l d stress

respectively.

These

h a r d e n i n g parameters

can be

e x p r e s s e d a s a f u n c t i o n o f damage parameters

(e

be

(e

(2.39a)

pc

pbc

(2.39b)

(2.39c)

Ce . )
where

pc

corresponding
equal-biaxial
hardening,

pbc

to

and

the

pt

modes

compression

respectively.

=
of

the

uniaxial

hardening

These

effective

plastic

strains

compression hardening,
and

relations

uniaxial

can be

tension

obtained

from

experimental r e s u l t s . For

a general loading case,

the p l a s t i c

i n c r e m e n t o r t h e damage increment i s d i s t r i b u t e d i n t o each damage

mode,

p c

pbc

d G

d G

s de
where
total

p c

pbc

pt

de

( ( r

>^

= / a

and
damage

((T

i 1

T
(

S,

<r

be

( 2

4 0 a

, cr ) de
t

(2.40c)

= the c o e f f i c i e n t s that r e l a t e the e f f e c t o f

on each h a r d e n i n g mode,

cr

cr

be

and

(r

respectively.
The c o e f f i c i e n t s ,

the f o l l o w i n g conditions:
(2) for
tension,

equal - biaxial

and

oc^ , a r e determined based on

(1) f o r u n i a x i a l compression,

compression,

1;

(3)

for

= 1
uniaxial

= 1; and (4) the subsequent yield surfaces should be

convex for associated flow rule.

In addition, some restrictions

are Imposed. The coefficients are obtained as shown in Fig. 2.11,

Finally, the elastoplastic constitutive matrix is obtained:
Dep
= De
+ Dp
i jkl
i jkl
i jkl
in which D e
= the elastic material property matrix; and
i jkl

(2.41)

i jkl

= t h e plastic matrix.
f
ijkl
where 6

= - ir a r
W i j kl
= 3Kp6
K
i j

+ 2Gs
U

(2.42}

Fig. 2.11

Distribution of a M

i n which
/

(^.)
^aj J

nl

where A = A n = 0 f o r compression-compression r e g i o n ; A = A^, n

= - 1 / 3 f o r tensiontension or tensioncompression regions and
0 = a Q Hp + a Q
+ a Q Hp
l i e
2 2 be
3 3 t
where
=dcr

dcr

/ d

/ de

pt

H p = dcr
/ de
be
be
pbc

= df

= df / dcr

= df / d<r

Recently,

Hu

and

nonassociated flow rule

Schnobrich
[14]

proposed

dcr

model

by

using

. The so-called nonassociated flow rule

means that the incremental plastic strain is normal to the surface

defined by the plastic potential function rather than the loading
function. If the plastic potential function takes the form of the
loading

function,

associated

flow

rule.

violate D m c k e r s
recent

the

experimental

nonassociated
Although

local material
results

have

flow

nonassociated

rule

becomes

flow

rule

the
might

[42 43]
instability postulates
*
,
shown

that

while

granular

material dilated during the triaxial compression test, it followed

a nonassociated flow rule 1 4 4 3 , stable behaviour has been observed
in a stress region in which Drucker' s local material instability
postulates were violated and that stability was maintained until
the failure surface was reached.

39

The y i e l d f u n c t i o n o r l o a d i n g f u n c t i o n i s e x p r e s s e d I n t h e
f o l l o w i n g form:
f ( {cr}, = F ( {cr> ) -

cr = 0

(2.43)

and t h e p l a s t i c p o t e n t i a l f u n c t i o n i s
g ( {<r},

cr ) = G( {cr} ) -

or = 0

(2.44)

where
By nonassociated f l o w r u l e , the incremental p l a s t i c s t r a i n s
are
d

<e>

The l a s t f o r m o f t h e i n c r e m e n t a l s t r e s s - s t r a i n c o n s t i t u t i v e
equation f o r concrete i s

d<cr>

where [c]

= elastic material property matrix; and

[c]

ao

ar

Cc]

e a<^> a w T

dF
6{(r}

[c]

:
p

(2.47)
TT

dG
r
[c]e d<(r>

In Eq. (2.47), dG / dr>t

or

8F / a<<r>

and

dG / d{<r}t or

dF / d{cr} represent the derivative in forms of column vector and

line vector respectively. H is derived from the equivalent stress
<
r and strain e curve in a form similar to Eq.

(2.2). The final

form of H is

where E

= initial modulus of concrete and E

40

- de / de.

The m a t r i x g i v e n b y Eq.

(2.47) i s asymmetrical

therefore.

asymmetrical solver is needed.

2.4

PLASTIC FRACTURING MODELS

Plastic fracturing model proposed by Bazant and Kim [20]

is

developed based on incremental plasticity and fracturing material

theory. In their model, the inelastic strain in concrete consists
of both plastic slip and microcracking. Plastic slip, defined as
the strain increment at constant stress and no change in elastic
moduli,

dominates

at

high

confining

pressure

and

Is

also

pronounced on rising branch of the uniaxial compression test of

concrete.

Microcracking,

moduli,

by

prevails

pressure and

is substantial on strain softening branch of

curve.

separated

of

the

low

(or

of

contributions

at

decrease

degradation)

The

elastic

accompanied

confining

plastic

the

slip,

microcracking and their combined effect are shown in Fig. 2.12.

In the model, two loading functions are introduced. One is in
stress space for plastic deformation. The other is in strain space
for fracturing deformation. Since under strain softening state,
stress

is decreased

in both

loading

and

unloading

situations,

these situations cannot be distinguished by the loading function

in stress space. However, the strain developments in these two
situations are different. The strain is increased for loading and
decreased for unloading. Therefore, a loading function in strain
space

is

required.

These

loading

41

functions

are

given

in

the

(a) Rastc

(b)Fractumg

te)

(f)

-Linear Clastic
EUstic-PiMtic

V
(h)

Fig. 2.12 Explanatory Diagrams for Plastic-Fracturing Theofy

42

f o l l o w i n g forms:
F(cr

, H )=0
ij , k

(2.49)

)=0

(2.50)

i ji

According t o the f l o w r u l e o r normality r u l e o f p l a s t i c i t y

t h e o r y and a d o p t i n g an analogous n o r m a l i t y r u l e f o r f r a c t u r i n g ,
t h e p l a s t i c s t r a i n i n c r e m e n t s and f r a c t u r i n g s t r e s s decrements a r e
g i v e n by the f o l l o w i n g relations

ar
3cr

dcr

dc

1j

2dfi

(2.51)

2dK

(2.52)

where

2dfx

ar

E( <

2dK

SG

de

in which h = plastic hardening modulus

<
/
> = fracturing modulus;

f
i = plastic strain parameter; and k - fracturing stress parameter.
The loading functions for plastic deformation and fracturing
deformation are chosen as
F(cr
$e

wh^rp

i 1

) = 7 + g(<r ) - H = 0
1

, H ) =

+ k((r ) - H = 0

(2.53)

(2.54)

cr
i n which
a

km

,a

- 6

km

cr , s t r e s s d e v i a t o r

km

km

kk

c e n t r e coordinates o f the loading surface f o r p l a s t i c

^

d e f o r m a t i o n ; and
^

1/2

= e

- 6

km

= c

kk

e , s t r a i n deviator

km

/ 3 , mean s t r a i n

=centre

coordinates

of

the

loading

surface f o r

f r a c t u r i n g deformation
F o r v i r g i n monotonic l o a d i n g , a n d t a k e zero
value.
Carrying out the differentiation of Eqs.

(2.53) and

(2.54),

the following equations are yielded:

de

pi

(2.55a)

ij

de pl = ( S d/i

ds

d/c

(2.55b)

(2.56a)

(2.56b]
i n which
=

, p l a s t i c

strain

deviator;

/ 3 ; p = p l a s t i c d i l a t a n c y f a c t o r ; and a = f r a c t u r i n g

dilatancy deviator.
I n p l a s t i c t h e o r y , t h e r e l a t i o n o f d s p l and d e p l a n d d i r p l
a n d d P 1 are
ds p

= 2G

(2.57a)

dcrp

= 3K dct

(2.57b)

Because under the strain softening branch,

cannot be

associated with the stress decrement d c r i t i s i m p o s s i b l e t o

make t h e s u p e r i m p o s x t i o n o f d e f and d < r

f o r inelastic strain

u n d e r t h e same d c r " An alternative approach is adopted in the

model. dcrpl and dcrrr are superimposed
due to the same
r
"
ij
^

de

ij

and

the following equations are set

ds

i j

dcr

= 2G de

ij

- 2G s

ij - *

(2.58a)

i j- *

= 3K de 2K(3 d g - | a dK

(2.58b)

Expressing dcr" = d s " + 3 " d < r t h e constitutive re l a ti on

f o r concrete by p l a s t i c f r a c t u r i n g theory i s f i n a l l y obtained
dtr

ijkm

= C

i jk m

de

(2.59

km

where
:

"i j k m

: el

ijkm

= C

ij k m

= G(5

i k

- Cp

ij k m

jm

- c

+ S

jk

ijkm

) +

45

(K - I G ) S

current

i s o t r o p i c t e n s o r o f e l a s t i c modulus

where

p
"

and a

dg(<r )
*

= dk(e ) / de

Tensor C

ijkm

/
*

d<r and

plastic

friction

coefficient;

, fracturing friction coefficient.

is in a form that exhibits both stress-induced

and strain-induced anisotropic and asymmetrical properties unless

a = a

and p = p .

By the theory of plasticity or fracturing, unloading as well

as reloading would be perfectly elastic. For concrete, this Is not
at all true. Under cyclic loading, hysteretic curves are formed
for each cycle. The area enclosed by the curves of unloading and
reloading represents the energy dissipated during that cycle. A
so-called jump-kinematic hardening rule is introduced In the model
to account for this behaviour. By this hardening rule, the centre
of the current loading (or fracturing) surface

^,

is allowed to jump instantaneously into the current stress point

(or

strain point) in the stress

(or strain) space as soon as

loading is reversed into unloading. When unloading reverses into

reloading again, the centre is allowed to jump into or below the
current stress (strain) point.
A loadIng-unloading-reloading criteria is Introduced in the
model to distinguish the loading, unloading and reloading states-

46

The c r i t e r i o n i s based on the s i g n s o f t h e i n t e r n a l v o l u m e t r i c

work and " d e v i a t o r i c work p e r u n i t volume.
The model combining t h e p l a s t i c s t r e s s decrements w i t h t h e
f r a c t u r i n g s t r e s s decrements i s c a p a b l e o f r e f l e c t i n g t h e p l a s t i c
slip

and

microcracking

of

concrete

under

general

loading

c o n d i t i o n s . The jump-hardening r u l e makes i t p o s s i b l e t o account

f o r the i n e l a s t i c behaviour o f

concrete during loading, unloading

and r e l o a d i n g .

2.S

ENDOCHRONIC MODELS

From t h e v i e w p o i n t o f

incremental s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n ,

e n d o c h r o n i c t h e o r y i s e n t i r e l y d i f f e r e n t t o t h e t h e o r i e s used i n
e l a s t i c i t y - b a s e d models, s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g p l a s t i c i t y models and
plastic

fracturing

models.

In

the

latter

theories,

the

c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n s a r e i n c r e m e n t a l l y l i n e a r , b u t b y t h e former
t h e o r y , t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n I s i n c r e m e n t a l l y n o n l i n e a r . The
s p e c i f i c d e f i n i t i o n o f y i e l d i n g and h a r d e n i n g o f t h e m a t e r i a l a r e
n o t r e q u i r e d i n t h e models based on t h e e n d o c h r o n i c t h e o r y and t h e
n o n l i n e a r e f f e c t o f s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g , u n l o a d i n g and r e l o a d i n g e t c .
c a n be s u c c e s s f u l l y d e s c r i b e d .
Endochronic

theory

represents

special

type

of

v l s c o p l a s t i c i t y i n which the p l a s t i c r a t e c o e f f i c i e n t ( v i s c o s i t y )
depends n o t o n l y on s t r e s s and s t r a i n , b u t a l s o o n t h e s t r a i n
rate.

In

the

model

developed

by

Bazant

etc.

the

endochronic theory i s a p p l i e d t o nonlinear a n a l y s i s o f concrete

including:

(1) t h e s e n s i t i v i t y o f i n t r i n s i c t i m e Increments t o

47

h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e (2) inelastic dilatancy due to shear strain;

(3) description of strain-softening tendency and

(4) dependence

of tangent moduli on dilatancy (not on stress or strain tensor).

The
intrinsic

fundamental
time

negative and
that

the

z,

concept

The

of

the

theory

intrinsic

time

is

increment,

that
dz,

of

the

is never

is a function of strain increments de^. Assuming

development

excludes ideal! p l a

of

inelastic

strain

is

gradual

(which

yielding).

A simple examp g i v e n t o e x p l a i n the theory. Considering

the f o l l o w i n g d i f f e r e n t i a l equation
dcr = E d c - g |de| = E de - dz = dcrel + dcrpl

(2.60)

el
1
cr
where dcr6 = E d e ; dcr
= - g d z ; Z = c o n s t a n t and dz = |dc|.
In Eq. (2.60), if de is positive, dcrel points upward and dcrpl
downward. If de is negative (unloading), dcrel would change sign as
de, but dcrpl would not. The tangent modulus for unloading curve
would be steeper than the tangent modulus for loading curve. This
phenomenon has be-

ved in concrete testing. The significance

of Eq.(2.60) is illust
In Bazant

and

>ed in Fig. 2.13.

Bhahs model 1163

the

intrinsic

time dz

constructed in the form as

(dz)2= ( ^ ) + ( ^

dC = f (

cr

(2.61)

) dg

48

is

F i g . 2 . 1 3 Explanatory D i a g r a m s f o r Endochronic Theory

49

with

d e

where

d e

i 5

(2.63)

l 5

= h a r d e n i n g - s o f t e n i n g f u n c t i o n a n d = coefficient.
In Eq.(2.62) ^ is called distortion measure, it depends on

the deviatoric strain increment. Coefficient x

has the dimension

of time and is called relaxation of time.

The
relation

constitutive relation
for

incremental

is

expressed

deviatoric

In

stress

two

(ds i J

forms the
and

strain

(dei J , and the relation for incremental volumetric stress

(d<r =

dcr / 3 ) and strain (de = de /3):

kk
kk
ds
+

,
de =

dcr
+
3K

s
Z T

d z

,.
d
+

strain

c
r

3K

In which, the term,

volumetric

(2.64)

dt
,
+ dc
0

(2.65)

(rdt/OKxs^), represents the time-dependent

creep).

the

inelastic

the stress-independent inelastic strain

dilatancy;

and

(thermal dilatancy

plus shrinkage).
In Eq. (2.62),
inelastic

strain and

is regarded as a measure of the accuimilated

must decrease as

the

inelastic

strain

increases. The following equations are set

dc 1=

= FCeir

2.66)

f(tj) and F ( e " , cr") are given in the following forms:

50

P.v

f(v)

(2.68)
)

F(

, (
T

) = \
+ F
1
V i - [a I (cr )]1/3
6 3 ij

1 + a I (cr
{ i

- w * "[

\ F3

(2.69)

)iV

] 1 / 3 } [ l

^ y v

(2.70)
F

= 1 + [ 50( 1 - m a X

) ( 1 - ) ] "

i n w h i c h a a, . , a
1
2
second

and

third

= constants;
8

invariants

(2.71)

I , I
1
2

of

and I
3

stress

= first,

respectively

and J (e ) = second invariant of the deviatoric strain.

2 ij
In Eq.(2.65), dX is expressed as

dX = ( 1 - ^

,
) ~ i J c
1 - c(o\ J 1

X_

) 2 +(

+ j (e

(2.72)
i n w h i c h c , c , c and = m a t e r i a l c o n s t a n t s .
o, 2
3
o
I n t h e model, t h e e l a s t i c moduli decrease a s A grows. The
moduli a r e formulated as
G = G

( 1 - 0.25

) :

K = K ( 1 - 0.25

51

(2.73)

i n w h i c h Gand K = initial shear and bulk moduli respectively.

2.6

CONCLUSIONS

(1)

The

elasticity-based models

are

constructed

based

on

plain assumptions and theory. The models are the simplest ones in
use

and

can

stress-strain

give

relation

satisfactory

of

concrete

representation

under

uniaxial

of

and

the

biaxial

loading. However, because the material constitutive relations are

directly obtained from curve-fitting- method, it cannot ensure that
the

constitutive relation will

continuum

mechanics

Furthermore,

on

satisfy

continuity

the models are hard

all
in

the

all

requirement
stress

to be applied

to

of

states.

the problem

under general triaxial stress states.

(2)

Strain hardening plasticity model can be considered as a

generalization
parameters

of

involved

the
in

elastic

based

the model

models

and

the

can be determined

concrete

relatively

easier from the available test data. The model satisfies all the
basic principles of continuum mechanics such as the uniqueness,
stability
suitable

and
model

continuity
for

and

nonlinear

is

regarded

analysis

of

as

reliable

reinforced

and

concrete

structures at current stage.

(3)

The

theory

for

plastic-fracturing

models

combination of strain hardening plasticity theory

is

the

and material

fracturing theory. The strain softening behaviour of concrete can

be taken into account by the models. In the models

two loading

functions, one in stress space, another in strain space are used

52

s i m u l t a n e o u s l y . However, t h e d a t a p r o v i d e d f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
a l o a d i n g f u n c t i o n i n s t r a i n space i s r a r e .

In addition,

the

m a t e r i a l c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n r e s u l t e d i s a s y m m e t r i c a l , and t h i s
d i s a d v a n t a g e o b s t r u c t s t h e model i n p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n .
(4)

Endochronic

a v a i l a b l e nowadays.
engineers

and

models

are

the

most

complicated

models

The models a r e t o o e s o t e r i c f o r s t r u c t u r a l

large

number

of

the

constants

have

to

be

d e t e r m i n e d . The e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e s e
c o n s t a n t s a r e l i m i t e d . I t seems t h a t t h i s group o f models I s s t i l l
a t the research stage.

CHAPTER 3
HETEROGENEOUS HARDENING PLASTICITY MODEL FOR CONCRETE
3.1

INTRODUCTORY HEMAHKS

The b e h a v i o u r o f c o n c r e t e under combined s t a t e s o f s t r e s s has

been w i d e l y s t u d i e d d u r i n g t h e p a s t two decades. V a r i o u s models
describing
proposed.

the

constitutive

relation for

The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f

m e r i t s and l i m i t a t i o n s o f

concrete

t h e s e models,

t h e models

have

been

as w e l l as the

have been g i v e n i n the

preceding chapter.
Among t h e s e groups o f models, t h e s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g p l a s t i c i t y
models

are

considered

to

be

the

reliable

and

theoretically

w e l l - e s t a b l i s h e d models. I n most o f t h e p r o p o s e d s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g
p l a s t i c i t y models, t h e h a r d e n i n g r u l e s i n u s e p o s s e s s a

coimnon

f e a t u r e : t h e development o f t h e subsequent y i e l d s u r f a c e i s a t a
uniform r a t e w i t h respect
parameter[5 1112]
subsequent

yield

to

However,
surface

the v a r i a t i o n o f
such

cannot

t h e hardening

development

satisfactorily

mode

of

the

simulate

the

experimental results on concrete. The experimental results have

shown that the variation of the behaviour of concrete is very fast
in the range near the failure of concrete

147]

. In this chapter, a

heterogeneous hardening rule, which deems that the development of

the subsequent yield surf ace Is at a nonuniform rate with regard
to the change of the hardening parameter, is proposed to tally
with the experimental results1"103^. Based on this hardening rule.

54

loading

function

including

the

effect

of

the

hydrostatic

p r e s s u r e on t h e b e h a v i o u r o f c o n c r e t e i s c o n s t r u c t e d . The proposed
heterogeneous h a r d e n i n g p l a s t i c i t y model employing t h e a s s o c i a t e d
f l o w r u l e i s s i m p l e and e f f e c t i v e f o r p r o g r e s s i v e f a i l u r e a n a l y s i s
o f c o n c r e t e . The i n e l a s t i c c o n t r a c t i o n and d i l a t a t i o n b e h a v i o u r o f
c o n c r e t e under compression o r t e n s i o n - c o m p r e s s i o n s t r e s s s t a t e c a n
be s u c c e s s f u l l y r e p r e s e n t e d . The model has been a p p l i e d t o t h e
a n a l y s i s o f t h e a v a i l a b l e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a , and good c o r r e l a t i o n s
a r e o b t a i n e d between t h e a n a l y t i c a l and e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s .

3.2

FAILURE FUNCTION AND INITIAL YIELD FUNCTION

The

experimental

studies

on

the

behaviour

of

concrete

s u b j e c t e d t o combined s t a t e s o f s t r e s s have r e v e a l e d t h a t : (1) t h e

u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h o f c o n c r e t e under t e n s i o n i s much lower t h a n
t h a t under compression;
influence

on

the

(2) h y d r o s t a t i c p r e s s u r e h a s s i g n i f i c a n t

subsequent

yield

surface

of

concrete.

As

i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 3.1 under hydrostatic pressure only, concrete

can be consolidated beyond the limit of elasticity, but cannot be
crushed

to

volumetric

failure [48 ];
strain

of

(3)

concrete

under

compressive

contracts

loading,

initially.

However

the
at

about 80 percent of the ultimate compressive strength of concrete,

a point of inflection in stress volumetric strain curve appears,
the minimum volume is observed at approximately 95 percent of the
ultimate compressive strength and then the volume increases with
further loading[47 , 4 9 ]. These distinct properties of concrete are
different from that of metallic materials in which the traditional

55

VJov/fc

t h e o r y o f p l a s t i c i t y has been s u c c e s s f u l l y a p p l i e d and s h o u l d be

r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e model b e i n g developed.
I n s t r a i n hardening p l a s t i c i t y theory, the f a i l u r e f u n c t i o n
and t h e i n i t i a l y i e l d f u n c t i o n a r e w o r k i n g a s t h e upper bound and
l o w e r bound f o r s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g . When t h e s t a t e o f s t r e s s reaches
t h e u p p e r bound, f a i l u r e o f c o n c r e t e o c c u r s . The f a i l u r e i s i n t h e
f o r m o f e i t h e r c r a c k i n g o r c r u s h i n g depending on t h e s t a t e o f
s t r e s s . The l o w e r bound i s a l s o known a s t h e l i m i t i n g s u r f a c e f o r
elastic

behaviour.

l i m i t i n g surface,

If

the

state

of

the m a t e r i a l i s

stress

l i e s within this

assumed t o

be i n a l i n e a r

e l a s t i c s t a t e . I f t h e m a t e r i a l i s s t r e s s e d beyond t h e l i m i t i n g
s u r f a c e , s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g w i l l t a k e p l a c e and subsequent y i e l d
surfaces

guided

Although the

by

the

loading function w i l l

limited results

on m u l t i a x i a l

be

developed.

test of

concrete

show t h a t t h e t r a c e o f f a i l u r e s u r f a c e i n t h e d e v i a t o r i c p l a n e
seems

to

be

non-circular

or

Lode

angle

dependent,

i n this

i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e main o b j e c t i v e i s t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e i d e a o f t h e
heterogeneous s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g r u l e f o r c o n c r e t e and o n l y t h e
b i a x i a l s t r e s s s t a t e s o f c o n c r e t e a r e under c o n s i d e r a t i o n . F o r
mathematical s i m p l i f i c a t i o n ,

b o t h t h e f a i l u r e f u n c t i o n and t h e

i n i t i a l y i e l d f u n c t i o n are t a k i n g the c i r c u l a r cross s e c t i o n s i n

the d e v i a t o r i c plane.
The o c t a h e d r a l normal s t r e s s

, and s h e a r s t r e s s t

, are

f i r s t defined as
(T

(cr + cr +c r ) .

(3.1)

Here,

t h r e e d i f f e r e n t f a i l u r e f u n c t i o n s and i n i t i a l y i e l d

f u n c t i o n s a r e proposed f o r the f o l l o w i n g t h r e e d i f f e r e n t zones

compression zone, tension-compression zone and tension zone. For
convenience, these three zones are abbreviated as c-c zone, t~c
zone and t-t zone respectively in the subsequent sections.
The failure function for c-c zone (x + Vz (
r ^ 0 ) is given as
o
o
F

= T + a<r + f = 0
o
u o
u

(3.3)

for t-t zone (x - V2 cr ^ 0 ) as

o
o
F = T + b(r + d = 0
U
0
u 0
u
and for t-c zone (t- V2
F

(3.4)
[cr^ | > 0 ) as

= x2 + r cr2 + r x + r (T + r = 0
0
ul 0
u2 0
u3 0
u4

(3.5)

Because of the low strength of concrete under tension, it is

assumed

that

no

plastic

deformation

occur

in

t-t

zone,

therefore, the initial yield function for t-t zone coincides with
the failure function.
The initial yield function for c-c zone is given as
(3.6)

F s x + acr + f ^ O
0
0
i 0
i
and for t-c zone as
F

= t 2 + r cr2 + r x + r
(
r + r = 0
0
i1 0
12 0
i3 0
i4

(3,7)

In equations
(3.3) to (3.7), au , fU b XI d XI r III r
1
.
r

u3

'

'

u4

r
i l

r
,
i2 ,

r
i3

and r
14

are material

c o n s t a n t s t o be e v a l u a t e d b y t h e f o l l o w i n g s t r e s s and g e o m e t r i c
conditions:
(1) F o r f a i l u r e f u n c t i o n
under u n i a x i a l tension,

cr

= f

under uniaxial compression,

cr^ = f

under equal biaxial compression

and

c
r = c
r
1
2

= f
be

(2) For initial yield function,

the initial yielding of concrete starts at f p
f o r uniaxial

compression,

hydrostatic

and

c o m p r e s s i o n and

hydrostatic tension respectively.

(3) A l l zoned f u n c t i o n s a r e connected w i t h e a c h o t h e r a t zone
boundary.
(4) S i n c e t h e p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n m a i n l y happens i n c - c zone
and t - c zone,

the f u n c t i o n s f o r

r e q u i r e d t o have t h e
respect t o

cr

at

these

two zones a r e

same d e r i v a t i v e v a l u e o f

their

common boundary

with

the uniaxial

compression path).
(5) At the common boundary of t-t zone and t-c zone ( the
uniaxial tension path ), the derivative value of t w i t h
respect to crof the function for t-c zone is set close
to

the gradient of a straight line connecting the two

intersection points of the

loading function

(Including

the initial yield function and failure function) at the

uniaxial
path.

where

The

tension path and

close factor

at

the uniaxial

is denoted as p and

herein as slightly.greater than 1/

/
f
, f
and f
u n i a x i a l t e n s i l e strength,
t
c
be

59

compression
is

taken

uniaxial

c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h and e q u a l b i a x i a l c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h o f
concrete;

= i n i t i a l y i e l d s t r e s s o f concrete under u n i a x i a l

compression; p

and p = i n i t i a l y i e l d o c t a h e d r a l n o r m a l s t r e s s o f
t

c o n c r e t e u n d e r h y d r o s t a t i c c o m p r e s s i o n and h y d r o s t a t i c t e n s i o n
respectively.
I n t h e above c o n s i d e r a t i o n s the fourth condition ensures a
progressive representation of
uniaxial

compression

path.

the behaviour

In

some

of

the

of concrete at
plasticity

the

models

available, this condition is ignored[51215]. The fifth condition

is for making the shape of the quadratic function for t-c zone
approaching a straight line as far as possible. This is because
the failure envelop curve of concrete under tension-compression
stress states looks like a straight line. As there is no plastic
deformation taking place in t-t zone, the convexity condition has
no significance at the uniaxial tension path. Therefore the smooth
connection at the uniaxial tension path can be released.
These material

constants

are

obtained as

(3.8a)

(3.8b)

(3.9a)

(3.9b)

60

(Tn

Q u c

) t ( a + c ) (x

O t

- x

Ouc

^ ) [ ( a + c ) ((r -

Ouc

) + 2 a c (cr

O t

O t

-<r )]

Ouc

H m
nn

<r

) + 2 (x

O t

- t

)]
(3.10a)

r
- (r
Ouc
O t
-r

< r c
Ouc

2 a

O t

2 ( x

<ra

O t

cr (
O t

Ouc

Ot

2 (x

Ouc

( a + c ) - 2 x
XI

a - t

Ouc

(cr

O t

Ouc

O t

O u c O t xi

c )
r

- x

) a c

O t

cr

Ot

O t

(3.10c)

) - 2 cr

c r c

Ouc O t

(3.10b)

( 3 i Q d )

(3.11a)

(3.11b)

=
11

(x

O i c

(cr

- x

O i c

O t

) [ ( a + c ) (x
i

c
r

O t

O i c

O t

) [ ( a + c ) (cr
i

) + 2 a c

- t

Oic

O t

c
r

(cr

O i c

O t

) + 2 Cx
O i c

<r

)]

- x

O t

)]
(3.12a)

= ? r

c
r

0ic

- cr
0t

2 (x
0 i1 c

61

a - t c )
_ ( 3

where

= ~

- r

Ouc

Ot

^Ouc""

f
=v 2

f (V5 + b ) - d (\/2 - a )
u

f(V2
u

+ b)+d(V2
u

- a)

x
- x
f (V2 + b ) - d i V 2 - a )
xi
u
i
k, . = - Oic
Ot = v 2 i
1
^oic ^ot
f (VZ + b ) + d {V2 - a )
i

in which

c
r

Ouc

, r

Ouc

= the octahedral normal and shear stresses at

the uniaxial compression path at failure loading l e v e l

x

Oic

= the octahedral normal and shear stresses at the imiaxial

tension path at initial yield loading level;

= the gradient of

the straight line defined previously at the failure loading level;

and k i = the gradient of the straight line at the initial yield
loading level.

The f a i l u r e f u n c t i o n i s p l o t t e d i n F i g . 3 . 2 i n t h e p r i n c i p a l
s t r e s s p l a n e i n comparison w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s .
correlations

between

the

present

failure

function

and

Good
the

e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a a r e observed.

3.3

LOADING FUNCTION

F o r s t r a i n hardening m a t e r i a l s , l o a d i n g f u n c t i o n d e f i n e s the
subsequent y i e l d s u r f a c e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s p e c i f i e d h a r d e n i n g
r u l e a f t e r t h e m a t e r i a l i s s t r e s s e d beyond t h e i n i t i a l y i e l d
s u r f a c e . There a r e t h r e e t y p e s o f h a r d e n i n g r u l e a v a i l a b l e : t h e
i s o t r o p i c hardening r u l e ,
mixed h a r d e n i n g r u l e .

t h e k i n e m a t i c h a r d e n i n g r u l e and t h e

The i s o t r o p i c h a r d e n i n g r u l e

assumes

uniform expansion o f the i n i t i a l y i e l d s u r f a c e without d i s t o r t i o n

f o r t h e subsequent y i e l d s u r f a c e s , w h i l e t h e k i n e m a t i c h a r d e n i n g
r u l e t a k e s a t r a n s l a t e d shape o f t h e i n i t i a l y i e l d s u r f a c e f o r t h e
subsequent y i e l d s u r f a c e s w i t h o u t any change i n i t s s i z e .
mixed

hardening

rule

combines

the

isotropic

and

The

kinematic

h a r d e n i n g r u l e s , assuming t h a t t h e i n i t i a l y i e l d s u r f a c e t a k e s t h e
same shape a s t h e f a i l u r e s u r f a c e w i t h a r e d u c e d s i z e ,
subsequent

yield

surfaces

simultaneously. For concrete,

then

expand

and

the

translate

t h e i s o t r o p i c h a r d e n i n g r u l e and

mixed h a r d e n i n g r u l e a r e i n dominant u s e .

The d e f i c i e n c y o f t h e

h a r d e n i n g r u l e s i n common u s e h a s been d i s c u s s e d p r e v i o u s l y . The

p r o p o s e d heterogeneous h a r d e n i n g r u l e I n t h i s c h a p t e r i s based o n
the

mixed

hardening

behaviour o f

rule

and

can

represent

the

nonuniform

concrete d u r i n g the concrete s t r a i n hardening.

63

X
J
s
o

Ou

CL

2
S
^

C
D

o>
-f-"
>
t o

5
O
o w*5
0
1 o
Q.
O 3
=

<u

Cu

x
m

fc#

U- o
0 ^ ^
S 5 o
CO
o Q ^
o ^
2

^ {
r
t
b
^ 3
2 ~j
1
OL^q
E _ E
^
5 o
0
C 4=
o
cm e 5
d) & ^
ul 111^-

64

d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f the r u l e i s given i n the f o l l o w i n g :

1 ) . F o r c - c zone
F

"

where f

o+a

+f

= 0

(3.13)

i s c a l l e d the hardening parameter i n c - c zone and

~- )
f - f

( a -a j
u

(3.14)

where n i s c a l l e d t h e n o n l i n e a r i n d e x .
In the
positive a

flow rule,

above

with f

equations,
y

from f

to f

y
ti

varies

from n e g a t i v e

to

, According t o the associated

the variation of p l a s t i c

component o f

incremental

v o l u m e t r i c s t r a i n i s equal t o

AV

= X + A -r
dcr
dcr

where = a

+
* A -r = \
dor
d<r

= X a.

(3 15)

nonnegat i v e f a c t o r depending on t h e c u r r e n t s t a t e o f

stress.
From E q .

(3.15),

we can s e e t h a t t h e p l a s t i c component o f

Incremental volumetric s t r a i n

v a l u e ( c o n t r a c t i o n ) t o the p o s i t i v e v a l u e ( d i l a t a t i o n ) . I f t h e
nonlinear

index

in

Eq.

(3.14)

Is

properly

selected,

the

c o n t r a c t i o n and d i l a t a t i o n b e h a v i o u r o f c o n c r e t e under compressive

s t r e s s e s c a n be w e l l s i m u l a t e d .
The i n c r e m e n t a l v o l u m e t r i c s t r a i n i n c l u d i n g t h e e l a s t i c and
p l a s t i c component I s

dcr

V =

+ X a

(3.16)

where K = the bulk modulus.

Based

on

Kupfer* s

experimental

result,

under

uniaxial

compression, the inflection point of the stress-volumetrie strain

curve

for

concrete

is

at

about

80

percent

of

the

ultimate

compressive strength of concrete. Before reaching this inflection

point,

the

contraction

volumetric strain is
point,

the

rate

of

the

plastic

component

of

the

in a speed-up state. Over this inflection

contraction

rate

of

the

plastic

component

of

the

volumetric strain gradually slows down. A point where the plastic

component of the incremental volumetric strain starts to change
its sign from negative to positive is located somewhere above this
inflection point. At about 95 percent of the ultimate strength of
concrete, a minimum value of the volumetric strain Is arrived. At
this

point,

the

positive plastic

component

of

the

volumetric

strain precisely offsets the negative elastic component of

the

volumetric strain. After that, the incremental volumetric strain

changes its sign from negative to positive and increases rapidly.
This results in a quick dilatation of the voliametric strain. On
the right hand side of Eq. (3.16), the first term is the elastic
component of incremental volumetric strain varying at a constant
rate and the second term is the plastic component. We take cr^ to
represent

stress

level

where

the

plastic

incremental strain starts to change its sign.

Eq.(3.13), a

component

the

It means that in

must be equal to zero at this loading level

66

of

(3.17)

where f s = t h e h a r d e n i n g parameter c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o cr
s

f s must be bounded by

In this investigation, we take

f = 0.99 f . If f
S

= 1.16 f

DC

c
r

in the above equation will be

found to be 0.87 f^ . This value is reasonable when compared with

the experimental results.
Substituting f

into Eq.(3.14) and with a

= 0, the nonlinear

index n is found to be

ln(-a4 ) - ln(a -a ? )

'
l n ( f f
) - l n ( f- f )

I n Eq.(3.14),

(3.18}

= a monotonic

increasing function with

r e s p e c t t o t h e a b s o l u t e v a l u e o f t h e h a r d e n i n g parameter

Given a state of stress between the initial yield surface and the
failure surface,

the hardening parameters

in Eq.(3.13) can be

easily obtained by an iteration procedure with Eq.(3.14).

2) For t-c zone, the loading function is given in a form
similar to the failure function
F = x2 + r

in which

y l

(r2 + r
r

y2

t
,

+ r

c
r

r ^ and
y3

+ r = 0
r

y4

c o n d i t i o n s a s f o r the d e r i v a t i o n s o f r
They a r e g i v e n a s

67

are
ui

(3.19}
derived from s i m i l a r

y l

( T

Oc

- T
C
T

Ot

Oc

)[ ( a + c )(
y

<r

- T

Oc

Ot

) + 2 a c ( <r
y y

) [ ( a + c ) ( <r - cr

Ot

Oc

Oc

) + 2 ( t

Ot

Oc

- cr

}]

Ot

- x

)]

Ot

C3.20a)

cr

2 (t

c - cr a
y
__21Z

0c

2 (t
- t
^ ^

r ( a + c ) - 2 T
Ot

2 a c (? ( t
y y ot
Oc

where

<r

Oc

and t

Ot

) + 2 x

Ot

Oc

cr

) a c
L Z

Ot

(3.20c)

) - 2 cr

a - x

Oc Ot y

(3.20b)

Ot

Oc

<r c

Ot y

( a + c )
y

i s similar to

and i s g i v e n a s

= R k

20d)

= t h e o c t a h e d r a l n o r m a l and s h e a r s t r e s s e s a t

Oc

(3.21)

where k

(<r

the u n i a x i a l compression path,

n

a - t c )
_ 2 U L

- x

51 =
ot

(3.22)

(V2 + b ) + d

= t h e g r a d i e n t o f t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e c o n n e c t i n g t h e two

p o i n t s where t h e l o a d i n g f u n c t i o n c u t s t h e u n i a x i a l t e n s i o n p a t h
and t h e u n i a x i a l c o m p r e s s i o n p a t h .
Eqs. (3:5),
i s

taken

to

be

( 3 . 7 ) and ( 3 . 1 9 ) a r e h y p e r b o l i c f u n c t i o n s . I f P
1,

the

functions w i l l

68

degenerate

to

two

i n t e r s e c t i n g s t r a i g h t l i n e s . A s t h e p r o c e s s e s and t h e r e s u l t s o f
the

degeneration

of

these

functions

are

similar,

only

the

degeneration o f Eq.(3.19) i s given:

As p

= 1, c i n Eq. ( 3 . 2 1 ) changes t o
ot

(3.23)

ot
Using

instead of

i n Eqs.

(3.20a)

to

(3.20c),

the

f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n s a r e obtained

Oc

(cr

- x
Oc

)[( a + k )( x

Ot

- t

Oc

- cr ) [ ( a + k ) ( <r
Ot

Ot

) + 2 a k ( cr - - cr
y y

- cr

Oc

Ot

) + 2 ( x

Oc

a + k ) k ( cr - cr ) ~ 2 a k (
.y
v
v
Oc
ot
v v
k

) ( cr

Oc

<r

Ot

) - 2 k ( <r
y

Oc

<r

Oc

cr

Ot

- x

Ot

- cr

ot

)]
)]

2 (t

Ot

Oc

a y

k :
Ot y

a k

y l

2 k (x

Ot

(3.24a)

"y2

Oc

Oc

- t

Ot

) - 2(t

a - t

Oc y

Ot 5

- k
{3.24b)

OC

<r

Oc

k v

cr

Ot v

2 (x

Oc

- x

Ot

) a k

y \

=2k

hr

(r

(3.24c)

Oc

g i v e n by Eqs.

s u b s t i t u t i n g i n t o Eq. (3.19) and s e t t i n g

r

y4

<
r

(3.24a) t o ( 3 . 2 4 c )

= <
r

and t

Oc

=t

Oc

i s given as
r

y4

= - [t

= - [r x

= t

+ r

Oc

y l

cr

+ r

Oc

,2 2
- k
cr

Oc

+r

y 2 Oc

0
- 2
t

y O c

Oc

2 ,
<r ]

+2 k

Oc

cr

y3

Oc

- k2<r2

Oc

Putting r

y1

Oc

(3.24d)

y2

and

y3

i n t o Eq.

y4

(3.19}

the

function is degenerated into

F = t

2
O

= ( x

. 2 2

- k

cr

+ k

20 t

OC 0

c
r

f
+
2k

+ p )(x

cr<r

Oc 0

- k
y

(
T

+ x

2
Oc

,22

- k

<r

y Oc

+ q )

= 0

(3.25)

where

Eq.(3.25) gives two normally intersected linear equations,

F = t
F = x

+ k(j'

- k

cr

y o

+ p = 0

( 3 . 2 6a )

+ nq = 0

(3.26b)

In a nonlinear analysis of a reinforced concrete structure,

If the nonlinear behaviour of the structure is mainly induced by
the cracking of concrete rather than the plastic deformation of
concrete,
concrete

the

simplification

of

the

is reasonable. Taking = 1

70

constitutive

relation

and n

t h e proposed

= 1,

for

f a i l u r e f u n c t i o n s , i n i t i a l y i e l d f u n c t i o n s and l o a d i n g f u n c t i o n s
c a n be g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e d . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e q u a d r a t i c f u n c t i o n s
i n c l u d i n g t h e l o a d i n g f u n c t i o n , f a i l u r e f u n c t i o n and i n i t i a l y i e l d
f u n c t i o n f o r c o n c r e t e i n t - c zone a r e r e p l a c e d b y t h e l i n e a r
equations

Eq.(3.26a)

and

the s i m i l a r i t i e s f o r

the f a i l u r e

e a s i l y determined.
The

c u r v e s g i v e n by

the i n i t i a l y i e l d f u n c t i o n ,

loading

f u n c t i o n and f a i l u r e f u n c t i o n a r e p l o t t e d i n F i g . 3 , 3 i n t h e
p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s p l a n e and t h e o c t a h e d r a l normal and s h e a r s t r e s s
space.

3.4

CONSTITUTIVE RELATION FOR CONCRETE

By

the

theory o f p l a s t i c i t y ,

the s t r a i n o f

concrete i s

decomposed i n t o t h e r e c o v e r a b l e s t r a i n and i r r e c o v e r a b l e s t r a i n .
The f o r m e r i s t r e a t e d a s t h e e l a s t i c s t r a i n , w h i l e t h e l a t t e r
r e s u l t e d from microcracking i s interpreted as the p l a s t i c s t r a i n .
A c c o r d i n g t o t h e n o r m a l i t y law o f a s s o c i a t e d f l o w r u l e , t h e
p l a s t i c component o f i n c r e m e n t a l s t r a i n {de>^ i s g i v e n b y
(3.27)
The

incremental

s t r a i n consists

components. I t i s g i v e n a s

of

elastic

and p l a s t i c

uolscdf
colsue-

lojxDIco

$uolouni

SBd

(q)

oxocn

esld

72

where i n p l a n e s t r e s s

(3.29)

l-v
D i f f e r e n t i a t i n g E q . ( 3 . 1 3 ) o r E q . ( 3 . 1 9 ) , we have

dF =

{S

>

Ir

d f

v=

(3.30)

Taking
[ d
df

(3.31)

and s u b s t i t u t i n g H i n t o Eq. (3.30) r e s u l t i n

dF

3F
dcr

{d<r} - X H = 0

Premultiplying

(3.32)

dF
Sr

Eq. (3.28)

the following

r e l a t i o n i s obtained

dF
da

dF
dcr

- [ c H de }

(3.33)

S u b s t i t u t i n g Eq.(3.32) i n t o Eq.(3.33) y i e l d s

[ c ] { de > > A H

dF

f r o m w h i c h , A c a n be e x p l i c i t l y r e w r i t t e n a s

73

(3.34)

(3.35)

M u l t i p l y i n g Eq. (3.28) b y
Eq. ( 3 . 3 5 )

into

it,

the

t c ]

and s u b s t i t u t i n g

following

form

of

the

incremental

s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r c o n c r e t e i s developed

{ d(r } = [ [ c ] -

[ c

where [ c ]

ep

1 { de }

{ d }

(3.36)

= the elastoplastic matrix for concrete and is given

as

3.5

PLASTIC HARDENING MODULUS H

In Eq.(3.37), H is an unknown plastic hardening modulus. It

decreases from infinity in elastic range to zero when the failure
surface is reached. For concrete, it has been found that, under
the same equivalent stress level, the plastic hardening moduli are
different

for

different

principal

74

stress

[5,11,14,15]

ratios

T h e r e f o r e t h e p l a s t i c h a r d e n i n g modulus s h o u l d v a r y n o t o n l y w i t h
the s t r e s s l e v e l , but a l s o the p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s r a t i o . I n t h i s
investigation,

concrete i s

under

biaxial

stress

states,

the

m a t h e m a t i c a l e x p r e s s i o n proposed b y T a s u j i , N i l s o n and S l a t e [ 5 0 ]
f o r t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s t r e s s - s t r a i n curve o f c o n c r e t e under
biaxial

loading

Is

used f o r

computing

the p l a s t i c

hardening

modulus. The e x p r e s s i o n i s

(3.38)
1 - "ua.)

[ 1

cr . ( 1-va.

where E = the initial tangent modulus of concrete under uniaxial

compressive

loading,

a: =

the

ratio

of

principal

stress

in

orthogonal direction to principal stress in direction i. <r . and

c . = the ultimate stress and strain of concrete in direction I.
pi
E

c
r . / e . , the

secant modulus

at

ultimate

loading.
0

The

s u b s c r i p t I may t a k e the v a l u e o f 1 o r 3 . Here, we t a k e p o s i t i v e

f o r t e n s i l e s t r e s s w h i l e n e g a t i v e f o r compressive s t r e s s , and cr^ ^
I n c o n c r e t e , because t h e p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n m a i n l y o c c u r s i n
the d i r e c t i o n s o f

compression,

and

the

greater

the

absolute

c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s , t h e g r e a t e r t h e p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n w i l l be
produced.

Direction

1 is

called

the

minor

principal

stress

d i r e c t i o n w h i l e d i r e c t i o n 3 i s c a l l e d t h e major p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s
direction i n t h i s investigation.
I n Eq.(3.38), the ultimate s t r e s s i s given by the f a i l u r e
f u n c t i o n s , b u t t h e corresponding u l t i m a t e s t r a i n i s obtained from
t h e p r o p o s e d u l t i m a t e s t r a i n envelope

75

(3.39)

i n which,

t h e u l t i m a t e s t r a i n i n u n i a x i a l compression

= a v a r i a b l e determined b y the f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n s :
I n compression r e g i o n (
( 4

- e -3 e )

( 2 e +2 c - 4 e ) ( -

(3.40a)

and
3 ) a + ( 2 + 2 - 4

4 e

where e
c

= e

= e

/ e

. e

oo

and

=
e

oo

/ e

(3.40b)

.s)

0.5

0. 5

and

the ultimate strains i n minor

principal direction corresponding to the stress ratios g i v e n i n

and e b u t i n
the subscript. The same definitions are for c
0. o
i
major p r i n c i p a l d i r e c t i o n . From K u p f e r and G e r s t l e ' s t e s t d a t a
i t i s suggested t h a t

= 0.35;

= -0.35; e

[51

= 1.36; and

= 1.18.
In tension-compression region ( o
c

^ 0 ),

(3.40c)
0.0048 )

(3,4Dd)
.048)

where
and

e3

e l

= e

e1

/ e

= (1 - do: )(r
3

p3

e3

= e ^ / e
e3

c
el

/ E

Resolving e. from Eq.(3.38), we have

76

E T). C.(r.+ v ( E 7].c - C.cr.) 2

^ U
2 ( 1 - d a . ) cr.
t
(3.41)

where
C. =
t

- 2 ( 1 ~ u a.)

(3.42)
E

When 7)^ < 0 , t h e r e l a t i o n o f

=
1

and

changes t o

7) - C (
r - V ^ C E t q g - C o " ' ) 2 - [ 2 ( 1 - v a ) <t ]
l u l l
1 u 1 1
1
1
^
2 ( 1 - u
" a ) c
r
i
i
(3.43)
given

in

Eq. (3.41)

or

in

Eq. (3.43)

is

expressed

In

the following general form:

In

computing

the

(3.44)

plastic

hardening

modulus.

simplifications have been adopted. In Chen and Chen* s model

some
,

only two strain hardening functions are used for the calculation
of

the plastic hardening

modulus:

one

is

for

the

compression

region and another is for the tension-compression region. In Hu

and Schnobrichs model [ 1 4 3 , an equivalent uniaxial stress-strain
curve is introduced. Based on the equivalence of the plastic work
done

during

stress-strain

the

plastic

curv^

is

deformation,
related

to

the
the

equivalent
actual

uniaxial

stress-strain

variation. In Ohtani and Chen1 s model, the total damage increiient

77

i s decomposed i n t o t h r e e damage modes: t h e u n i a x i a l c o m p r e s s i v e

damage mode,

t h e e q u a l b i a x i a l c o m p r e s s i v e damage mode and t h e

u n i a x i a l t e n s i l e damage mode a c c o r d i n g t o a l i n e a r a s s u m p t i o n . I n
this

investigation,

t h e s t r e s s r a t i o i n Eq.

d i r e c t l y i n t e g r a t e d and i s employed f o r

(3.44)

has

been

computing t h e p l a s t i c

h a r d e n i n g m o d u l u s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e p l a s t i c h a r d e n i n g modulus o f
concrete f o r s t r e s s r a t i o
hardening
stress

modulus

state

of

i s assumed t o be e q u a l t o t h e p l a s t i c

concrete

corresponding

Considering

to

under

the

monotonic p r o p o r t i o n a l

same

stress

ratio

I n E q . ( 3 . 4 4 ) a s a c o n s t a n t , t h e p l a s t i c component

o f the incremental s t r a i n i s therefore given as

3g.
de?

where- e ?

ocr.

( 1 -

u a.)

, c ? = t h e p l a s t i c and e l a s t i c components o f t h e s t r a i n

r e s p e c t i v e l y and

dg.
H

( 1

From E q .

t; a . )

,-

(3.45), the f o l l o w i n g expression i s g i v e n f o r the

p l a s t i c components o f t h e i n c r e m e n t a l s t r a i n :

| de |

=|

I t must b e n o t e d t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n o f
(3.41) o r Eq.

1/v

> a

takes

(3.43)

and

g i v e n i n Eq.

c a n n o t be a p p l i e d f o r t h e s t r e s s r a t i o s

> Zf
inflected

shape.

modification

78

directly

giving

the

p l a s t i c component o f t h e s t r a i n i n t h i s d i r e c t i o n i s made
M

oc

1 - 0.5

<

It

0 . 6
a
i
is

'

- 0.5

obvious

that

Eq.(3.47)

satisfies

the

4 7

following

c o n d i t i o n s f o r i d e a l p l a s t i c deformation
e p = -2 ep

a = 0:

a
1

= -0.5 c

The index of

is taken from the average value of those

indices solved from the application of Eq. (3.47) w i t h = 2 and 5

respectively to the experimental data.
In the construction of the plastic hardening modulus

two

methods, the plastic work method and the inner product method are
usually used. Both methods are employed In this investigation and
comparisons

of

these

two

methods

are

made

in

the

analytical

examples.
1)

Plastic work method: considering the plastic work done

during the plastic deformation

d =x

^{ H L ^ F {

d cr i

(3.48)

With Eq.(3.46) substituting into Eq.(3.48), A i s solved as

From E q s . ( 3 . 3 2 ) and ( 3 . 4 9 ) , t h e p l a s t i c h a r d e n i n g modulus H

i s obtained as

dF
af

d<r

(3.50)
0dcr

2)

Inner

product

method

taking

the

inner

product

of

Eq.(3.27), the non-negative factor of X is given as

H is obtained by substituting the Eqs, (3.46) and (3.51) into

Eq. (3.32)
1

ar
6<r

The incremental stress-strain relation for concrete described

by Eq.

(3.37) is

then completely established with the plastic

hardening modulus given by Eq.(3.50) or (3.52).

It

is

constitutive

worth

noting

relation

for

that

the

concrete

is

proposed
different

constitutive relation directly obtained from Eq.

80

stress-strain
from

those

(3.38) or the

s i m i l a r expressions.
method

that

fully

The f o r m e r I n m a t h e m a t i c a l , i s a r i g o r o u s
satisfies

the

requirements

of

uniqueness,

s t a b i l i t y and c o n t i n u i t y whereas t h e l a t t e r cannot f u l l y comply

w i t h these requirements.

3.6

SOLUTION TECHNIQUE FOR HARDENING PARAMETER f y

G i v e n t h e o c t a h e d r a l normal s t r e s s and t h e o c t a h e d r a l s h e a r
s t r e s s , t h e f o l l o w i n g two s o l u t i o n p r o c e d u r e s a r e p r e s e n t e d f o r
t h e _s o l u t i o n o f

under c o m p r e s s i o n s t r e s s s t a t e s and t e n s i o n

compression s t r e s s s t a t e s r e s p e c t i v e l y .
1.

Under c o m p r e s s i o n s t r e s s s t a t e s :

S t e p 1 - Assume f

between f

S t e p 2 - Determine a

Step 3 - Substitute a

and f .

f r o m Eq. ( 3 . 1 4 ) .
y

i n t o E q . ( 3 . 1 3 ) and check whether F I s

w i t h i n a c e r t a i n t o l e r a n c e c l o s e t o z e r o , i f s o , go
t o step 5.
Step 4 - I f

F i s greater

than zero,

otherwise increase f

then decrease

, and go t o s t e p 1 .

S t e p 5 Conclude the iteration procedure.

2.

Under tension-compression stress states

Step 1 ~ Assume f

between f

Step 2 - Determine a
from

by Eq.

Eq.(3.13)

and f
u

(3.14); calculate

and

the

equation

defining

u n i a x i a l c o m p r e s s i o n p a t h ( + t r = 0
Step 3 - Calculate

ryi

ry2

Eqs. (3.20a) - (3.20d).

81

ry3

and

the

S t e p 4 - Check t h e

w i t h the f o l l o w i n g equation derived

from Eq.(3.19),

(
: = - 4

2""""
2
0.25 r - ( r + r

If

y2

yl O

y3 0

(r

+ r

y4

0.5 r
y2

0 i s w i t h i n a c e r t a i n t o l e r a n c e c l o s e t o t h e

known t

go t o s t e p 6 .

Step 5 - I f the calculated x

then increase f

I s g r0e a t e r t h a n t h e known
o

o t h e r w i s e decrease f

,
o

, and go t o

s t e p 1.
Step 6
Good c o n v e r g e n c y c a n u s u a l l y b e o b t a i n e d w i t h t e n t o twentycycles of iteration.

3.7

NUMERICAL EXAMPLES

The e x p e r i m e n t o n c o n c r e t e u n d e r combined s t a t e s o f s t r e s s
c a r r i e d out b y Kupfer e t a l . t 4 7 ] i s f i r s t
proposed c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n .
study
p

are

The

f =

be

= 2f / 3, p
t

= 7f

'

The m a t e r i a l d a t a u s e d i n t h e

1.16,

/9 E

predictions

of

analyzed w i t h the

f /
t

f =

0.1

/ f = 990i; = 0.2, and

c

the

stress - strain

stress-volumetric strain relation and

f =
c

/
0.3f

= 0,0022.

relation,

the

the comparisons with

the

experimental data are shown in Figs. 3.4 to 3.6 respectively.

The second example Is the analysis of Tasuji, s experimental
/

result

The

f //

f //

0.1,

material
=

0.3,

v = 0.22, and e = 0.0025.

data
t

are

=2 f / 3, p
t

givena
=

s
c

1.04
c

PREDICTION

3N B
PREDICTK

EXPERIHEHI

1.3

.2

1.2
l.l
1.0

1
0
e

c.e

0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3

.7
6

.5
.3

-1

*2

(0.

3
.2

3
-2

.0

1.0
0.9
0.6
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3

.1

.8
.7
6

5
A
.3

-2

-3

D )

(-0.52 : -1,0 )

AND c

-1

( -1.0 : -1.0 )

IN mm/m

F i g . 3 . 4 P r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e Sir ess-Strain Re l a ti on under

C o m p r e s s i o n w i t h t h e d a t a fror n Kupfer et al.

83

PREDICTION A

PREDICTION B

-EXPERIMENT
l
3l
.l
2o
.o
1o
.
0
l
o
o.
o9
o.8.7.6.5.4.3

.3.2-l.o0^.7j.5.4J

( 0 . 0 5 2

-1.0 )

32.1.00^0^.74.5.4.3

><4*41*40.0.00.00*

0-103 : -1,

AND c

0.204 : -1-

IN

F i g . 3 . 5 P r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e Stress-strain Relation u n d e r
T e n s i o n C b m p r e s s i o n with t h e d a t a f r o m Kupfer et al.

84

PREDICTION A

PREDICTION
3 ^ } . 1 . 0 . 9 J . 7 . 6 . 5 . 4 : . 3

3 21o987
- 2

B )

( 0 . 0 : -1

{ -0.3 : -1.0

321.00?.7.6.5.43

v4l.l.l.cic^o.c!cioo

D )

( - 0 . 5 2 : -1.

( -1-

VOLUMETRIC STRAIN V IN mra/m

F i g . 3 . 6 P r e d i c t i o n s of t h e Stress-Volumetric Strain
Relation w i t h t h e d a t a f r o m K u p f e r et a l

85

The a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s f o r t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n o f
c o n c r e t e a r e shown i n F i g s . 3 . 7 and 3 . 8 . I n F i g s . 3 . 4 t o 3.8
"prediction A"

stands for the prediction with the plastic work

method and "prediction B" denotes the predictions with the inner
product

method.

The

predictions

by

the

proposed

constitutive

relation show good agreement with the experimental data.

In both examples, because there Is no experimental results of
concrete at stress ratios of 0.3 and 0 . 0 0 5 , no comparisons c a n be
made f o r t h e s e s t r e s s r a t i o s . The p r e d i c t i o n s f o r t h e s e s t r e s s
r a t i o s a r e t o show t h e i n f l e c t i o n o f t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n c u r v e i n
m i n o r s t r e s s d i r e c t i o n and t h e p r o g r e s s i v e change o f t h e c o n c r e t e
b e h a v i o u r i n zone boundary r e g i o n . The p r e d i c t i o n s made by t h e
p l a s t i c work method and i n n e r p r o d u c t method f o r c - c zone a r e t h e
same, b u t f o r t - c zone, t h e i n n e r p r o d u c t method g i v e s a b e t t e r
p r e d i c t i o n t h a n t h e p l a s t i c work method.

0.7
0.5
(5.3

AND e IN mm/m
2

F i g . 3 . 7 Predictions of the Stress-Strain Relation u n d e r

C o m p r e s s i o n with the d a t a from Tasuji et al.

87

PREDICTION A

PREDICTION B

EXPERIMENT

1.1

1.1

1.0

1.0

0.8

0,8

0.7

0.6
M
f
b 0.5

0.5

OA
0.3

A )

-1

( 0.005 : -1.0 }

B }

( 0.05 : -1-0 }

1.1

1.1
0.9
0.7
\

0.6

0.6

0.3

1
C )

0
(

0.1 : -1.0 )

D )

-0.25 : -1.0 )

AND c IN mm/m
2

Fig. 3 . 8 P r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e Stress-Strain Relation u n d e r

Tension c o m p r e s s i o n w i t h t h e d a t a f r o m Tasuji e t a!.

88

-2

3-8

CONCLUSIONS

The f a i l u r e f u n c t i o n c o n s t r u c t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r shows good

agreement w i t h t h e a v a i l a b l e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s . The d e r i v a t i v e s
of

the l o a d i n g f u n c t i o n s f o r the

two major zones o f c o n c r e t e

p l a s t i c d e f o r m a t i o n : t h e c - c zone and t - c zone, a r e c o n t i n u o u s a t

t h e i r common boundary. T h i s e n a b l e a c o n t i n u o u s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f
t h e b e h a v i o u r o f c o n c r e t e i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e boundary.
The
employing

proposed
the

heterogeneous

associated

flow

hardening
rule

for

plasticity
concrete

has

theory
been

s u c c e s s f u l l y a p p l i e d t o the p r e d i c t i o n o f concrete s t r e s s - s t r a i n
relation

and

the

contraction

and d i l a t a t i o n

behaviour

under

v a r i o u s combined s t a t e s o f s t r e s s .
I n a nonlinear analysis o f a reinforced concrete structure,
i f t h e n o n l i n e a r b e h a v i o u r o f c o n c r e t e i s m a i n l y due t o o t h e r
sources r a t h e r than the concrete p l a s t i c deformation,

then the

p r o p o s e d c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n can be a c c o r d i n g l y d e g e n e r a t e d i n t o
the ordinary p l a s t i c i t y c o n s t i t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n by s e t t i n g both
t h e f a c t o r /3 and t h e n o n l i n e a r i n d e x n t o 1.
The p r o p o s e d c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n s a t i s f i e s a l l t h e b a s i c
p r i n c i p l e s o f continuum mechanics and c a n be e a s i l y a p p l i e d t o t h e
a n a l y s i s o f concrete structures.

CHAPTER 4
SMEARED CRACKING MODELS FOR REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES
4.1

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

I n t h e c r a c k i n g a n a l y s i s o f r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s by
f i n i t e element t e c h n i q u e , t h e c r a c k i n g i n r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e I s
now modeled b y smeared c r a c k i n g method i n s t e a d o f t h e d i s c r e t e
c r a c k i n g method w h i c h was a p p l i e d a t t h e i n i t i a l s t a g e o f t h e
development on c r a c k i n g a n a l y s i s t e c h n i q u e . I n s o - c a l l e d smeared
c r a c k i n g method, t h e c r a c k i n g i n a n element ( f o r a c o n s t a n t s t r a i n
element) o r i n a n i n t e g r a t i o n zone ( f o r a n i s o p a r a m e t e r element)
i s s i m u l a t e d b y a s e t o f e q u i d i s t a n t p a r a l l e l c r a c k s smeared o v e r
t h e whole element o r

t h e i n t e g r a t i o n zone.

d i s c r e t e c r a c k i n g method,

Compared w i t h the

smeared c r a c k i n g method p o s s e s s e s the

advantages o f p e r m i t t i n g t h e a u t o m a t i c c r a c k p r o p a g a t i o n w i t h o u t
t h e r e - d i v i s i o n o f t h e element, b e i n g independent o f t h e mesh
c o n f i g u r a t i o n and r e q u i r i n g l e s s e r computing e f f o r t . I n a d d i t i o n ,
t h e smeared c r a c k i n g method c a n a l s o be extended t o t h e a n a l y s i s
of

the

structures

constructed

with

other

rock-like

materials[S152]
After

cracking

occurs,

the

reinforcement

in

the

cracked

concrete is capable of transferring the force through the cracks

by bond stress on interface between reinforcement and concrete,
this effect Is called tension stiffening effect. Various models
have

been

proposed

for

taking

90

account

into

this

t27 31 32

effect

36 3738 39,40,41 ]

In

these

^ ,
u
models,
the

tension

stiffening effect is considered either by empirical approach or by

theoretical approach.

4.2

EMPIRICAL APPROACH F O R TENSION STIFFENING

In the models developed by empirical approach, the tension

stiffening
taken

effect

into

exhibited

account

by

in

some

cracked

reinforced

empirical

curves.

concrete
These

is

curves

describing the stress-rstrain relation of the cracked concrete or

the variation of the reinforcement modulus and concrete modulus
during the development of cracking are constructed based on the
experimental

results.

Due

to

its

simplicity,

many

cracking

analysis models for reinforced concrete are established using this

,[31,32,33,34,35,36]

approach

In the model proposed by Gilbert and Warner for reinforced

concrete slab [53] , the slab is divided into several layers in its
thickness

and

modeled

by

layered

finite

elements.

The

stress-strain relation for cracked reinforced concrete within a

cracked layer is directly expressed in the following general form:

(4.1)

12

the

subscripts

parallel

to

the

and
cracks

(1-v v)pG

represent

the

respectively. E 1

12

directions

normal

is determined by

the

c u r v e s shown i n F i g . 4 . 1 . I t i s shown t h a t t h e s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t
d e c r e a s e s w i t h t h e i n c r e a s e i n t h e d i s t a n c e o f t h e l a y e r away f
the l a y e r containing the reinforcement.
transference o f

shear

stress

between

Taking account o f the

the

cracks

due

to

the

a g g r e g a t e i n t e r l o c k , a r e d u c t i o n f a c t o r p ( =0.6 ) i s a d o p t e d t o
d e c r e a s e t h e s h e a r modulus. To m a i n t a i n t h e symmetry o f t h e m a t r i x
i n t h e above e q u a t i o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n i s i n t r o d u c e d :

(4.2)

I n t h i s model, a n a l t e r n a t i v e I s g i v e n f o r c o n s i d e r i n g t h e
t e n s i o n s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t : t o increase the reinforcement s t i f f n e s s
t o a v a l u e g r e a t e r t h a n i t s o r i g i n a l and t o n e g l e c t t h e c o n c r e t e
s t i f f n e s s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n normal t o t h e c r a c k

when c r a c k i n g

o c c u r s . The r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s t i f f n e s s I s t h e n d e c r e a s e d w i t h
t h e i n c r e a s e o f t h e t e n s i l e s t r a i n I n t h i s d i r e c t i o n . The s t e p p e d
stress-strain

relations

for

reinforcement

are

shown

In

F i g . 4 . 2 . T h i s approach i s found t o be v e r y e f f i c i e n t .

I n C e r v e n k ' s model
reflect

the

damage

[31]

, a damage p a r a m e t e r i s i n t r o d u c e d t o

degree o f

the

concrete.

The

parameter i s

defined as
(4

where e

3)

= the tensile strain normal to the crack face.

In the direction parallel

resistance

of

concrete

is

to

modified

92

the
by

cracks,

the

decreasing

compressive
the

tangent

Layer Containing the Tensile Steel

Layer Once Removed from the Steel
Layer Twice Removed from the Stl
o} Stepped Response A f t e r
Crocking

b] Graduaily Unloading Response

After Crocking

cOiscontinuous Unloading
Response After Crocktnq

Fig. 4 . 1 Alternative Stress-Strain Diagram f o r Concrete

in Tension

a) I
f

b] tf

y> C7

y<t7

Hcterkil Mod^Utog Law

7
Cs
U
.
Ccr
8
.

c
r
S.^r
3
.
C
c
r
% tS-Ecr
E3 4 es Ec
Ei
iO.Ec 2-7 20. 1-6. I-ISlEstO&Es

F i g . 4 . 2 M o d i f i e d Stress-Strain Diagram f o r Tension Steel

after C r a c k i n g

93

modulus o f c o n c r e t e w i t h t h e i n c r e a s e o f e
E

= 2 E

CO

e
( 1 ~
e

i '

fA

(4.4)

Or

where

(4.

1 - k p

(4.6)

in which e = the compressive strain corresponding to the uniaxial

/

compressive

strength

of

concrete

f and
c

constant

determined by experiment, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
The s h e a r modulus o f c o n c r e t e i s r e d u c e d w i t h t h e c r a c k i n g
development a n d I s g i v e n i n t h e f o l l o w i n g form
G = G
in which

(1 -

/
5

(4.7)

= the initial shear modulus of concrete: and k

= a

constant.
The constitutive matrices for concrete and reinforcement are
written as
E
(4.8)

in

which

and

ratio

and

elasticity

modulus

of

reinforcement respectively.
The tension stiffening due to the existence of reinforcement,
is described by a reduction of

94

the tensile concrete stress

a f t e r cracking.
'(1

(4.9)

where f

= t h e t e n s i l e s t r e n g t h o f c o n c r e t e and k 2 = a constant

Based on the experimental data of

the reinforced

panels carried out by Vecchio and Collins

for k i , k

and

[54]

concrete

, the average values

are 0.52, 1.04 and 0.4 respectively. For the

purpose of the prediction competition on some other

reinforced

concrete panels organized by University of Toronto these values

are taken as 0.45, 0.5 and 0.4. The curves for the stress-strain
relation for concrete in compression and the functions for tension
stiffening are shown in Figs. 4.3 and 4.4.

In

1986,

Vecchio

compression-field
subjected

to

and

theory

Collins

for

proposed

reinforced

shear [32]. Later,

in

1989,

modified

concrete

elements

Vecchio

applied

this

theory to the general use in nonlinear finite element analysis of

reinforced
cracked

concrete

concrete

stress-strain

is

plane

structures

treated

as

characteristics.

[36

new

. By

this

material

Equilibrium,

theory,
with

the

its

own

compatibility,

and

stress-strain relation are formulated in terms of average stresses

and average strains.
Based

on

stress-strain

large

relation

number
of

of

concrete

experimental
in

principal

results,

the

compressive

direction is given

(4.10)
c2max

95

R g . 4 . 3 Stress-Strain Relation for C o n c r e t e in C o m p r e s s i o n

F i g . 4 . 4 Function for Tension Stiffening

96

c2max

In

0 . 8 - 0 . 3 4 G / e

principal

(4.11)

tensile

stress

direction,

the

following

expression is suggested after concrete is cracked

fcl = ft / ( 1 + r z o o - r )

The

curves for

principal

the

compression

(4.12)

stress-strain
anci

tens ion

relation of
directions

concrete

are

shown

in
in

Fig. 4.5.
The moduli

for

concrete

in

two

orthogonal

directions are

given in secant form

=

(4.13)

(4.14)
E

(4.15)

(4.16}

where, E

cl

and E ^ = the secant moduli for cracked concrete in the

c2

direction normal and parallel to the cracks; and E

sx

secant

moduli

for

reinforcement

in

and

and E

sy

= the

directions

respectively.
The material stiffness matrix for concrete and reinforcement
are expressed as

(4.17)

97

(a) Concrete In Principal Tensile Direction

(b) Concrete In Principal Compressive Direction

(c) Reinforcing Steel

Fig. 4.5 Constitutive Relations a n d Secant M o d u l i used

in Analysis Procedure

98

(4.18)

where
G

= (E

In

the

c1

c2

) / (E

c l

+ E

c2

implementation o f

(4.19)
the

modified

compression f i e l d

t h e o r y I n a f i n i t e element program, c h e c k i n g o f t h e e q u i l i b r i u m
c o n d i t i o n s i s n o t performed, s i n c e t h e f o r c e i s a p p l i e d a t t h e
nodes o f e l e m e n t s , n o t on t h e boundary s u r f a c e .

I n B a l a k r i s h n a n and M u r r a y ' s model

concrete

under u n i a x i a l

regions,

described

as

loading i s
linear

[33 34 35]

the curve f o r

divided into f i v e

elastic

compressive

damage
strain

hardening; compressive strain softening; tesile strain softening

and tensile stiffening regions. The curves are shown in Fig. 4.6.
In the model, the crack face Is assumed to be normal to the
direction of maximum principal stress. When concrete cracks, the
Poissons ratio is set to be zero and the incremental constitutive
relation for concrete is given as.

f d<r
i
dcr

dr

where E

.(

de
-.(k)

(4.20}

d
12

12

post cracking modulus in the direction of tensile

stress in damage region , where

(k)
I ^ 2; E
= tangent modulus

parallel to the crack in the damage region k, where - 2 ^ k ^ 2

99

Stress

ifnenta
Containing Romforcornflnt

Elements Not Containing R^infofcem^nt

(a) Muttilinear tdealiiation

Test
0.9 f

(b) Damage Regions

G cr =0.05G

(c) Shear Modulus

(d) Potsson's Ratio

Note: superscripts in parentheses denote damage regions.

Fig. 4 . 6 A s s u m e d Strain D e p e n d e n c e o f Materia! Parameters

100

and G

cr

= s h e a r modulus f o r c r a c k e d c o n c r e t e .

The p o s t - c r a c k i n g b e h a v i o u r o f

reinforced concrete I s

combination o f the t e n s i o n s o f t e n i n g behaviour f o r p l a i n concrete

and t h e t e n s i o n s t i f f e n i n g b e h a v i o u r due t o t h e e x i s t e n c e o f
r e i n f o r c e m e n t . A s shown i n F i g . 4.7tension softening implies the
descending branch in the load displacement curve of plain concrete
under displacement controlled tension test, and tension stiffening
refers to the part of stress taken up by concrete in the direction
normal to the crack face.
The

combined

effect

of

tension . softening

and

tension

stiffening is given by a linear relationship,

where f
at f

tu

tu

= f

tu

g
f
Iv 0 . 0 1 e

1
J

(4.21)

cr

= tensile strength of concrete; e

cr

= extensional strain

and c = a v e r a g e e x t e n s i o n a l s t r a i n .

W i t h t h e c u r r e n t s t r a i n o f c o n c r e t e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n normal
to the crack, the modulus E

()
C

can be determined.

When the yield strength of reinforcement is reached at the

cracks, the tension stiffening effect will not be considered.
For unconfined concrete, the values of E(0)/ 9 and -0,05 E^0)
c

are

reconwnended

for

E(and
c

for

concrete w i t l i i i i

the

c o m p r e s s i v e s t r a i n h a r d e n i n g and t h e c o m p r e s s i v e s t r a i n s o f t e n i n g
regions respectively.
The model i s d e v e l o p e d b a s e d o n r o t a t i n g c r a c k assumption.
The a u t h o r s i n t h e p a p e r d e s c r i b i n g t h e model p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e
a d j u s t m e n t o f t h e t e n s i l e s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e element
s i z e a d v o c a t e d b y Bazant [ 5 5

in order

101

to obtain the consistent

(a) SPECIMEN

AREA
w

cr A
ELONGATION
(b) STRESS - ELONGATION

F i g . 4.7 Tension Softening

102

r e s u l t i n t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f a s i n g l e c r a c k i s n o t n e c e s s a r y and
no l o n g e r v a l i d f o r t h e models c o n s t r u c t e d b y t h e smeared c r a c k i n g
approach.

In

the

model

proposed

by

Hu

r o t a t i n g c r a c k a s s u m p t i o n i s adopted.
shown i n F i g .

4.8.

and

S c h n o b r i c h C 3 9 ] (1990),

The c o o r d i n a t e system i s

The i n c r e m e n t a l s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n f o r

concrete a f t e r cracking i s
d{cr} = { [ 1 ( 0 ) ] T [ C ] ' [ 1 ( 0 ) ] + [ G ] } d { e }

(4.22)

where
cos20

sin20

sin 0

[T(0)

cos 0

sin0cos0
-sin0cos0

(4.23)

-2sin0cos0 2sin0cos0 cos20 - s i n

F o r s i n g l y cracked concrete,
0

0
t

(4.24a}

103

F i g . 4 . 8 C r a c k Coordinates

104

F o r doubly cracked concrete,

0

0
(4.24b)

( , - c r , ) c o s 20
X
y
_

s i n 28

- s i n 20

-sin20cos2a

-sin22e

sin220

sin20cos28

-sin20cos2e s i n 2 0 c o s 2 0

cos22e
(4.25)

i n w h i c h 0 i s measured c o u n t e r - c l o c k w i s e f r o m g l o b a l x - a x i s t o
c r a c k x ' - a x i s . M a t r i x [ G ] i n Eq. ( 4 . 2 2 ) r e p r e s e n t t h e p o s s i b l e
changes i n c r a c k d i r e c t i o n ; /i = a c o n s t a n t r e f l e c t i n g t h e s h e a r
r e t e n t i o n , f i = 0 . 2 5 i s used i n t h e model.
E

i s g i v e n b y d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g Eq. ( 2 . 2 ) ,

e q u a t i o n f o r c o n c r e t e under compression

the s t r e s s - s t r a i n

s u g g e s t e d b y Saenz

The t e n s i o n s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t i s c o n s i d e r e d b y

a tensile

s t r e s s f u n c t i o n g i v e n by

(4.26)

1 + 1000 e ( | $ | / 90 ) 1 .
where

and

= t h e average t e n s i l e s t r e s s and s t r a i n o f

concrete I n the d i r e c t i o n perpendicular t o the crack face. # i s

t h e a n g l e measured i n degree c o u n t e r - c l o c k w i s e f r o m t h e s t e e l
direction

to

the

crack

direction.

Fig. 4.9.

105

Eq.(4.26)

i s

plotted i n

6 (degrees)

20.

4
6
Strain x 1000

Fig. 4.9 Tension-Stiffening Curves Suggested by Bhide

106

10

4 . 3

THEORETICAL APPROACH FOR TENSION S T I F F E N I N G

The approach employed i n t h i s group o f models i s

1

termed

t h e o r e t i c a l " f o r d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e d i f f e r e n c e o f t h e approach i n

t h i s s e c t i o n w i t h t h e approach i n the l a s t s e c t i o n . By t h e o r e t i c a l
approach, t h e t e n s i o n s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t i s d e r i v e d b y c o n s i d e r i n g
t h e bond s t r e s s a c t i o n between t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t and c o n c r e t e , and
i s directly related to

some m a t e r i a l parameters,

such a s t h e

s t r e n g t h o f c o n c r e t e , the r e i n f o r c e m e n t r a t i o and the moduli o f

c o n c r e t e and r e i n f o r c e m e n t ,

etc.

By e m p i r i c a l approach,

these

parameters a r e n o t i n v o l v e d .

I n F l o e g l and Manges model, t h e t e n s i o n s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t i s

t a k e n I n t o account b y two t e n s i o n s t i f f e n i n g f a c t o r s a t t a c h e d t o
t h e r e i n f orcement s t i f f n e s s i n x and y d i r e c t i o n s .
F i x e d o r t h o g o n a l c r a c k i n g assumption I s adopted I n the model.
As shown i n F i g . 4 . 1 0 , the c r a c k i n g o f r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e may be
i n one d i r e c t i o n o r two d i r e c t i o n s .
The e q u i l i b r i u m e q u a t i o n f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e i s

cr . .
(UN)

d
(CR)

. .dV
r

5u. dS
(CR)

t,
IB

I n Eq. ( 4 . 2 7 ) ,

dV
^
^

ds;
IR

cr!1

It

-j- - 1, 2

and

virtual

(4.27)

, S e ^ = the s t r e s s e s and v i r t u a l s t r a i n s

i n uncracked domains r e s p e c t i v e l y ;
stress

dV

. CCH)

average

strain

107

t h e a v e r a g e

(q} Parallel Cracks in One Direction

(b) Parallel Crocks in Two ejections

Parallel

Rdnforcement
/
Bars

' y = 2

Concrete
Strut
Reinforcement
Parallel Cracks

Parallel Cracks

Fig, 4.10 Parallel Cracks in One or Two Directions

108

cr^ , de^ = t h e average q u a n t i t i e s o f s t r e s s and v i r t u a l s t r a i n i n

r e i n f o r c e m e n t i n c r a c k e d domains; t . and 6u. = the e x t e r n a l f o r c e
and v i r t u a l d i s p l a c e m e n t
average bond
V

niN
C+R

on the s t r u c t u r e ; t ?

and u

-LB

the

-CR

stress and virtual bond slip on cracked domains

C R ) ( C R )

= the volume of uncracked reinforced concrete; V

s

, V
c

(T

the volumes for concrete and reinforcement in cracked domains; S

(CR)

= t h e area on which the external loading is applied and

total length of steel bar in cracked domain.

In Eq. (4.27),

, 6u! can be expressed as

-CR

IB

IB

tn

=- 11 | 1 . n S(
B

~ Cj )
ts
tc

i n w h i c h | T ? B | = average bond s t r e s s

(4.28)

4
= the diameter

of steel

bar L = the modified steel bar length within the concrete strut;

Is

and e a

tc =

t h e average s t r a i n s o f s t e e l b a r and c o n c r e t e

between a d j a c e n t c r a c k s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
Eq.

(4.28)

represents

the

work

done

by

overcoming

the

r e s i s t a n c e o f bond s t r e s s e x i s t i n g on t h e i n t e r f a c e o f s t e e l b a r
and c o n c r e t e , t h e r e f o r e , the n e g a t i v e s i g n i s added.
i * i s t h e h a l f o f the e f f e c t i v e c r a c k s p a c i n g . F o r c r a c k i n g
i
i n one p a r a l l e l d i r e c t i o n ,

and f o r c r a c k i n g i n two d i r e c t i o n s

x ' l

( 4 . 3 0 )

V i l

i n w h i c h b , and b , = c r a c k s p a c i n g i n x 7 and y ' d i r e c t i o n ; i i y

and n , = d i r e c t i o n c o s i n e o f t h e a n g l e e n c l o s e d b y t h e normal t o

the

crack

and

the

reinforcement

in

x'

and

respectively.
I n t r o d u c i n g t h e average v a l u e o f t h e r e l a t i v e d i s p l a c e m e n t o f
c o n c r e t e s u r r o u n d i n g t h e s t e e l b a r i n c r a c k e d domains, t h e l a s t
t e r m o n t h e r i g h t s i d e o f Eq. ( 4 . 2 7 ) changes t o

dS =
S

c
T

(4.31)
The s e c o n d t e r m I n Eq. ( 4 . 3 1 ) c a n be w r i t t e n a s

ds = f

(CR)

where cr'

( CT'

) ^

(CR)

dV

(4.32)

= the average s t r e s s i n the concrete s t r u t obtained by

disregarding the tension s t i f f e n i n g effect.

F o r p a r a l l e l c r a c k s i n one d i r e c t i o n ,

the s t r e s s a r e

expressed as

where

<r^

= the

average u n i a x i a l s t r e s s i n the d i r e c t i o n o f

c o n c r e t e s t r u t x^/ , =
x y

the

average

shear

stress due

to

the

aggregate interlock; and for parallel cracks in two directions,

<r: is set to be zero,
2

Substituting Eqs.

(4.28,

4.31), (4.32), and

(4.33) into

Eq. (4.27), the final form of the equilibrium equation is

110

cr . . 5 e . . d V
(UN)

d S

d V

(CH)

cr dc dV

(CR)

= 1 ,

(4.34)

where
=t i

^is

(4.35)

| < | I*

_ 1 i
fr

1 +_

i n which

ts

cr.

(4.36)

i s c a l l e d the t e n s i o n s t i f f e n i n g f a c t o r .

From F i g . 4. 11,

the average s t r e s s i n a s t e e l b a r can be

expressed as
a

(CR)

where (r^

(CR)

37)

$~

= t h e s t r e s s a t the c r a c k s .

S u b s t i t u t i n g Eq. (4.37) i n t o ( 4 . 3 6 ) , y i e l d s
-(

C R )

| V i }

(4.38}

In Eq. (4.38), the upper (or lower) quantity in brackets is

valid for one (or two) crack band(s) respectively.
Because the ratio of <r,
is

to C

varies from

to 2,

the

variation range of f. is
r

Y
2

l y

(4.39}

111

(a) Actual

(b) Analysts Model

(tf) Bond Stress

I Acting oa Reinforcement Steel ]

3 #
{/?] Stress in Concrete
Surrounding the Reinforcement Steel

sJSL
{7] Steel Stress

T"

Fig. 4.11 Comparison of Stress Distributions Between Adjacent Cracks

112

The a v e r a g e bond s t r e s s |
L

.07

,16

| i s given as

Ui

LU

v 0 . 3

0.2

in which

- uniaxial compressive strength of concrete and (r..

is only considered if It is a compressive stress.

Here, an approximation Is made for

CR

in

(4.41)

Substituting Eq. (4.41) into (4.40), yields

IB

I =

0.07 + 0.16

t s 4.

+ 0.2 f <r..0 |
i
HC4.42)

It

is assumed that cracks of order r + 1 develop halfway

between cracks of order r, and parallel to the latter, when

(r) =
r e (1)
,

(r + l )

i n which ,
X

and

(r+l)
X

(4.43)

= the strain at formation of cracks of

order r and r + l , respectively and ( = the strain at primary

cracking. The factor i s g i v e n a s
(
vl

i/(s_i)

e J

(4.44}

tuc

where e

sy

= s t r a i n o f reinforcement a t the beginning o f y i e l d i n g ;

and e = t h e u n i a x i a l t e n s i l e s t r a i n o f c o n c r e t e .
ttxc

The c o n c e p t f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f t h e c r a c k s p a c e i s shown
i n F i g . 4.12.

The l o w e r bound, t h e a v e r a g e and t h e u p p e r bound

113

 Discontinuous
Decrease of Crack
Continuous
Distance

4<2=154ti

^ ) X

Fig. 4.12 Crack Spacing versus Strain Normal to Crack

envelop o f cracking spacing i s given as

-(log2/logA)

(i)

=1, 2 , 3

(4.45)

i n w h i c h in - 1, 2 , 3 a r e f*or t h e l o w e r bound, t h e averageand the

upper bound envelop of the crack spacing respectively.
In Eq. (4.45), b^,

= the primary crack spacing which varies

parametrically.
The tangent material matrix can be obtained from Eq.(4.34) by
carrying out the integration and is written as
D

TS

(4.46)

and D

the tangent stiffness matrix for concrete

TC

in which D

TC

TS

and reinforcement respectively

D
J

TC

or

TC

( D

TS

).

The

matrix

TC

( D

) may
be D C U N ) D ( U N )
J

, ^ ( C R )

is

TS

xc

and

TC

xs

( C ,R )

c a n be

o b t a i n e d b y u s u a l ways. The t e n s i o n s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t r e f l e c t e d i n
JCR)

i n t h i s model i s d e r i v e d

i s

(r-l)J
)
TS

y (r - 1 ) y s

(4.47)

where a and u = the reinforcement ratio In x and y directions;

x
y
and E

xs

and E

ys

= moduli for reinforcement in x and y directions

respectively.
Because an approximation has been made

in Eq. (4.41),

the

relative displacement between reinforcement and concrete has not

been involved finally.

(CR) s

T k

In

the

model

proposed

by

Gupta

and M a e s t r i n i

[38]

the

i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t and c o n c r e t e i s e v a l u a t e d b y
a l i n e a r bond s t r e s s - s l i p r e l a t i o n . The f o r m u l a t i o n s d e r i v e d f o r
t e n s i o n s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t are r a t h e r complicated.
A reinforced

concrete s t r u t

between c r a c k s i s

shown i n

F i g . 4.13.
The l i n e a r bond s t r e s s - s l i p r e l a t i o n s a r e g i v e n a s
f

, = A.A.
b

i n which f

i = x9

(4.48)

= bond stress; A. = the bond stress-slip modulus;

b-C
I

A. = bond slip between the steel bar and the concrete. The bond

s l i p i s defined as

=11

i _

(4.49)

where u . , u = the displacements of steel bar and concrete

st
ct
respectively.
The equilibrium equation are
dcr.

P.

f = o ,

I = x9

(4.50a)

d<r.
dS.

A .

(4.50b)

bl

in which p. = the bar perimeter; A = the cross section area of

concrete associated with one steel bar dS^ = d x
d y

(i =

the stress In steel bar and in concrete

respectively.
The stress-strain relation of bar is given by
p E

p E

du

i si is = i si ds7

n y

116

(4 51)

"

yso

xso

xso

yso

Fig. 4.13 Uncracked Concrete between Cracks

117

i n which

= r a t i o o f reinforcement.

F o r concrete, t h e s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n s a r e expressed a s

(4.52)

(du
(du
From E q s .

cx

) / ( dx )
(4.53)

) / ( dy )

(4.48)

to

(4.53),

the

following differential

equation i s obtained
d A.

d2A.

(k +

dS.

cot 0 )
dS'
i. p. n .p.

n.p.)( 1

n^p.)

cot 0 A.

(4.54)

where
.A. ( 1

rP)

(4.55)

A .E n.p.
ct c i. i
in which n.= E ./ E
^

s-6

The solution of Eq. (4.54) is in the form of

slnh(k. S.

A. = C. sinhfk. S.)
-L

ti

-c

cosh(k. S.) +
(4.56)

cosh(k. S.)
4

2 i
i n which
C.

and

= m a t e r i a l parameters;

and

= t h e c o n s t a n t s determined b y t h e boundary c o n d i t i o n s .
With

the

value

of

bond s l i p

given

by

Eq. {4.56),

the

strain-stress

r e l a t i o n i n matrix

form

Including

the

tension

s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t i s obtained
{ G > = [ c ] { c r }

The

elements o f

(4.57)

the

compliance m a t r i x

[c] i n t h e

above

equation a r e r a t h e r complicated,

If the Poisson* s ratio is set to

zero, [c] i s g r e a t l y s i m p l i f i e d ,

The elements in [c] for this case

are

o u t l i n e d i n the following
C

t ) cun + t ccr
i
ii
i ii

11

(4.58a)

21

= c

31

13

= ( 1
22

23

= c

32

= t c

(4.58c)

1 13

- t ) cun + t Ccr
2

22

y33

in which C ?

(4.58d)

2 22

(4.58e)

= t c

2 23

) c u n + t Ccr
33

33

x33

(4.58b)

COS

L x33

+ t ccr

2 y33

(4.58f)

tan 0

(4.58g)

cot 0

(4.5811)

sin 0
and C?r. = the elements of the uncracked compliance

matrix C u n and the cracked compliance matrix C c r respectively. The

matrices C u n and C c r are given as
p )/ D
n^p^)/ D

119

(4.59)

D = 1 + n p

+ n p

+ n

1/(

tan0/(n p )

l/(n p )
y y

symmetric

tan 0

(4.60)

xPxnyP,

cot0/(n p

(4.61)

y y

cot 0

(4.62)

sin 0cos 0
t

and t

are functions of k

and k

and is expressed as

tanh k
(4.63a)
tanh k
(4.63b)

the variation of t

In the model

and t

is from 0 to 1.

the semi-crack spacing, represented by a as

shown In Fig. 4.13, is determined by equating the maximum tensile

stress

In

concrete

to

the

tensile

strength

of

concrete.

An

iteration procedure is used to obtain the value.

In

the model

softening

behaviour

proposed
of

by Hassicotte

plain

concrete

etc.[40],

and

tension

the

tension

stiffening

behaviour of reinforced concrete are considered. Both fixed and

rotating cracking assumptions have been employed.
For the description of strain softening behaviour of plain
concrete,

the

strain energy density dissipated

by

cracking

is

first defined.
(4.64)

120

where G f

= t h e energy d i s s i p a t e d i n t h e opening o f

a crack;

and w = the width of the fracture-process zone.

is equal to the area under the ascending and descending
branches of

the stress-strain curve for concrete under

tension

shown in Fig. 4,14. A simplification for such stress-strain curve

is made as shown in Fig. 4.15.
W

= 5 f

where e

cr

is therefore expressed as
(4.65)

cr

= the crack strain at f .

t

For reinforced concrete, the cracking mechanism is shown in

Fig. 4.16. A cracked reinforced concrete member is divided into
two regions. Region I represents the uncracked parts of reinforced
concrete adjacent to the crack. Region II stands for the cracked
region. The ratio of the length for region I to the length of
region II is determined by

c = i wwhere f

s cr

, f

^ p ]

(4 66

= the stresses existing in region II at cracking

and after cracking respectively=1.0 for deformed bar and 0.5

for plain bar and ^

= 1.0 for first loading and 0.5 for long

term or cyclic loading.

The average strain in steel bar over the length
e = ( 1 - C )

+ e

Q
I

in which

and

1
2

respectively and C =

is
(4,67

2
the

steel

strain

in

region

and

11

12.

Two phases for describing the tension-stiffening phenomenon

is

shown

in

Fig.

4.17.

For

reinforced

121

concrete,

limiting

thickness

a) T e n s i o n S p e c i m e n

Loading

o=T/hb

b r a n c h . u n l o a d i n g b r a n c h just
prior to cracking
-Softening branch
i n tension

b) Stress - Elongation

Fig. 4.14 Tension-Specimen Response

122

Fig- 4.15 Tension-Softening Curve

123

Region

V2

^/2

(a) Cracking Regions

^average strain at c r a c k i n g -

Region I

Region U

Region 1

b) A t cracking

, a v e r a g e strain after cracking < m

^l^cr

Region t

R e g i o n 11

Region

Sm
c) Strain distribution after cracking

Fig. 4.16 Tension-Stiffening Model

124

Reinforced
concrete

Steel alone

a) Reinforced concrete member

h s

Stabilized
cracking
~

Average strain in
the member reaches
the reinforcement
yiefd strain
Reinforcement i _
the crack

TSy
^TScr

^TSy

(y

b) Concrete contribution

Fig. 4.17 Phases in Tension-Stiffening Model

125

r e i n f o r c i n g r a t i o P s t b l i s f i r s t d e r i v e d a s one o f t h e s t a b i l i z e d
c r a c k i n g c o n d i t i o n s . D u r i n g the f o r m a t i o n o f t h e p r i m a r y c r a c k s ,
t h e s t r e s s i n concrete i n r e g i o n I I decreases a t a r a t e o f - E / 6 ,
c

and t h e s t r e s s i n c r e a s e s a t a r a t e o f E a t t h e same l o c a t i o n . The

s

minimum r e i n f o r c e m e n t r a t i o r e q u i r e d t o m a i n t a i n c o n s t a n t s t r a i n
a t the crack i s

(4

stbr

.6S)

i n which n = E / E .
s

I f p i s g r e a t e r o r equal t o p
remains e q u a l t o

stbl

, the s t r a i n i n region I I

I f p i s s m a l l e r t h a n p

cr

, c r a c k i n g i s not

stbl

s t a b l e and t h e c r a c k w i l l open u n t i l t h e s t e e l b a r p i c k s up t h e
t e n s i l e f o r c e r e l e a s e d by c o n c r e t e .
will

i n c r e a s e beyond 5c

s t a b i l i z e d between 5c

cr

cr

The s t r a i n i n c r a c k r e g i o n

(see F i g .

and 16c

cr

4.15).

If

the s t r a i n i s

the e q u i l i b r i u m c o n d i t i o n f o r

this situation i s
E A ( ~ e
s s

cr

E
) =

E
4e

cr

oo

- ( e
2

- 5e

cr

(4.69)

The average strain In cracked region obtained from the above

equation is

=1 7 +3 3 n P c
2 33np - 1

Limiting

(4.70)

cr
In

the above equation

to

, the minimum

reinforcement ratio is obtained

p =

15n

For

lim

reinforcement

4.71)
ratio

smaller

than

Plim

tension

sof tening does not contribute at cracking. All force carried by

c o n c r e t e i n t h e r e g i o n i s t r a n s f e r r e d t o t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t . The
s t r a i n a t stabilized cracking i s obtained as

2 "

3 e

S T

cr

(4.72)

The a v e r a g e s t r a i n and s t r e s s f o r member a t t h e c r a c k i n g ,

corresponding t o the coordinates p o i n t a a t F i g . 4.17, a r e given
as
c

TScr

^cr

= ( 1 - <

TScr

<

cr

cr

i n which f

so

cr
+

)f ,

cr 2

c r so

cr

^ f

(4.74)

so

V 2

( 4 . 7 5 )

= the concrete s t r e s s i n region I I .

A t the onset o f y i e l d i n g i n reinforcement a t the crack, the

f o r c e c a r r i e d b y r e i n f o r c e m e n t a t r e g i o n I I must be e q u a l t o t h e
f o r c e c a r r i e d b y r e i n f o r c e m e n t and c o n c r e t e a t r e g i o n I , t h a t i s
A E e ^ A E e + A E e
s

(4.76)

where c - t h e y i e l d s t r a i n o f t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t a t t h e o n s e t o f
y
yielding.
Solving

from

above

equation

and

substituting

into

E q . ( 4 . 6 7 ) , t h e a v e r a g e s t r a i n f o r t h e member on t h i s o c c a s i o n i s
np + C
TSy

+ np

(4.77)

I n region I I , the equilibrium of force i s

A E e = A f
s s y

c TSy

+ A E

(4.78)

s s TSy

127

TSy

i s solved as

= n p E (

TSy

- e

TSy

With f s c r and

(4 7 9 )

, the curve between point a and point b in

Fig. 4.17(b) is modeled the by following relation

TS

= f

TSy

+ (fT

Tcr

- f c^ ) ( 1 -

TSy

When the average strain e

-
TSy
TScr

reaches e

(4.80)

, the stiffening effect

will end at this point c.

For two dimensional problem, equivalent reinforcement ratio
and equivalent yield strain normal to the crack are defined
Peq= p cos 4 (A0)

(4.81)

(4.82)
yeq

cos (A0)
=

yeq

f
^
2
cos (A0)

where A0 =

4.83)

the angle between the normal

to the crack and

the

reinforcement direction.
Eqs. (4.81) to (4.83) are expressed in a general form
n
p

= [

y e q

p. cos 2 (A0.)

(4.84

(4.85)
2

l - i cos (Ae,)

1 f l
y
y e q

(4.86)

i=i COS (A0.)

128

where
^

$ = -. cos (AG)
i
P
q
The
program

(4.87)

theory has been

and

two

implemented

cracking

in

a 2-D finite

assumptions

the

element

fixed

cracking

assumption and rotating cracking assumption have been employed in

the model.

CONCLUSIONS

Two
analytical

approaches

for

models for

the

construction

reinforced

concrete

of

the

cracking

structures

Including

tension stiffening effect have been described in detail in this

chapter. Some concluding remarks have been drawn as follows
(1)
and

easy

The models based on the empirical approach are simple

to

be

implemented

into

the

finite

element

program

available. However, in most of the models based on this approach,

the tension stiffening effect has no relation with some parental
influential parameters, such as the reinforcement ratio, the angle
enclosed

between

the

cracks

and

the

orientation

of

the

reinforcement, etc.
(2)
slightly

The models developed with the theoretical approach are

complicated

compared

with

the

models

based

on

the

empirical approach. In the models, the tension, stiffening effect

is taken into account in

a. more appropriate manner. However, if

the quantity of bond slip is involved, some difficulties will be

met in the solution process.

CHAPTER 5

BOND STRESS DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION AND

ITS

APPLICATION

TO

CRACK ANALYSIS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE TENSION MEMBER

5.1

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

Crack a n a l y s i s o f r e i n f o r c e d concrete structures i s a subject

h a s b e e n e x t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d . The work o f p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h e r s i s
reviewed i n

the

preceding

chapter.

The

so-called theoretical

a p p r o a c h i s a d o p t e d i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I n t h i s c h a p t e r , a bond
s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n i s p r o p o s e d f o r t a k i n g i n t o account
t h e t e n s i o n s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t , and a c r a c k s t r e n g t h e x p r e s s i o n f o r
a r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e member i s d e r i v e d . W i t h t h e proposed bond
s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n and c r a c k s t r e n g t h e x p r e s s i o n ,

number o f r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e t e n s i o n members a r e a n a l y z e d .
I n some o f t h e models d e v e l o p e d on t h e t h e o r e t i c a l approach,
the

tension

stiffening effect i s

evaluated

by

various

bond

s t r e s s - s l i p f u n c t i o n s . However, t h e measurement o f t h e l o c a l bond

s t r e s s a n d l o c a l bond s l i p along, a s t r e s s e d r e i n f o r c i n g b a r i n a
t e n s i o n member i s d i f f i c u l t and v e r y s e n s i t i v e t o e x p e r i m e n t a l
e r r o r s , and i t consumes l a r g e amounts o f computing t i m e when bond
s t r e s s - s l i p f u n c t i o n i s employed i n t h e a n a l y s i s , e s p e c i a l l y i n
t h e a n a l y s i s o f a two- o r t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e
s t r u c t u r e . A new bond s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n i n s t e a d o f a
bond

stress-slip

function i s

therefore

put

forward i n t h i s

a n a l y s i s . The q u a n t i t i e s o f u l t i m a t e bond s t r e s s and bond s t r e s s

130

t r a n s f e r l e n g t h have been i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e proposed f u n c t i o n .

The e f f e c t o f t h e n o n - u n i f o r m d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c o n c r e t e s t r e s s i n
t r a n s v e r s e and l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n o n t h e c r a c k s t r e n g t h o f a
reinforced

concrete

member

has

also

been

considered.

The

p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e c r a c k l o a d i n g and e l o n g a t i o n o f t h e r e i n f o r c e d
c o n c r e t e members b y t h e proposed f u n c t i o n a r e s a t i s f a c t o r y when
compared w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s .

5 . 2

BOND S T R E S S D I S T R I B U T I O N F U N C T I O N AND S T R E S S - S T R A I N R E L A T I O N

F O R CRACKED REINFORCED CONCRETE

In

1981

distribution

Somayaji
function

and
for

Shah [ 5 6 3

proposed

reinforced

concrete

bond

stress

members.

The

location of the peak bond stress in their proposed function is at

the centre of the transfer length. However, the test results show
that the peak bond stress occurs at the location near the end face
of

the

related

member
the

or

bond

segment

F 5 7

stress not

58

only

[ 5 9 ]

to

the bond

slip

in

linear

relation but also to the parabolic and cosine functions of axial

coordinates in their proposed model for the predictions of crack
width and end slip. However the bond coiistant in their model is
experimentally difficult
available

bond

to determine directly.

stress functions,

no

ultimate

In most of the
bond

stress was

introduced. But test, results showed that after the ultimate value
of bond stress was reached, the bond stress was almost constant
for the points at some distance from the end face even though the
tensile

loading continues to increase 6 0 .To establish a bond

131

s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n w i t h these important c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
i s therefore o f great significance.
A r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e member shown i n F i g . 5 . 1 i s s u b j e c t e d
to a

u n i a x i a l t e n s i l e l o a d i n g . The t e n s i l e f o r c e i s t r a n s f e r r e d

from

the

steel

bar

to

the

concrete

by

bond

stress.

The

d i s t r i b u t i o n o f bond s t r e s s I s v e r y n o n - u n i f o r m a l o n g t h e l e n g t h
o f t h e segment. The v a l u e o f bond s t r e s s i s z e r o a t t h e i n n e r end
o f t h e t r a n s f e r l e n g t h and r e a c h e s a p e a k v a l u e a t

a location

n e a r t h e e n d f a c e . A f t e r t h a t , t h e bond s t r e s s q u i c k l y d r o p s t o
z e r o a t t h e e n d f a c e . The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e bond s t r e s s v a r i e s
w i t h a n i n c r e a s e I n t e n s i l e l o a d i n g a s shown i n F i g . 5 . 2 . i n w h i c h
u

ult

I s t h e u l t i m a t e v a l u e o f bond s t r e s s .
The f o l l o w i n g o b s e r v a t i o n s a r e made I n e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e bond

stress d i s t r i b u t i o n function:
1.

Because o f

anti-symmetry,

t h e b o n d s t r e s s i s z e r o and

c h a n g e s i t s s i g n a t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e segment.
2 . The b o n d s t r e s s a t end f a c e a n d i n n e r end o f t h e t r a n s f e r
l e n g t h i s zero and reaches its peak value within a short distance
from the end face compared with the transfer length.
3. The transfer length is assumed to be proportional to the
, .

transferred loading and is expressed as

where k
= A
A

and

[56]

(5.1)

(l+np)7rD

= the constant to be determined by test n = E s / E c P

A
A

E
'

and E

= moduli o f s t e e l b a r and c o n c r e t e ;

= cross-sectional areas o f s t e e l bar

r e s p e c t i v e l y and D = diameter of the steel bar.

132

and concrete

dx

Fig. 5.1 Tension Member and Free Bodies

133

4 . W i t h a n i n c r e a s e i n t e n s i l e l o a d i n g , t h e peak bond s t r e s s
i s d e v e l o p e d i n t o t h e u l t i m a t e bond s t r e s s . A p l a t e a u o f u l t i m a t e
bond

stress

increase

will

[61,62]

be

formed

as

the

loading

continues

to

Two c i r c u m s t a n c e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e
b o n d s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n . The o r i g i n o f t h e x a x i s i s
l o c a t e d a t t h e i n n e r end o f t h e t r a n s f e r l e n g t h .
1. B e f o r e t h e t r a n s f e r l e n g t h exceeds t h e h a l f - l e n g t h o f t h e
segment,

the

bond

stress

distribution

function

as

shown i n

F i g . 5.2 i s expressed i n the f o l l o w i n g form:

u = f u (-^-) s i n (
u m
t
where

)
t

= the transfer length;

s t r e s s ; and f

= t h e peak v a l u e o f

bond

= a c o n s t a n t t o be d e t e r m i n e d .

Eq. (5.2) s a t i s f i e s the f o l l o w i n g conditions

At

the

point

of

the

peak

value

of

bond

stress,

du / dx = 0, and u = u f is found to be equal to 2.5016, the

m
u
peak value locates at x = 0.7286
The

location of

the peak value of bond stress within the

transfer length obtained from above equation is close to

obtained by Yang and Chen's

that

model C 5 9 1 . Due to the relation given

in Eq. (5.1), this location will move further from the end face as
the tensile loading continues to increase.
Consider a segment from a reinforced concrete member length

134

P -

Subjected t o Small T e n s i l e Loading

S u b j e c t e d co Medium T e n s i l e L o a d i n g

Subjected t o Near U l t i m a t e T e n s i l e Loading

F i g . 5 . 2 B o n d Stress Distributions

135

d x a s shown i n F i g . 5 . 1 . The e q u i l i b r i u m e q u a t i o n s f o r c o n c r e t e
and s t e e l b a r a r e

where

urtDdx = -dcr

(5.3a)

urrDdx =

(5.3b)

cx

dcr

stresses

sx

of

concrete

and

steel

bar

respectively.
From E q . ( 5 . 3 a ) and ( 5 . 3 b ) , t h e s t r e s s e s o f c o n c r e t e and s t e e l
bar a t x are

(5.4a)

u dx

r^t

(5.4b)

u dx

where P = t h e t e n s i l e l o a d i n g , and

dx = 2 . 5 0 1 6 u

2.5016 u

2
0

f Ct x J+ o2
sin

. cosf

nl

cos(-

(5.5)

The s t r e s s e s o f c o n c r e t e and s t e e l b a r a t t h e i n n e r end o f

the t r a n s f e r length are given as

0.4736TrDu I

0.47367rDu I
1

u dx = r- -

(5.6b)

Because the strains of concrete and steel bar at the inner

end of the transfer length are the same, e =
c

<
r /E = c =

c
r /E ,
s

could be determined as

(5.7)

.47367rD (1 + np)

In the determination of the crack strength of a reinforced

concrete member, the average stresses of concrete and steel bar
along the length of the segment will be used. These formulas are
U - 0.340)P
dx +

c
r ( - .)

(1 + np)A

(5.8a)

(np + 0.340 )P
dx +

(
r ( - )

(1 + np)A i

(5.8b)

where = the half-length of the segment.

2. After ^

reaches I and the peak bond stress reaches the

ultimate value, the bond stress distribution, function consists of

the following three parts:
For 0.72S61 ^ x ^ I
u

= 2.5016 u

u l t

at x = 0 72861, u
'

= u

( j )2 s i n ( ^ )

Xllt

where u ,
u l t

bond stress.

137

(5.9a)
= the ultimate value of the

F o r a ^ x ^ 0.7286

(5.9b)

u l t

For 0

at x = a, du

Uuit( ) 2

/ dx = 0, and u

(5.9c)

= u

ult

where a = the distance

f r o m t h e i n n e r e n d o f t h e u l t i m a t e bond s t r e s s p l a t e a u t o t h e
c e n t r e o f t h e segment.
The s t r e s s e s o f c o n c r e t e and s t e e l b a r a t x a r e g i v e n b y t h e
following integrals

u dx

(5.10a)

(5.10b)

u dx

dx consists

of

three

parts. Taking b = 0.7286 in the

following equations, the Integrations give

For b ^ x ^ I

u dx =

2.5016 u

dx = 2.5016

sin(^TT^) + 2 -Ar cos(-

iT

cos (-

(5.11a)

138

For a s x s b

dx

=0.1849 u

ult

dx

(b

ult

(5.11b)

For 0

u dx =

=0.1849 u

Xllt

+ u

-1.3280 u
ur

3 7 2 5

dx

u l t

u_ dx +

dx

(b - a ) + 0.6178 u

u l t

3.7675

C 0 S (

sln(

O7fc

,1709

1.3725aJ

cos (.3725a'

(5.11c)

The stresses of concrete and steel bar at the centre of the

segment are

dx

dx

0 .91347rDu

ult

dx

0. SOSTirDu

ult

dx +

0. 91347rDu

ult

a
(5.12a)

dx

0.60377rDu
tilt

139

(5.12b)

a t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e segment, where

a i s obtained a s

1.6565 P
, 5 1 3 0

(5.13)

ttDu ,~(1+np)
ult

The a v e r a g e s t r e s s e s and s t r a i n s o f c o n c r e t e and s t e e l b a r

are

<r d x

u dx dx

c x

0.41927rDu

u l t

0.20147rDu

a"
(5.14a)

dx

u dx dx

0.41927tDu

u l t

0.2014TrDu

u l t

(5.14b)

A
The i n t e g r a t i o n s o f

<r

c x

c i r c u m s t a n c e s a r e g i v e n i n a p p e n d i x i i . The i n t e g r a t i o n s o f
cr , and tr

, 3

c a n b e o b t a i n e d i n a s i m i l a r way.

U L T I M A T E BOND S T R E S S , CRACK STRENGTH O F A R E I N F O R C E D CONCRETE

T H E CONSTANT K

Various values of
proposed

for

studies I2>6 0 , 6 3 , 6 4 3.

average ultimate bond

deformed
The

bars

expression

stress in 1963 AC I Code [6 5

is u

for

on

average

experimental
ultimate

bond

= 9.5 / T " / D psi ^ 800 psi for

u l t

140

based

stress have been

d e f o r m e d b a r s #11 and s m a l l e r , where

= average u l t i m a t e bond

s t r e s s and = t h e compressive strength of concrete.

In Nilson s proposed f o r m u l a ] t h e u l t i m a t e bond s t r e s s
was

found t o

be

related to

the

compressive

strength o f

the

c o n c r e t e and t h e end d i s t a n c e from the c r a c k f a c e . F o r a d i s t a n c e

^ 6 i n c h e s f r o m t h e end f a c e ,

t h e v a l u e o f t h e u l t i m a t e bond

s t r e s s i s a c o n s t a n t and i s e q u a l t o lO.OS/^F" p s i . I n h i s t e s t ,
C

t h e s p e c i m e n was 6 x 6 x 18 i n . and o n l y one b a r s i z e (D = 1 " ) was

used.
(A / 2 5 ) 1 7 3

Using m u l t i p l i e r s

and

(5000/f ) 1 / 2 t o n o r m a l i z e
c

t h e t e s t r e s u l t s w i t h d i f f e r e n t compressive strengths o f concrete

and

cross

section

areas,

Hirza

and

Houde 1 " 603

proposed

f o r m u l a t i o n f o r t h e bond s t r e s s - s l i p r e l a t i o n . The u l t i m a t e bond

s t r e s s was f o u n d t o be 673 p s i f o r t h e common s t r e n g t h o f c o n c r e t e
(f

= 5000 p s i ) a n d t h e s t a n d a r d5 x 5

i n . c r o s s s e c t i o n a r e a . But

o n l y # 8 (D = 1 " ) b a r s were used i n t h e t e s t . However t h e d i s t a n c e

effect

was

not

observed i n

ultimate value o f

the

the

investigation.

bond s t r e s s i s i n

The

proposed

agreement w i t h t h e

c a l c u l a t e d r e s u l t u s i n g t h e 1963 AC I C o d e C 6 5 3 .
I n B a z a n t a n d C e d o l i n s paper^ 6 6 3 , the average ultimate bond
stress was given as 11.14/ f
Kemp

et o T s [ 6 3 , 6 7 ]

/D psi for bar spacing

test

results

showed

that

2
6 inches.
the

formula

given by the 1963 AC I Code is quite conservative, especially with

regard to the smaller bars because of the 800 psi maximum stress
limit.
The average ultimate bond stress usually used is the quotient
of the ultimate pullout force divided by the embedment length of

141

s t e e l bar* I t i s assumed t h a t t h e whole embedment l e n g t h i s f u l l y

d e v e l o p e d i n t o t h e - u l t i m a t e bond s t r e s s
P

u l t

I B F

where

(5.15)

= the ultimate transferred loading.

I n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e s t r e s s a t t h e p o i n t s n e a r t h e end

face

(0.7286 < x ^ ) on the

concrete

is never

allowed

to

interface between steel bar and

reach

the ultimate bond

stress.

Substituting a = 0 in Eq.(5.12a) the ultimate bond stress for the

same transferred loading is
P

uit

ult
0.91347rD

5.16)

Comparing Eq.(5.15) and Eq.(5.16) yields

i

u l t

= 1.1 u ^

(5.17)

u l t

Based on these

test results and

other formulas about

ultimate bond stress, a moderate value is taken as u

u l t

the

. Taking
&

into account the relation in Eq.(5.17) and the effect of concrete

cover, the following relation is suggested for
u

u l t

= 11.9 (c/2.5)0*3 / T " / D

c

(in GB unit)

(5.18a)

or

u l t

= 1.44 c 0 , 3 V ^ T / D

(in SI unit)

(5.18b)

where c = the clear cover of a reinforced concrete member. In GB

unit, c and D are in in, and u
ult
c and D are in cm; and u

u l t

and f are in psi. In SI unit,

c

and f

142

are in MPa.

From E q . ( 5 . 1 8 a ) o r ( 5 . 1 8 b ) , we c a n s e e t h a t t h e u l t i m a t e bond
stress i s affected by

concrete compressive s t r e n g t h ,

concrete

c o v e r and d i a m e t e r o f t h e s t e e l b a r .
Due t o t h e a c t u a l n o n - u n i f o r n i d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c o n c r e t e s t r e s s
i n t r a n s v e r s e and l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n i n a r e i n f o r c e d concrete
t e n s i o n member, t h e c r a c k s t r e n g t h o f a r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e member
i s d i f f e r e n t from the t e n s i l e strength o f p l a i n concrete.
former i s d e f i n e d here as
reinforced concrete
latter

Is

the s t r e s s l e v e l o f concrete i n a

member a t w h i c h c r a c k i n g t a k e s p l a c e .

physical

The

characteristic f o r plain

d i f f e r e n c e was o b s e r v e d b y many i n v e s t i g a t o r s C 5 6 5

concrete.
68

The
The

69 7 0 3 ^ it is

summarized as follows the crack strength of a reinforced concrete

member increases with the decrease of the ratio of segment length
to

cross-sectional

gradient

in

the

area,

and with

transverse

the

increase

direction

direction. Because the ratio of tr / <r

C

or

of

the

the

strain

longitudinal

increases with the decrease

of segment length and with the increase of transfer length, the

crack strength of a reinforced concrete tension member is proposed
as

<r

= a

<r ((r /
e

(5.19)

cr

where a and =constants t o be d e t e r m i n e d f r o m t h e t e s t d a t a .

T h e r e a r e two unknowns i n E q . ( 5 . 1 9 )

one o f w h i c h must be

e l i m i n a t e d f i r s t b y c o n s i d e r i n g t h e two c r a c k i n g c o n d i t i o n s

j .
concrete

member i n

conditions

and

^ cracks

are

given i n

E q . ( 5 . 2 0 ) a n d E q . ( 5 . 2 1 ) . A t t h e i n s t a n t o f c r a c k i n g , c r a t the

143

c e n t r e o f t h e segment i s e q u a l t o

Dividing

t/

( < r

c/ ^

(5.20)

Eq.(5.20)

by

Eq.(5.21),

and

then

taking

2 1

the

logarithm of both sides,

cr .cr .

(3 = l o g
cj,

The

cr . a .

) / l o( g

analysis of

ti

the

(5.22)

c j , c-t

available data[19,71,723 i s

T a b l e 1. The a v e r a g e v a l u e o f p = 0 . 8 2 5 . T h e r e f o r e
be 0 . 8 I n t h i s I n v e s t i g a t i o n .

144

shown i n

TABLE 1. C a l c u l a t e d V a l u e s f o r t h e Parameter )3

References

21

(kips)

(in)

(T
cr
<r
ult
t
c
c
(psi) (psi) (psi) (psi)

marks

[71]

6.76

72

788

210

200

191

(1)

[71]

7.24

18

788

210

214

173

[71]

12.67

788

210

370

170

(3)

[72]

6.6

39.4

904

346

347

315

(4)

[72]

9.4

11

904

346

495

288

(5)

[72]

11.6

10.2

904

346

610

292

(6)

[19]

13

33

635

346

382

292

(7)

i t h crack
^th c r a c k

(1)
U)
0.41

(1)
137
0.84

(2)

(4)

(4)

I 3 T

T s T

T e T

(5)
161

0.96

0.80

0.88

1.06

145

T a b l e 2 shows v a r i o u s v a l u e s o f a o b t a i n e d w i t h p = 0 . 8 , The
c a l c u l a t i o n i s b a s e d o n t h e same d a t a a s f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n f o r
p . I t shows t h a t a v a r i e s f r o m 0 . 8 6 t o 0 . 9 8 . The mean v a l u e i s
0.92.

TABLE 2 . C a l c u l a t e d V a l u e s f o r t h e Parameter a

References

21

(kips)

(in)

cr

u l t

or

<
r

(psi) (psi) (psi) (psi)

[71]

6.76

72

788

210

200

191

0.92

[71]

7.24

18

788

210

214

173

0.86

[71]

12.67

788

210

370

170

0.94

[72]

6.6

39.4

904

346

347

315

093

[72]

9.4

11

904

346

495

288

0.93

[72]

11.6

10.2

904

346

610

292

0.98

[19]

13

33

635

346

382

292

0.89

Cracks of condition i + 1 are assumed

between

the

cracks

of

condition

L when

to develop halfway

the

stress

level

of

concrete at the centre of the cracked segment is greater than the

crack strength of the member
Somayaji
calculation of

and

[27 73]

Shah C 5 6 ]

the

evaluated

transfer

length,

the
using

constant f o r
the

test

the

results

r e p o r t e d b y Houde and M i r z a [ 7 4 ] , f r o m t h e measured d i s t r i b u t i o n o f

s t e e l s t r a i n along the length o f
average v a l u e o f h

the b a r f o r each l o a d .

2
was observed t o be 1/385 i n / l b .

The

.
Comparing

w i t h E q . ( 5 . 1 ) a n d E q . ( 5 . 7 ) , u i s f o u n d t o be 810 p s i . T h i s v a l u e
m
I s a b o u t t h e same magnitude a s

ult

146

. F o r reasons o f s i m p l i c i t y .

l//k p i s assumed t o be 0.4736

5 . 4

i n t h i s analysis.

A P P L I C A T I O N TO CRACK A N A L Y S I S O F REINFORCED CONCRETE T E N S I O N

MEMBERS.

The p r o p o s e d bond s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n and c r a c k

s t r e n g t h f o r a r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e member a r e a p p l i e d t o t h e c r a c k
a n a l y s i s o f r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e t e n s i o n members. I n t h e a n a l y s i s ,
I t i s assumed t h a t t h e s t e e l b a r s and t h e c o n c r e t e a r e I n t h e
e l a s t i c s t a t e d u r i n g t h e e x t e n s i o n . T h e r e f o r e , t h e maximum t e n s i l e
l o a d i n g p i s l e s s t h a n o r e q u a l t o f A , where f
y s
stress of steel.

The

incremental

procedure i s

i s the y i e l d
y
l i s t e d below

Step 1:

apply loading increment Ap

Step 2:

calculate the sum of applied loading

Step 3:

calculate

Step 4:

calculate the stress of concrete

using Eq. (5.1)

<
r
c

at the centre

of segment using Eq. (5.6a) for first circumstance

or Eq. (5.12a) for second circumstance
Step 5

calculate the average stress of concrete

the

length of

first

the

circumstance

segment
or

Eq.

using Eq,
(5.14a)

along

(5.8a) for
for

second

circumstance
Step 6:

calculate the crack strength of a tension member <rt

using Eq. (5.19)

Step 7:

compare crand ^

, if (T ^

, cracking occurs

a t t h e c e n t r e o f t h e segment and t h e l e n g t h o f t h e
segment i s reduced b y h a l f

147

Step 8:

c a l c u l a t e t h e average s t r e s s o f t h e s t e e l b a r ?
S

a l o n g t h e l e n g t h o f t h e segment u s i n g Eq.

(5.8a)

f o r f i r s t c i r c u m s t a n c e o r Eq.

second

(5.14a

for

circumstance
Step 9:

calculate
<r

5 5

/ E

the elongation

of

the member by

A =

and go back to step 1.

^

ANALYTICAL EXAMPLES

One of the tension pull-out tests is shown in Fig. 5.3. The

circular
Gergely

specimen has been analyzed by

[ 7 1

using

complicated,

large

Gerstle,
scale

Ingraffea

computer

which employs the fracture mechanics approach and

and

program

the discrete

crack model. The properties of the materials are

E

= 3600 ksi

cr^ = 200 psi

E

= 29000 ksi
= 1 in.

21 = 72 in.
A
In

= 27.5 in 2
the analysis made by Gerstle et al, the first primary

crack was formed at a load of 6.76 kips, followed by the formation

of 2 cracks at a load of 6.82 kips, followed by the formation of 4
cracks at a load of 7.24 kips, followed by the formation of 8
cracks at a load of 12.67 kips. The ultimate cracking space is 4.5
In.
Using the present analysis model, it Is found that the first

148

"

Fig. 5 . 3 Tension S p e c i m e n for Example 1

Steel Stress (ksi)

"-Authors' analysis
Test r e s u U
AGerstle's. s e c o n d a r y c r a c k i n g ignored
OGerstie's, including s e c o n d a r y c r a c k i n g
"FfCCS t)3T

0.01

02
Elongation(in)

Fig. 5.4

Stress-Elongation Curves for Example 1

149

p r i m a r y c r a c k formed a t a l o a d o f 6 . 7 6 k i p s , f o l l o w e d b y t h e
f o r m a t i o n o f 2 c r a c k s a t a load o f 6.89 k i p s , f o l l o w e d by the
formation o f 4 cracks a t a load o f 7.67 k i p s , followed by the
f o r m a t i o n o f 8 c r a c k s a t a l o a d o f 11.21 k i p s . The u l t i m a t e c r a c k
spacing i s

4.5

in.

The

comparisons o f

the

experimental

a n a l y t i c a l s t e e l stress-elongation r e l a t i o n s o f the

and

member a r e

shown i n F i g , 5 . 4 . The a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t agreed w e l l w i t h t h e t e s t

result.
The second example i s t h e a n a l y s i s o f a r e c t a n g u l a r t e n s i o n
member

shown i n F i g .

5.5.

The

test

was

made

by

Houde

and

Mirza^74
The specimen was analyzed by Khouzam

[19]

using the discrete

crack model. The material properties are

E

= 3450 ksi

- 4310 psi

c
r

= 308 psi

= 29000 ksi

= 1 in.

21 = 33 in.
A

= 27.56 iru

In Khouzam' s analysis the first crack was formed at a steel

stress of 16.5 ksi, while the second crack appeared at a steel
stress value of 19 ksi. A third crack was formed at the same load
level during the redistribution of forces.
In this analysis, the first crack is formed at a steel stress
of 14.5 ksi. The second crack is formed at a steel stress of 21.0
ksi. The ultimate crack spacing is 8.25 in. The comparison of the

150

Fig. 5 . 5 Tension Specim en for Example 2

50

Steel Stress(ksi}

40

30
Authors" analysts
Test r e s u l t

20

Khou2ann # s a o a l y s i s

Khouzaitr's a^atysis
Free bar

10

Elongation(1E-2 inch)

Fig. 5.6

Stress-Elongation Curves for Example 2

a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t w i t h t h e t e s t r e s u l t i s shown i n F i g . 5 . 6 .
The t h i r d example i s t h e a n a l y s i s o f 4 p u l l - o u t t e s t s w i t h
d i f f e r e n t c r o s s s e c t i o n s a s shown i n F i g . 5 . 7 . The t e s t s were a l s o
c a r r i e d o u t b y H i r z a a n d H o u d e 1 6 0 3 . The m a t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s a r e
E

= 4360 k s i
= 5940 p s i

<r

= 340 p s i

= 28400 k s i

= 1 In.

The

= 3.225 in?, 15.225 in 2 , 35.225 in 2 , and 63.225 in?

crack

spacings

observed

in

inches, 5 inches and 8 inches for2 x 2

in. specimen respectively. The8 x 8

the

tension

tests

are

in. , 4 x 4 in. and 6 x 6

in. specimen did not crack

during the test.

In this analysis the crack loading and crack spacing for each
specimen are
For the2 x 2

in. specimen, the first crack is formed at a

steel stress of 3.0 ksi, the second crack is formed at a steel

stress of 3.6 ksi, the third crack is formed at a steel stress of
4.2 ksi. The ultimate crack spacing is 2 Inches.
For the4 x 4

in. specimen, the first crack is formed at a

steel stress of 9.6 ksi, the second crack is formed at a steel

stress of 14.4 ksi. The ultimate crack spacing is 4 inches.
For the 6 x 6

in. specimen, the primary crack is formed at a

steel stress of 28.2 ksi. The ultimate crack spacing Is 8 inches.

No crack is formed for the8 x 8

152

specimen. The comparisons

of

the

test

results

and

analysis

results

of

steel

s t r e s s - e l o n g a t i o n r e l a t i o n s a r e shown i n F i g . 5 . 8 .
The

above

reinforced

three

concrete

examples
member

show

under

that

tensile

the

analysis

loading

of

using

a
the

p r o p o s e d model i s a v a l i d one. The p r e d i c t i o n s o f c r a c k l o a d i n g ,

c r a c k s p a c i n g and t h e s t r e s s e l o n g a t i o n r e l a t i o n a r e s a t i s f a c t o r y
when compared w i t h t h e t e s t r e s u l t s .

153

Thick fie*a

Fig. 5.7 Tension Specimen for Example 3

60
50

S t e e l S t r e s s (ksi)

Analysis. 2"x
Analysis.
A n a t y s l s , 6*x

4 0

Analysis

3 0

Test,

10

0.05

0-1
0.15
0.2
E l o n g a t i o n (1E-2 inch)

0.25

Fig. 5.8 Stress-Elongation Curves for Example 3

154

0.3

5.6

conclusions

1.

The

actual

bond s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n

reinforced

c o n c r e t e member under t e n s i o n c a n be a d e q u a t e l y modeled b y t h e

p r o p o s e d bond s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n i n w h i c h t h e d i s t a n c e
f r o m t h e end f a c e t o t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e peak bond s t r e s s f i r s t
increases w i t h the

increase of

the

tensile

l o a d i n g and

then

remains a s a constant a f t e r the l o a d i n g reaches a c e r t a i n l e v e l .

2.

Using

the

proposed

crack

strength f o r

reinforced

c o n c r e t e member w h i c h i n c r e a s e s w i t h t h e i n c r e a s e o f t h e r a t i o o f
tr/ the analytical crack loading and crack spacing are close
to the experimental data and the analytical results obtained by
the complicated programs using discrete crack model. However the
model employed here is much simpler.
3. The predictions of the stress elongation relation of a
reinforced concrete member under tension are satisfactory compared
with the test results.

155

CHAPTER 6
CRACK

ANALYSIS OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

INCLUDING TENSION STIFFENING

6.1

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

It

i s

influence

apparent
on

the

that

concrete

nonlinear

cracking

behaviour

of

has

significant

reinforced

concrete

s t r u c t u r e s . When c r a c k i n g o c c u r s , c o n c r e t e l o s e s i t s c o n t i n u i t y .
As

consequence,

the properties o f

concrete

and

the

stress

d i s t r i b u t i o n s i n c o n c r e t e and r e i n f o r c i n g b a r s change g r e a t l y . I n
a c o n c r e t e c r a c k e d z o n e , b y t h e a c t i o n o f t h e bond s t r e s s a t the
I n t e r f a c e between t h e r e i n f o r c i n g b a r and t h e c o n c r e t e , t h e i n t a c t
c o n c r e t e between two a d j a c e n t c r a c k s h a s t h e c a p a c i t y t o c a r r y t h e
t e n s i l e l o a d i n g i n the d i r e c t i o n perpendicular t o the cracks. This
capacity i s c a l l e d the

tension s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t .

In earlier

techniques f o r crack analysis o f reinforced concrete structures,

t h i s e f f e c t was n e g l e c t e d , and t h e s o - c a l c u l a t e d f a i l u r e l o a d s o f
t h e s t r u c t u r e s were t h e r e f o r e underestimated
several
. ,

approaches

c o n s i d e r a t i o n have

t a k i n g the
,

been

[27]

. I n recent years,

tension stiffening effect

,,[19,33,34,35,36,37,38]

suggested

into

greatly

Improving n o n l i n e a r a n a l y s i s o f r e i n f o r c e d concrete s t r u c t u r e s .
However,

among t h e s e

models,

some a r e r a t h e r
,

c o m p l i c a t e d and

r e q u i r e a r e l a t i o n s h i p between bond s t r e s s a n d s l i p

[37,383

some

o t h e r s a r e s i m p l e , b u t t h e t e n s i o n s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t c a n o n l y be
g e n e r a l l y estimated u s i n g the

parameter-independent

156

descending

curves

[36

In this chapter, a two dimensional smeared cracking model for

the

analysis

of

in-plane forces

reinforced

concrete

structures

subjected

to

is presented. The tension stiffening effect

is

appropriately Incorporated by applying the proposed bond stress

distribution function, which has been successfully used to predict
the load-elongation relationship of tension members 1753 . In this
model,

the

tension

stiffening

effect

is

related

to

some

parameters, such as the ratio of reinforcement, the strength of

concrete and the moduli of reinforcement and concrete, etc. The
transference of the shear stress at the cracks is also considered.
For

the

sake

of

simplicity,

the

fixed-orthogonal

cracking

assumption is adopted. The details of the proposed model are given

in the following.

6.2

DESCRIPTION

OF

CRACKED

REINFORCED

CONCRETE

UNDER

PLANE

STRESSES

A partially cracked reinforced concrete panel

Fig.

6.1.

structures

In

finite

employing

elements, when

element
a

analysis

smeared

crack

the maximum principal

of

reinforced

model with
stress

is shown

at

in

concrete

isoparametric
an

integration

point in an element exceeds the crack strength of concrete, cracks

are assumed to form at an equidistance apart In the zone around
the integration point in the direction of the maximum principal
stress

. Such a zone around an integration point

subzone of an element.

157

is called a

r e i n f o r c i n g bars

cracks

Fig. 6.1

A Partially Cracked R C Panel

158

According

to

fixed-orthogonal

cracks

assumption,

the

subsequent c r a c k i n g i n a cracked subzone i s i n a d i r e c t i o n e i t h e r

normal t o o r p a r a l l e l t o t h e e x i s t i n g c r a c k s . I f t h e subsequent
c r a c k i n g i s p a r a l l e l t o the previous cracks,

the new c r a c k i s

l o c a t e d midway between t h e two p r e v i o u s c r a c k s . A f t e r t h e bond

s t r e s s around t h e r e i n f o r c i n g b a r s i n x and y d i r e c t i o n s p a s s i n g
t h r o u g h t h e c r a c k e d subzone i s f u l l y developed and t h e maximum
s t r e s s I n t h e c o n c r e t e i n t h e d i r e c t i o n normal t o t h e c r a c k s i s
s t i l l l e s s t h a n t h e c r a c k s t r e n g t h , t h e p r o c e s s f o r more c r a c k i n g
t o d e v e l o p a t midway between t h e two c r a c k s w i l l s t o p .
Fig.

6.2

direction.

shows

the

cracked concrete w i t h cracks i n

one

A l o c a l C a r t e s i a n c o o r d i n a t e system x ' o y 7 i s s e t up

w i t h x ' a x i s normal t o t h e c r a c k s . The i n i t i a l c r a c k s p a c i n g i n

d i r e c t i o n i s 2S , i t can be determined b y
X

2 S /
x

(6.1)

| s i n e I + |cos9
2 S

2 S

where 0 = t h e a n g l e between the x a x i s and t h e i n i t i a l c r a c k l i n e ;

and 2S

and 2S

= the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c crack spacings f o r

the

r e i n f o r c i n g b a r s i n x and y d i r e c t i o n s r e s p e c t i v e l y . D e t a i l s o f
how

these q u a n t i t i e s

are

determined w i l l

be

presented i n

subsequent s e c t i o n .
The embedment l e n g t h s o f t h e r e i n f o r c i n g b a r s i n x

and y

d i r e c t i o n s between two p a r a l l e l c r a c k s a r e

2S ,

(6.2a)

|sine|

159

R g . 6,2 Concrete Cracked in One Direction

160

2t

2S ,

|cos0|

(6.2b)

If the succeeding cracking in the panel is in the direction

orthogonal to the initial cracks, the cracked subzone is in two
direction cracking, as shown in Fig. 6.3, with y' axis normal to
the new cracks. The crack spacing in y' direction is given by

(6.3)
|cose| + [sine 1
2 S

2 S

The embedment

lengths of

the reinforcing bars

in x

and y

directions are obtained by the following equations

21 = inin(
x

2S

IsinGl

2S ,
)
|cos0|

(6.4a)

and

Zi = min(
y

Here,

min(

2S ,
,
| cos01

2S ,
)
| si]i0

for

stands

(6.4b)

taking

the

minimum

term

In

the

parenthesis.
I n Eqs. (6.4a) o r (6.4b), the f i r s t term i n the p a r e n t h e s i s
represents

the

directions

cut

length of
by

two

the

reinforcing bars i n

adjacent p a r a l l e l

cracks

and

normal t o x '

d i r e c t i o n . The s e c o n d te r m r e p r e s e n t s t h e same v a l u e b u t c u t b y
the cracks

normal

to

y'

direction.

161

The

minimum

one i s

the

Fig. 6.3 Concrete Cracked in Two Directions

162

embedment l e n g t h o f a r e i n f o r c i n g b a r i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e d i r e c t i o n
i n t h e c r a c k e d subzone.
The c r a c k s p a c i n g g i v e n b y E q s .

(6.1)

and ( 6 , 3 ) o r

the

embedment length of the reinforcing bars given by Eqs. (6.2a) and

(6.2b), or (6.4a) and (6.4b), is a physical quantity determined by
the

basic

parameters

of

the

reinforced

concrete,

and

is

independent of the type and size of the element in use.

When a crack forms, the concrete stress normal to the crack
line is released and transferred to the reinforcing bars that pass
through the crack. The tensile stress in the reinforcing bars are
then partially transmitted to the intact concrete by bond stress.
If the cracked concrete is in compression in the direction
normal

to the cracks, the cracked

intact concrete,

and

concrete

is then treated as

the reinforcing bars are assumed

to have

perfect bonding with the concrete.

6.3

B A S I C EQUATIONS F O R CRACKED CONCRETE A N D REINFORCEMENT

In Fig. 6.4, a free body with a reinforcing bar is taken out

from

the

intact

reinforced

concrete

between

the

two

adjacent

parallel cracks. The embedment length of the reinforcing bar in

the free body is 2 L

U = x or y ) A local coordinate os (os = ox

or oy) is set up with the origin o located, at the inner end of the
transfer length. The transfer length is defined as the embedment
length from the cracks to the first point at which the strains of
reinforcing bar and concrete are equal to each other. This point
is called the inner end of the transfer length. The inner end of

163

Concrete s t r e s s

Steel stress

a)

b)

C o n c r e t e and s t e e l s t r e s s e s

Bond s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s under
s m a l l , medium and n e a r u l t i m a t e
loadings

F i g . 6.4 The Distributions o f Stresses

164

the transfer length w i l l

between

the

two

move t o w a r d o r

adjacent

cracks

as

away f r o m t h e c e n t r e

the

r e i n f o r c i n g b a r increases o r decreases.

tensile

stress i n

the

The bond s t r e s s a t t h e

i n t e r f a c e b e t w e e n t h e r e i n f o r c i n g b a r and t h e c o n c r e t e i s g i v e n b y
t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p o s e d f u n c t i o n s f o r two c a s e s .
I n t h e f i r s t case, the t r a n s f e r l e n g t h o f the r e i n f o r c i n g bar
i s s m a l l e r t h a n t h e s e m i - s p a c i n g between t h e two a d j a c e n t c r a c k s
(

. < I.

and the peak bond stress value is smaller than or

equal to the ultimate bond stress, the bond stress distribution

function is

u . = 2.5016 u (i )

-t

m-c

sin (j )

x , y

where s = t h e c o o r d i n a t e v a l u e a t o s a x i s ,
stress,
In

(6.5)

t-t

u = the peak bond

= the transfer length.

the

second

semi-spacing U

case,

the

transfer

length

is equal

to

the

. = . ), and the peak bond stress is equal to the

ultimate bond stress ( u .= u

.).
ml
ultt

In the same manner as in the

first case, the bond stress distribution function is given by the

following three functions
for

0.7286L s

- S
u. = 2,5016 u

u l t-t
C

/ TTS \
sin ( j - J >
II

f o r a . s 0 . 7 2 8 6L
u. : u

u l t-t

165

for

s ^

u . = 1.3280 u
.(
i
u l t-t

a.
t

sin (

),
1.3725a.
L

^ =x, y

(6.6)

where a . = t h e d i s t a n c e f r o m t h e i n n e r end o f t h e u l t i m a t e bond

-t
s t r e s s p l a t e a u t o t h e c e n t r e between two cracks and

u ^

= the

ultimate bond stress. The distributions of the bond stress in the

preceding two cases are shown in Fig. 6.4.
The stresses in concrete and reinforcing bars at s from the
inner

end

of

the

transfer

length

are

given by

the

following

Integrals

(
r

cl,s

TID.

I .

A . J

u. ds
-6

TtD.

ti

sOL

, ^ = x, y

(6.7)

(6.8)

x, y

u. ds

where D. and A = the diameter and transverse section area of the

reinforcing

bar A ^

= the

transverse

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h one s t e e l b a r ;

and

area o f

the

concrete

- t h e s t r e s s I n the

r e i n f o r c i n g bar a t the cracks.

With Eq.(6.5)

substituting

into

Eq.(6.7)

and

(6.8)

and

c o n s i d e r i n g t h e c o n c r e t e and t h e s t e e l s t r a i n s a t t h e i n n e r end o f

166

t h e t r a n s f e r l e n g t h t o r e m a i n t h e sameu is obtained as
m-C
D.

sO

(6.9

1.8944l ^ l + n p .

where n the ratio of the moduli

of* steel to concrete a n d p . =

t h e r a t i o o f t h e r e i n f orcement.
A s t h e s t r e s s i n concrete o r r e i n f o r c i n g b a r s a t any p o i n t
f u r t h e r t h a n t h e i n n e r end o f t h e t r a n s f e r l e n g t h i s k e p t t h e
same, t h e s t r e s s e s i n t h e c o n c r e t e a n d t h e r e i n f o r c i n g b a r a t t h e
c e n t r e between t h e c r a c k s a r e g i v e n b y E q . ( 6 . 7 )
putting

0 for

the

lower l i m i t o f

the

and

(6.8)

integration.

by
The

integrations lead t o
C a s e 1
. 4 7 4 ttD.u .1 .
^
t-t
,

t = x y

(6.10a)

Case 2

. 9 1 3 ttD.u
t

ult'L t

0 . 6 0 4 ttD.u

.a.

-L ult'L t

167

i = x, y

,,

v
(6.10b)

Case

0 . 4 7 4 ttD.u .
soi

Case 2:

0.913 irD.u

.1.

0.604 TtD.u
+

"soi""

.a.

= x, y (6.11b)

The average stresses In the concrete and the reinforcing bars

along the embedment length of the steel bar are

c
r .
JS

ds +

(
r .( .- )
c

t

,
(6.12a)

r l
r = j- [( 4
s-C
t
J

c
r .

ds +

s-6, s

c
r . ( .- . ) ] , i

st

tt

(6.12b)
The Integrations of Eq.(6.12a) and (6.12b) result in
Case 1:

a =

(. 0 . 3 4 1 t J p . c r
_
(1 + np J .

Case 2:

=
ct

0.419 tcD.u .1.

A .

c-C

0.201 ttD.u
t
A .t,
c t t

168

a?
,

i = x, y

(6.13b)

C a s e 1
(np.. + 0.341 .) c
r .
it
sOt
,
(1 + np.) I.

i = x, y

(6.14a)

Case

0.41927rD ; U ^.1.

6.4

TANGENTIAL

t ult-C .

0.2014TCD.U

.a2

t ultl t

STRESS-STRAIN

RELATION

FOR

, ^ = x , y (6.14b)

CRACKED

REINFORCED

CONCRETE

I n c o n s t r u c t i n g the tangential s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n f o r the

c r a c k e d c o n c r e t e i n the d i r e c t i o n normal t o t h e c r a c k s , i t i s
necessary t o e s t a b l i s h the t a n g e n t i a l s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n f o r
t h e c r a c k e d c o n c r e t e i n each d i r e c t i o n o f t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t f i r s t .
Because the s t r a i n o f concrete i s a d i s c o n t i n u o u s q u a n t i t y i n a
c r a c k e d s u b z o n e , i n one o f t h e d i r e c t i o n s t h a t t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t
a r e l a i d o u t , t h e average s t r a i n o f t h e r e i n f o r c i n g b a r and t h e
a v e r a g e s t r e s s o f t h e c o n c r e t e between t h e c r a c k s a r e t a k e n t o
r e p r e s e n t t h e s t r a i n and s t r e s s o f t h e c o n c r e t e r e s p e c t i v e l y a t
the I n t e g r a t i o n p o i n t i n a corresponding d i r e c t i o n . R e l a t i n g the
s t r e s s and t h e s t r a i n t o g e t h e r and t a k i n g t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l o f t h e
s t r e s s w i t h respect t o the s t r a i n ,

the tangential s t r e s s - s t a i n

r e l a t i o n o r t h e t a n g e n t i a l modulus f o r c r a c k e d c o n c r e t e i n t h e
d i r e c t i o n c o n s i d e r e d c a n be o b t a i n e d .

169

F i r s t case
From Eq. (6.14a), the average strain in the reinforcing bars
can be expressed as

( n p . . + 0 . 3 4 0 8 . ) cr

sot

=x,

(1+np.) . E
where E

tr

(6.15)

= the modulus of the reinforcement.

Solving for

from Eq. (6.15) and substituting it into Eq.

6.13a), the relation of the average stress of the concrete and

the average strain of the reinforcing bar is yielded:

.=

(.-0.3408 .)np.
^
^

~
-

E .

i = X, y

(6.16)

(np.^.+ 0.3408 . )

^ L

where E

= t h e modulus o f c o n c r e t e .

The d i f f e r e n t i a l o f
gives

the

tangential

w i t h respect to

relation

of

the

average

i n Eq.
stress

(6.16
of

the

concrete and the average strain of the reinforcing bar,

(.-0.3408 . ) n p .

dcr =

E de.
( n p . . + 0.3408 ) c
^

(6.17)

de

170

where
U . - 0 . 3 4 0 8 1 . )np.
t

(6.18)

( n p + 0.3408 .)
t t
t

Second c a s e :
A t t h e c e n t r e between t h e c r a c k s , t h e s t r a i n s i n t h e c o n c r e t e
and t h e r e i n f o r c i n g b a r a r e e q u a l t o each o t h e r . From Eqs. (6.10b)
and (6. l i b ) , a . c a n be s o l v e d i n terms o f cr

u
a. = 1.513U. - 0.5273
L
^
D.u

SO

.(1+np.)

I = x, y

s0

(6.19)

ult

Eliminating
as

<r . f r o m e q s . (6.14b) and ( 6 . 1 9 ) , and e x p r e s s i n g

sO-C

a function of

t h e average s t r a i n o f

the reinforcement

yields

a . = 1.4988(1+np.)1.
1.5805E A
.2077 2 + 2.2464(np..)2- 0.0432np.^

J.U

i = x, y

Substituting
differentiating

from
with

Eq.(6.20)
respect

to

into
.

Eq.(6.13b)
the

s t r e s s - s t r a i n r e l a t i o n f o r cracked concrete i n the

171

(6.20)
and

tangential

t i

given as

np.a.E de.
l

dcr

1.5805E A

-0.2077?+ 2.2464(np..)2~ 0.0432np.^

^ u.

Ult-t

np^a^E d c .
1.4988(1 + np.).

(6.21)

E. de.

where
np. a.E

The

tangential

(6.22)

xy

1.4988(1 + npj.

stress-strain

relation

or

the

tangential

modulus for concrete in the direction normal to the cracks can be

derived

from

the

two

tangential

stress-strain

relation

for

concrete in x and y directions. From Eqs. (6.17) and (6.21), this

relation is given by

sin 6 + p E ,con 9
y
sin20 + p con20
(6.23)

172

where P = r a t i o o f d e

t o de

and E , i s

E , s i n 2 0 + 3 E , con 2
(6.24)

sin 0 + p con 0

The tangential modulus given by Eq. (6.24) is approximated as

E ,= E sin 2 0 + E cos2e
x
x
y
In the

case of

(6.25)

cracking

in one direction,

the

tangential

modulus of concrete in compression in the direction parallel to

the crack face will adopt the following expression:
C , 2
Ec[l- ^ ) ]
E=

(6.26)

[l+(=i - 2 ) ( ^ ) +
E

p
p
where E =
p

f /
e

and f

(]
c
p

and

= t h e u l t i m a t e compressive

s t r e n g t h and s t r a i n o f c o n c r e t e i n t h e u n i a x i a l compression t e s t ,
respectively.
The t a n g e n t i a l modulus f o r c r a c k e d c o n c r e t e g i v e n b y E q s .
( 6 . 2 5 ) and ( 6 . 2 6 ) i s s u b s t i t u t e d i n t o t h e c o n s t i t u t i v e m a t r i x ,
this yields

where

cr ,

X c

x , ,
X y

and e ,
x

e ,
y

> yx , ,

s t r e s s e s a n d s t r a i n s i n x ' o y ' c o o r d i n a t e system;

173

= concrete

G = the shear

modulus o f c o n c r e t e and a = the shear stiffness reduction factor

for cracked concrete.
Transforming Eq.(6.27) into the global xoy coordinate system,
the following equation is obtained
-2sc

""E , 0

2sc
sc -sc c

_0

ccG

sc
(6.28)

-sc
-2sc
where

2sc

xy

c
r

xc

c
r

yc

, x

and e

xyc

, r

xy

= concrete stresses and

strains in xoy coordinate system; c : cose and s = sine.

Incorporating the stiffness matrix of the reinforcement in x
and y directions Into Eq.

(6.28), the constitutive relationship

for reinforced concrete after cracking can be written as

-2sc
2sc
sc -sc
0

where cr

<r

Py

, x

xy

E , 0
X

sc
-sc

aG

-2sc 2sc

0
(6.29)

xy

= the stresses i n the r e i n f o r c e d concrete i n

x o y c o o r d i n a t e system.

174

6.5

THE PARAMETERS USED IN THE MODEL

Crack spacing. Stable crack spacing. I n i t i a l crack spacing:

Crack

spacing

means

the

orthogonal

distance

between

two

a d j a c e n t p a r a l l e l cracks I n i t i a l c r a c k s p a c i n g r e p r e s e n t s t h e
s p a c i n g between two i n i t i a l p a r a l l e l c r a c k s i n r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e
p a n e l . I f no f u r t h e r c r a c k can be formed midway between t h e two
parallel

cracks,

no

matter

how

great

the

applied

force

i s ( e x c l u d i n g the y i e l d i n g o f r e i n f o r c i n g bar), the crack spacing

between t h e s e two c r a c k s i s named a s t h e s t a b l e c r a c k s p a c i n g .
I n some l i t e r a t u r e , t h e s t a b l e c r a c k s p a c i n g i s c a l l e d t h e
crack spacing f o r b r e v i t y . I n a t e n s i o n t e s t , i f the length o f a
c o n c r e t e segment between two newly formed c r a c k s i s l o n g e r t h a n
t h e s t a b l e c r a c k s p a c i n g , a new c r a c k may be formed a t a p l a c e
between t h e e x i s t i n g c r a c k s w i t h t h e

increase o f

the t e n s i l e

f o r c e . E x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s show t h a t t h e s t a b l e c r a c k s p a c i n g can
v a r y between 1 . 0 t o 2 . 0 t i m e s t h e minlniuni c r a c k s p a c i n g ,

the

average

the

stable

crack

spacing i s

approximately

1.5

times

minimum v a l u e ,
I n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , the f o r m u l a proposed b y R o b i n s o n

[76]

i s a d o p t e d a s t h e average s t a b l e c r a c k s p a c i n g f o r a r e i n f o r c e d
concrete plane structure.

The p r e d i c t i o n o f

the stable

crack

s p a c i n g made b y M i r z a and Houde [ 6 0 ] w i t h t h e f o r m u l a proposed b y

R o b i n s o n showed a good agreement w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s . I n
t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f t h e i n i t i a l c r a c k s p a c i n g , i t i s assumed t h a t
t h e i n i t i a l c r a c k spacing i s taken a s wide a s f o u r times the
s t a b l e c r a c k s p a c i n g . The f o r m u l a f o r t h e i n i t i a l c r a c k s p a c i n g

175

is

2 S

where

1 . 8 6 4 c
i
r D.

(6.30)

= the concrete cover i n

From E q s .

( 6 . 1 0 a ) and ( 6 . 1 0 b ) , and (6.13a) and ( 6 . 1 3 b ) , a s

w e l l a s f r o m t h e f o r m u l a f o r t h e c r a c k s t r e n g t h g i v e n i n Eq.
( 6 . 3 3 ) , we c a n s e e t h a t when a p a n e l o r a member c r a c k s w i t h a
w i d e c r a c k s p a c i n g , t h i s means t h a t t h e s e m i - s p a c i n g
greater than the transfer length
will

soon

occur

parallel

to

i s much

The succeeding cracking

the

previous

ones with

slight

Increase of the tensile stress in the cracked reinforced concrete.

The closer the crack spacing is to the stable spacing, the greater
the stress in cracked reinforced concrete is needed to cause a new
crack to form at midway between the two previous cracks. Taking
the Initial crack spacing as four times the stable crack spacing
is generally acceptable.

Ultimate bond stress

In

reinforced

concrete

flat

panels

with

steel

bars

at

orthogonal directions, the stress in one direction has a kinking

effect

on

the

bond

stress

and

slip

in

the

other

direction.

However, at present, this kinking effect of the reinforcing bars

in

two

orthogonal

described.

directions

has

not

been

satisfactorily

The effect is neglected in this study. The ultimate

176

bond s t r e s s

proposed f o r

common deformed b a r s

are

given as

follows:

=^

where \

4 4

l t i

of cm; and u

} r r

c /h

'

x, y

(6.31)

= the ultimate bond stresses;

.

and f

u l t-t

and

are in unit

are in MPa.

For a small deformed bar, the ultimate bond stress should be

adjusted according to experimental results.

Transfer length
It has been shown by

the

test

results

that

the

transfer

length is in linear relation with the transfer loadIngC56],

( 1 )

where k

(6

-32)

- a c o n s t a n t t o be d e t e r m i n e d b y t e s t .

Crack strength f o r Cracked Reinforced Concrete

I t h a s b e e n shown t h a t t h e c r a c k s t r e n g t h f o r a r e i n f o r c e d
c o n c r e t e segment i n c r e a s e s w i t h t h e d e c r e a s e i n t h e l e n g t h o f t h e
segment,

and

with

the

transverse

direction

observation

can

be

increase
or

in

of

the

strain

longitudinal

applied to

the

gradient

direction.

cracking analysis o f

in
This
the

r e i n f o r c i n g c o n c r e t e p l a n e s t r u c t u r e s . I n t h e d i r e c t i o n normal t o
t h e c r a c k s , t h e c r a c k s p a c i n g can be t a k e n a s t h e l e n g t h o f t h e
segment i n a t e n s i o n member. From E q s .

177

(6,10a) and ( 6 . 1 0 b ) , and

(6.13a)

and

(6.13b), i t i s seen t h a t t h e r a t i o o f

cr .

/? .
ct

ct

i n c r e a s e s w i t h t h e d e c r e a s e o f t h e c r a c k s p a c i n g and w i t h t h e
i n c r e a s e o f t h e t r a n s f e r l e n g t h . The c r a c k s t r e n g t h f o r t h e new
c r a c k i n g a t midway o f t h e i n t a c t c o n c r e t e between two a d j a c e n t
c r a c k s s h o u l d be r e l a t e d t o the r a t i o o f

O / ^ .). The crack

ct
ct

strength for reinforced concrete in the direction normal to the

cracks is proposed as

tx

/ = 0 . 9 2 cr ( cr
t

cx

, /

cx

,)0*8

(6.33)

where cr^ = the tensile strength of concrete determined by test or

by empirical equation cr , = the maximum stresses of concrete at
cx

the centre between two cracks obtained from the projections of

and

c
r
y

and tr
cx

c
r

, = t h e average s t r e s s o f c o n c r e t e o v e r t h e c r a c k

spacing r e s u l t e d from

<r , .
CX

Shear S t i f f n e s s Reduction Factor

Once c r a c k i n g o c c u r s , t h e c r a c k s u r f a c e and t h e r e i n f o r c i n g
b a r s p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e c r a c k s a r e c a p a b l e o f t r a n s f e r r i n g some
s h e a r f o r c e . T h i s c a p a c i t y h a s been i n t e n s i v e l y s t u d i e d i n t h e
past

two

decades [ 1 9 ]

Many

approximate

derived. The equation proposed by Cervenka

a =

k
(1 - p 3 )

where p = e^,/ 0.005, when

equations

have

been

[31].

is employed here,

(6.34)

> 0.005, p is set to equal to 1 , 3

i s taken t o be 0 . 5 i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

6.6

CONCLUSIONS

1. I n t h e p r e s e n t model, t h e t e n s i o n s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t i s
dependent

on

several

parameters,

namely,

the

ratio

of

r e i n f o r c e m e n t , t h e s t r e n g t h o f c o n c r e t e and t h e m o d u l i o f c o n c r e t e
and r e i n f o r c i n g b a r e t c . The b e h a v i o u r o f t h e c r a c k e d c o n c r e t e and
r e i n f o r c e m e n t c a n be a p p r o p r i a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e proposed
model.
2 . W i t h t h e a i d o f t h e proposed bond s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n
function,
analysis

t h e t e n s i o n s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t can be i n c l u d e d I n t h e
without

involving

the q u a n t i t y o f

slip

r e i n f o r c i n g b a r and t h e s u r r o u n d i n g c o n c r e t e .
slip

is

required

requirement

of

in

the

some
slip

other
usually

proposed

between

the

The q u a n t i t y o f
models,

complicates

the

and

the

numerical

procedure.
3 . I t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o p o s t u l a t e t h a t t h e subsequent c r a c k s
p a r a l l e l t o t h e p r e c e d i n g ones w i l l r e d u c e t h e c r a c k s p a c i n g b y
half

and w i l l

cause

an

increase i n

the

crack

strength of

concrete.
4 . The p r o p o s e d model f o r r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s i s
s i m p l e and c a n be e a s i l y i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h e e x i s t i n g n o n l i n e a r
a n a l y s i s programs.

179

CHAPTER 7

SOLUTION TECHNIQUES FOR NONLINEAR EQUATIONS

7.1

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

I n n o n l i n e a r a n a l y s i s o f s t r u c t u r e s b y f i n i t e element method,
t h e s t i f f n e s s e q u a t i o n o r e q u i l i b r i u m e q u a t i o n i s g i v e n in. t h e
f o l l o w i n g form
K U + P = 0

(7.1)

where U = the nodal displacement vector; P = the load vector and

K = the assembled stiffness matrix which varies with the current
state of stress or strain in the elements, and in some cases, the
path of loading.
On account of the progressive change of the stiffness matrix,
direct solution of Eq.(7.1) for the total applied loads is usually
Impossible.

An

Iterative

scheme

must

be

employed.

The

total

applied loads are divided into a number of incremental loads. Over

each incremental load, the incremental displacement is obtained by
solving

the

displacement

stiffness
to

the

equation.

Adding

this

incremental

current displacements accumulated from

the

previous iteration, the current state of stress and strain in the

elements and

the unbalanced forces at

the nodes are obtained.

These unbalanced nodal forces are applied for the next iteration
until a preset criteria of convergence is reached. For the next
incremental

load,

the

same

procedure

180

is

applied.

In

this

investigation,

the

[77,78,79]

versions

Newton-Raphson
,

have

been

scheme

implemented

and
in

its

modified

the

solution

procedure.

7.2

NEWTON-RAPHSON SCHEME OR TANGENTIAL STIFFNESS SCHEME

For a general form of the nonlinear equation,

f(U) = F(U) - R = 0

(7.2)
n-l

. = T AR, U

In an iterative scheme, at R
satisfying

Eq.(7.2)

determine U

within

corresponding

the
to R

tolerance.
n

= R

n-l

has been found

Here we

have

to

+ AR . Applying Taylor
n

series expansion theory, Eq. (7.2) is expanded as

f(Ul+1) c
n

+ ( ) 1 SU 1 = 0

au n

where L and n = the counters for

(7.3)

iteration and

load

increment

respectively f(U=the r e s i d u a l a f t e r t h e i t e r a t i o n U - l ) and

We t a k e

( = ( K
90

From E q . ( 7 . 3 ) ,
-(
then

) r
n T
i s solved a s

(7.5)

u^ +1 = u + su 1
n.

With U ^
and (
and

i+1

(7.7)

substituting into Eqs.

(7.2) and

f(U4+1)

(7.5),

) t are obtained for the next iteration. From Eqs. (7.6)

(7.7),

and

Fig. 7.1 is repeated

are found.

The process as shown

in

in this way until the preset tolerance is

achieved.
When
analysis

finite
of

element

structures,

method
the

is

applied

stiffness

to

equation

the

nonlinear

as

shown

in

Eq.(7.1) are formed. The iteration process is detailed as

1):

apply an incremental load vector AP

2):

solve for the Incremental

to the structure

displacement vector

(Kl)
3):

find the incremental strain vector in element

(7.9)

(AU

(Ae )
4):

(7.8)

c a l c u l a t e t h e i n c r e m e n t a l s t r e s s v e c t o r i n t h e same
element

(A(r().
5):

= 0^).

(Ac)

(7.10)

o b t a i n the t o t a l s t r e s s
( c r . = ( < r W ) . + (A(r

6):

(7.11)

get the element nodal forces:

(R

CB)
(

dA

182

(7.12)

R
n

L-l

Fig. 7.1

un

Newton-Raphson S c h e m e

183

7):

f o r m t h e n o d a l f o r c e v e c t o r (R
n

8):

evaluate the residual nodal forces

AR^ =

9):

- J AP,

check

the

(7.13)

calculated

result

with

the

convergence

criteria. If the tolerance is satisfied, terminate the

iteration;

if not, update the stiffness matrix with

current stress and strain state, and go to step 2 with

where B = straIn-disp1acement matrix; and D = the stress-strain

matrix of material.
The advantage of this scheme is that the convergence can be
achieved by
However,

lesser

more

steps of

time

will

iteration than the other

be

spent

on

the

schemes.

reformation

and

factorization of (K"6)

7.3

INITIAL STIFFNESS SCHEME

The

initial

stiffness

scheme

is

modification

of

the

Newton-Raphson scheme. Instead of the reformation of the tangent

stiffness matrix after each iteration,
initial stiffness matrix
A U 1 (K r
n

0 T

this scheme employs the

(K ) in the whole iteration process,

0

AP1

(7.14)

The i t e r a t i o n p r o c e s s i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t i n Newton-Raphson
scheme.
U s i n g t h i s scheme, t h e s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x , i s r e q u i r e d t o be

184

factorized

only

once.

So

great

effort

is

saved

on

the

r e c a l c u l a t i o n and f a c t o r i z a t i o n o f t h e s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x . Hovever,
t h e convergence may be v e r y s l o w o r even a d i v e r g e n t s o l u t i o n i s
o b t a i n e d . The i t e r a t i o n p r o c e s s i s shown i n F i g . 7 . 2

7.4

MODIFIED NEWTON-RAPHSON SCHEME

The m o d i f i e d Newton-Raphson scheme i s a scheme between the

Newton-Raphson scheme and t h e i n i t i a l s t i f f n e s s scheme. By t h i s
scheme, t h e s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x I s r e c a l c u l a t e d and f a c t o r i z e d a t the
time the incremental l o a d i s a p p l i e d o r a t the p r e s e t i t e r a t i o n
Interval.

The

Incremental

displacement

Is

calculated

by

the

f o l l o w i n g equation:
AU^ = (K r 1
n

By t h i s

scheme,

AP

(7.15)

the

frequency o f

the

recalculation

and

f a c t o r i z a t i o n o f t h e s t i f f n e s s m a t r i x c a n be a r t i f i c i a l l y s e l e c t e d
a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n o n l i n e a r b e h a v i o u r o f t h e p r o b l e m . The i t e r a t i o n
p r o c e s s i s shown i n F i g . 7 . 3 .

185

Fig. 7.2 Initial Stiffness S c h e m e

186

Fig. 7.3 Modified Newton-Raphson Scheme

187

7 5

CONVERGENCE CRITERIA

In

the

iterative

schemes

described

above,

suitable

convergence criterion should be introduced for the termination of

the iteration. At the end of each iteration, we have to check the
obtained result with the convergence criterion. If the solution is
within the criterion, the iteration will be terminated or else,
the iteration will be repeated.
Obviously, the convergence criterion can be set up based on
displacements, or unbalanced forces at element nodes, or energy
stored in the elements. However, because the exact magnitude of
the displacements of
displacement
unbalanced

the problem are not known beforehand, the

convergence
forces

at

criterion

the

nodes

is
of

seldom
elements

adopted.
can

be

As

the

easily

determined, the force convergence criteria have been mostly used.

These criteria are expressed in the following several forms
11

11 ^ RTOL

(7.16)

or
I i

I! ^ e

fl

II H 0 I I

(7.17)

II P

(7.18)

or
I I RVi U
n

f2

where
RTOL e
and e
= the convergence tolerance
,f 1
2

In

order

convergent

to

status,

reflect
energy

both

the

convergence

188

displacement
criterion

and

force

some t line

is

u s e f u l t 8 0 3 . The c r i t e r i o n i s expressed a s
|

( A U

y (P

s e E 1 | ( A U y (P

)|

(7.19)

or
l(Rn)T

(V.20)

where
g e i and 2 = convergent t o l e r a n c e
Similar

references

7.6

convergence

[100]

criterion

can

be

found

in

other

EVALUATION AND APPLICATION

In

previous

stiffness

scheme

sections,
and

modified

Newton-Raphson
Newton-Raphson

scheme,

initial

scheme have been

described. These iteration schemes are the most frequently used

and probably the most rapidly convergent iteration schemes for the
solution of a nonlinear equation 8 7 9
In

this

investigation,

simultaneous nonlinear

it

reform

found

for

stiffness matrix after each iteration may not be good for

the

solution.

the

Newton-Raphson

and

that,

the

modified

to

been

factorxze

The

equations,

has

scheme

in

which

stiffness matrix is recalculated and factorized at each iteration

Interval has been shown to be a most efficient iterative scheme.
Among

the various

convergence

criteria, force

convergence

criterion is most often used in nonlinear finite element analysis

of structures^ 78 ' 79
are similar.

^ ^ The criteria given by Eq.(7.16) to (7.18)

It needs to be noted that in Eq. (7. IB), the right

189

s i d e term 11

II d e c r e a s e s w i t h t h e i n c r e a s e i n the number o f t h e

s u b d i v i s i o n o f the loads. For instance, i f

applied to a structure,

II

a point load P i s

II i s f o u n d t o be e q u a l e d t o P . I f

t h e p o i n t l o a d i s e q u a l l y s u b d i v i d e d i n t o n l o a d s and these l o a d s
a r e p u t on t h e v i c i n i t y where P i s a p p l i e d , II p

II i s t h e n f o u n d

t o be e q u a l e d t o ( P / V^n )
The force criterion given in Eq.
termination of

(7.16) is applied for the

the iteration process in this research. RTOL

is

changed with the increase of the externally applied loads, it is

selected less than 10 % and mainly around 5 % of the Euclidian
norm of the externally applied load.
The Skyline or Profile method 182 '8 3 ] is used for solving the
stiffness equation. Usually,
into four or five load

the total applied

load

is divided

increments. Within each load

increment,

several to hundreds load steps are adopted.

7.7

CONCLUSIONS

The

magnitude

carefully selected.

for

each

load

increment

should

be

If the load increment is too small, it will

lead to a waste of computational time.

If the load increment is

too large, it will result in incorrect divergent result.

The

convergence

calculation.

If

the

tolerance
convergence

has

great

tolerance

is

effect
too

on

the

tight,

much

computational time will be spent to obtain the needless accuracy.

If the convergence tolerance is too loose, inaccurate result will
be approached.

190

CHAPTER 8

PREDICTION OF THE ULTIMATE STRENGTH AND THE FAILURE MODE

OF REINFORCED CONCRETE DEEP BEAMS

8,1

INTRODUCTORY REMARKS

R e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e deep beams have a wide and i n c r e a s i n g

a p p l i c a t i o n i n s t r u c t u r e s . The t r a n s f e r g i r d e r s i n t a l l b u i l d i n g s ,
p i l e c a p s a n d f o u n d a t i o n w a l l s e t c . a r e t y p i c a l examples o f such
s t r u c t u r a l e l e m e n t s . I n p r a c t i c e , a r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e deep beam
u s u a l l y i m p l y a s i n g l e span o r c o n t i n u o u s l y s u p p o r t e d r e i n f o r c e d
c o n c r e t e p a n e l w i t h t h e r a t i o o f span t o d e p t h l e s s t h a n 2 o r 3 .
I n a s t r u c t u r e member w i t h i n t h i s r a t i o , t h e s t r e s s and s t r a i n
a c r o s s a n y s e c t i o n e x h i b i t s o b v i o u s l y t h e n o n l i n e a r b e h a v i o u r due
t o t h e s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s o f t h e v e r t i c a l normal s t r e s s and shear
d e f o r m a t i o n i n t h e s t r u c t u r e . I n t h e p a s t , many r e s e a r c h works on
t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h and t h e f a i l u r e mode o f
reinforced

concrete

deep

beams

have

been

carried

o u t [ 8 4 > 8 5 , 8 6 , 8 7 , 8 8 , 8 9 ] _ Many e m p i r i c a l and s e m i - e m p i r i c a l f o r m u l a s

have been p r o p o s e d

9 2 ]

The a n a l y s i s and d e s i g n o f

beam c a n t h e n be e a s i l y c a r r i e d o u t

a deep

employing t h e s e proposed

f o r m u l a s . However, i t has been shown t h a t t h e p r e d i c t i o n s o f t h e

ultimate

strength

scattered

8 8 1

and f a i l u r e

mode w i t h

these

formulas

are

. Nowadays, w i t h t h e development o n t h e t e c h n i q u e

f o r n o n l i n e a r ansilysls o f r e i n f o r c e d concrete structures,

the

p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e u l t i i n a t e s t r e n g t h and f a i l u r e niode o f r e i n f o r c e d

191

c o n c r e t e deep beams have become p o s s i b l e C 2 7 , 3 5 , 3 6 , 9 3 , 9 4 c 3 . i n t h i s

c h a p t e r , t h e p r e s e n t model I s a p p l i e d t o t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f t h e
u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h and t h e f a i l u r e mode o f a s e t o f deep beams. The
structural

behaviour

of

reinforced

concrete

deep

beams

is

discussed.

8.2

PREDICTION

OF

THE

DEEP

BEAMS

TESTED

BY

RAMAKRISHNAN

AND

ANATHANARYANA

Two r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e deep
and A n a t h a n a r a y a n a

[853

beams t e s t e d b y Ramakrishnan

a s shown i n F i g . 8 . 1 a r e a n a l y s e d b y the

p r o p o s e d method. The beams a r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e beams marked

C2 and C4 i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t . The d e p t h s a r e 20 i n . ( 5 0 . 8 cm) and 30
i n . ( 7 6 . 2 cm) f o r C2 and C4 beam r e s p e c t i v e l y . The t h i c k n e s s f o r
b o t h beams i s 3 . 1 i n . (7. 87 cm). The o v e r a l l l e n g t h o f b o t h beams
i s 32 i n . (81 cm).

The beams were s u p p o r t e d o v e r a span o f 27

i n . ( 6 9 cm) c e n t r e t o c e n t r e and s u b j e c t e d t o two p o i n t l o a d s 5

i n . ( 1 2 . 7 cm) a p a r t f r o m t h e v e r t i c a l c e n t r a l l i n e o f t h e beam. I n
t h e t e s t , c r a c k s m a i n l y o c c u r r e d a l o n g a l i n e j o i n i n g t h e support
a n d t h e l o a d i n g p o i n t n e a r e s t t o i t . B o t h specimens f a i l e d b y a
d i a g o n a l t e n s i o n mode. The measured u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h s a r e 281 kN
f o r C2 and 276 kN f o r C4. I n t h e a n a l y s i s , 4 x 4

Gausian p o i n t s

a r e a d o p t e d f o r a n i s o p a r a m e t r i c r e c t a n g u l a r element. The c r a c k s
f i r s t a p p e a r i n t h e a r e a near t h e s u p p o r t , and t h e n d e v e l o p a l o n g
t h e d i a g o n a l l i n e . B o t h specimens show a s h e a r f a i l u r e iRode. The
p r e d i c t e d u l t i i n a t e s t r e n g t h s a r e 310 kN and 282 kN f o r C2 and C4,
r e s p e c t i v e l y . Curves f o r Load v s Deflecption a t midspan and c r a c k

192

P/2

11^(279)

P/2

1(^(254)

1279)

V(6)Bars

<
T
O O
u u
o o
X
(4
\0 o
rs. iA

O O
rn CM
5/S u(l6)BaTS
ryv"

27"(686)
32^(813)

Fig. 8.1 The Specimens for Example 1

193

p a t t e r n s n e a r f a i l u r e f o r b o t h beams a r e shown i n F i g s . 8 . 2 t o
8.5.

Satisfactory

agreement

between

r e s u l t s i s observed.

194

the

test

and a n a l y t i c a l

30

25

(snc^

20

15

10

OA

OA

Deflection (mm)

Fig. 8.2 Load-Deflection Curves for C 2

195

0.5

Analytical

Fig. 8.3 Crack Patterns for C 2 at Failure

196

( S X I O
Experimental

0.0

0.1

0.2

0.3

0.4

Deflection (mm)

Fig. 8.4 Load-Deflection Curves for C4

197

0.5

Analytical

Experimental

Fig. 8.5 Crack Patterns for C 4 at Failure

198

8 . 3

P R E D I C T I O N O F T H E D E E P BEAM T E S T E D B Y LEONHARDT AND WALTZER

A r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e deep beam w h i c h i s t h e same a s t h e one

t e s t e d b y L e o n h a r d t and W a l t z e r 1 8 4 1
Mang127]

and a n a l y z e d b y F l o e g l and

Balakrishanm and Murray 3,

34

3 S and Vecchio 1363

is

adopted as the second example in this study. The deep beam

is

63 in. (1600 mm) long, 63 in. (1600 mm) deep, and 3.9 in. (100 nun)
thick. It is simply supported on two small steel plates resting on
steel
(p

rollers.

Vertical

0.00175).

lower

region

The

(p^

reinforcement

horizontal
0.01787)

is

reinforcement

and

lighter

in

uniform

throughout

is heavier
the

upper

In

the

region

(px= 0.00175).

A uniformly distributed load is applied along the

top

details

edge.

The

of

the

beam

are

shown

in

Figs.

8.6.

Employing the proposed model, finite element analysis is carried

out using fifty 8-node isoparametric elements for one half of the
beam.
In the test, the left support of the beam failed at a load of
1000

kN

because

of

location. The damaged

the

poor

conapaction

of

concrete

at

this

support was repaired by connecting steel

plates to the sides of the beam and the test was continueci. At a
load of 1290 kN, which corresponded to a bearing stress of 40 MPa
at the left support, the final failure occurred. But no deflection
measurements were taken after the failure of the left support.
The analysis

is made with

two

conditions considering

the

bond stress and disregarding the bond stress. In the first case,
the analytical result shows that the cracks occur mainly in the
area around the support with some appearing in midspan area. At a

199

1380

M } i M M t 1 i t TT1

o
<o

Smax b a r s

oc

o
o

<D

'T-

o
o"

<
o

<9.

to
csr

4 X

8 mm bars

4 160

j )

1601~-

64P260

1600

S p e d i m e n Properties
Concrete
5 m m bars
8 m m bars

= 29.6
=4 1 5 MPaf
= 4 1 5 MPa,

0.002 .
mm7
A. = 54 men2
A =20

AH d i m e n s i o n s

Fig. 8.6 The Specimen for Example 2

200

100
H H

l o a d o f 1220 k N , t h e c o n c r e t e a t t h e s u p p o r t e n t e r s t h e p l a s t i c i t y
range and f a i l u r e o f t h e s t r u c t u r e occurs.

I n t h e second case

the failure loading is only about 830 kN with a larger deflection

than that in the first case.
Curves of Load vs Deflection at midspan from the experimental
and analytical results are shown in Fig. 8.7. It is seen that the
response predicted by the proposed model is in good correlation
with the test results and the disregard of the bond stress between
the

reinforcing

bar

and

the

surrounding

concrete

will

cause

underestimation of the failure loading and. overestimation of the

deflection.

201

X*k\J\J

1200

1000

A n a l y t i c a l ( i r i t h b o n d stress)
A n a l y t i c a l ( n o b o n d stress)
Experimental

0-0

0,5

1-0

1.5

2,0

Deflection (mm)

F i g 8 . 7 Load-Deflection Curves f o r WT3

202

8 . 4

COMPARISON O F D E E P BEAMS WITH D I F F E R E N T R A T I O S OF S P A N TO

DEPTH

F o u r r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e deep beams w i t h d i f f e r e n t r a t i o s o f
s p a n t o d e p t h a r e s t u d i e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n . The deep beams have t h e
same d e p t h and r e i n f o r c e m e n t l a y o u t a s t h e deep beam a n a l y z e d i n
t h e s e c o n d example b u t w i t h d i f f e r e n t s p a n s . The l e n g t h s o f t h e s e
deep beams a r e 6 3 i n .

(1600

mm),

88.2 i n .

(2240 mm126

in.

(3200inm) and 189 in. (4800 mm) respectively, and the corresponding
ratios of overall span to depth (1 / h ) are 1.0, 1.4, 2.0 and 3.0.
The beams are shown in Fig. 8.8. The deep beam with length equal
to 63 in. (1600 mm} is the one tested by Leonhardt and Waltzer184"1
and was analyzed in the last section.
The predicted ultimate strengths are 1220 kN, 1130 kN, 1000
kN,

and

800

kN

for

the

beams

mentioned

above.

The

load

vs

deflection curves for each deep beam at midspan are shown in Fig.
8.9, The corresponding crack modes are shown

in Figs, 8.10

to

8,13. From these figures, we can see that for the deep beam with 1
/ h = 1, the failure mode is shear, and for the deep beam with 1 /
h = 3.0, the failure mode is mainly flexure. The failure mode of a
deep beam changes from shear failure to flexure failure as the
ratio 1 / h increases.
The element size effect on the convergence of the solution
has also been studied. For the deep beams with 1 / h = 1.4, 50 and
70 elements are used, and for the beam with 1 / h - 2.0, 50 and
100

elements

are

employed.

The

203

element

meshes

are

shown

in

800

1600

ooj

xi
M
ooj
CM
o-oi

o
o

kd

o
o

VD

o-
o-d
1120

Fig. 8.8 Finite Element Meshes for Beams with different Value
of l/h: (a) f/h=1-0; (b) l/h=1.4; (c) l/h=2.0; (d) l/h=3.0

204

1400

w
xi

80(

60(

400

l/h l/h

200

l/h = 2-0

l/h = 3.0

0,0 0.5 LO L 5 2.0 2.5 3,0 3-5

Deflectioa (mm)

Fig. 8.9 Load-Deflection Curves for Different l/h

905

0
CN
1

it%
V>

o>
<
T
>

I
JZ
c
>
a
E
*o
<D
CL

<0

k*.

tn
C
k.
D
<
"5

CL

JSC

o
O
Ck
O

vo
r-

in
&

IS

00
00
CM

o
CO

o>
iE

207

2
J>C
VD
0\
CD

IS
rrI
crv

0
01
I
XL

>
c

'o
D
(
Q.

CO

*O

c-

"S

CL

IS

.v

r.
<N
vo
I

k.

o
CM

CO

LL

O
ro

kt

P=430

P=340 kN

ik4

hm-

hhh

P=710

P=625 kN

-+41 c+4"<

hm

. .*l<4i'# <
ik*
h# > *4m

H H H H H H r-M * - i* #
m

1^=855 kN

P=800 kN

Fig. 8.13 Crack Patterns for Specimen l/h = 3.0

209

'

F i g s . 8 . 1 4 and 8 . 1 5 . The a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s f o r d i f f e r e n t meshes

of

the structures are

shown i n F i g s .

8.16 t o 8.17.

From t h e

f i g u r e s , we c a n see t h a t t h e p r e d i c t i o n s o f the u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h
and t h e f a i l u r e mode a r e q u i t e s a t i s f a c t o r y b y u s i n g 50 elements
f o r t h e two deep beams, and more elements a r e used, more a c u r a t e
r e s u l t w i l l be o b t a i n e d . F o r b o t h s t r u c t u r e s , the s o l u t i o n s a r e
s t a b l e w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e element s i z e . I t demonstates t h a t t h e
p r e d i c t i o n s a r e o b j e c t i v e by employing t h e p r e s e n t model.

211

o
o

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01
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x:

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o

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1400

1200

50 elements arc used

7 0 el^meats are used

200

0
0.0

0.5

1.0

1.5

Deflection (mm)

Fig, 8.16 C o n v e r g e n c e Comparisons for Specimen

213

1400

1200

1000

^ 800

600

400

50 elements are used

100 e l e m e n t s a r e u s e d

200

0.0

0.5

L O

Deflection (mm)

B g . 8.17 Convergence Comparisons for Specimen i/h = 2.0

214

8.5

CONCLUSIONS

1. S a t i s f a c t o r y p r e d i c t i o n s o f

the ultiinate

s t r e n g t h and

f a i l u r e mode o f t h e r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e deep beams c a n be o b t a i n e d

b y t h e p r e s e n t model.
2. Disregarding

the

tension

stiffening

effect

will

u n d e r e s t i m a t e t h e f a i l u r e l o a d i n g c a p a c i t y and o v e r e s t i m a t e t h e
d e f l e c t i o n o f r e i n f o r c i n g c o n c r e t e deep beams.
3* The

failure

mode o f

reinforced

changes f r o m shear t o f l e x u r e a s

deep

beam

the r a t i o o f span t o depth

( l / h ) I n c r e a s e s . F o r a deep beam w i t hl
failure mode is shear, and for l / h
mode

concrete

around 1the

greater than 3, the failure

is flexure, and this ratio can be considered as the upper

limit for the definition of a deep beam.

215

CHAPTER 9
PREDICTION OF THE ULTIMATE STRENGTH AND THE FAILURE MODE
OF SHEAR WALL STRUCTURES
9-1

INTRODUCTORY REMAEKS

I n t a l l b u i l d i n g s t r u c t u r e s , r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e shear w a l l s
are

used

to resist

the h o r i z o n t a l

loads

induced by wind o r

e a r t h q u a k e . Under t h e a c t i o n s o f s u c h s e v e r e l o a d s , p l a s t i c i t y o r
c r a c k i n g may happen i n t h e s t r u c t u r e s . The shear w a l l s t h e r e f o r e
may behave n o n l i n e a r l y . A t p r e s e n t , i n the d e s i g n o f a shear w a l l ,
t h e a n a l y s i s i s l i m i t e d a t the l i n e a r e l a s t i c s t a g e . The u l t i m a t e
s t r e n g t h o f t h e s t r u c t u r e has n o t been i n c l u d e d i n t h e a n a l y s i s .
Which p a r t o f t h e s t r u c t u r e w i l l f a i l f i r s t , t h e l i n t e l beam o r
t h e w a l l ? what i s t h e f a i l u r e mode o f t h e s t r u c t u r e ? How s a f e i s
t h e s t r u c t u r e ? A l l t h e s e a r e t h e problems
designing

available

in

tall

present

Recently, many
experimental
aspects [95,96 '

building structure.
design

codes

we s h o u l d s o l v e i n

However

no

answer

these

to

method

is

questions.

investigators have carried out a great deal of

or

theoretical

99, i oo, loi, io2}

research
The

prediction

on

these
of

the

ultimate strength and the failure mode of shear wall structures by

finite element method is now possible. In this chapter, a single
shear wall tested by H s u [ 9 6 ] and two coupled shear wall structures
tested by Kuang 1 9 9 1
analyzed

results are

are

analyzed with

compared with the

216

the present model.

The

experimental data. The

nonlinear

9.2

behaviour of

these

shear w a l l s a r e a l s o d i s c u s s e d .

PREDICTION OF THE SINGLE SHEAR WALL STRUCTURE TESTED BY HSU

A t h r e e - s t o r e y h i g h s o l i d s h e a r w a l l s t r u c t u r e t e s t e d b y Hsu
i s f i r s t a n a l y z e d . The d e t a i l s o f t h e geometry, r e i n f o r c e m e n t and
l o a d i n g o f t h e s h e a r w a l l a r e shown i n F i g . 9 . 1 .

The m a t e r i a l

p r o p e r t i e s a r e g i v e n i n Table 9 . 1 . I n the t e s t , three p o i n t loads

were a p p l i e d a t

1st

2nd and 3rd level

to represent a reversed

triangularly distributed load* The specimen (S-2) taken for this

analysis was subjected to six cycles of load reversals. In this
study the structural response under the first cycle of loading is
analyzed. he s p e c i m e n i s d i v i d e d i n t o 120 r e c t a n g u l a r i s o t r o p i c
e l e m e n t s o f t h r e e d i f f e r e n t s i z e s . The element mesh i s shown i n
Fig- 9,2.

The l o a d - d e f l e c t i o n c u r v e s a t 3 r d l e v e l i s shown i n

Fig, 9.3,

Table 9.1

M a t e r i a l P r o p e r t i e s o f H s u , s Shear W a l l

Co nc r et e
Young*s modulus

3.5 x 106 psi (24000 MPa)

Compressive strength

5240

Poisson,s ratio

0.10

psi (36.1 MPa)

Steel:
Young*s modulus

29.0 X 106 psi (200000 MPa)

Yield stress

52300

psi (360 MPa)


rH Ui

S 3

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U *

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218

.18*-

137

*0.55f 3rd level

-0.33 Ff 2nd level

/s%*n2

Elcmenf %1# }s yidcHng In

biaxiaf compresifon
during Iff poiiriv^ peak
toad

R g . 9 . 2 Finite Element M e s h Idealization

219

20

i
i

-III

ffF

Experiment

J/

Agraval's r e s u l t [1]

0,0

Proposed raodel

0,5

1.0

1.5

2-0

D e f l e c t i o n (cm)

Fig. 9.3 Load-Deflection Curves at 3rd Level of Specimen S-2

220 .

I n F i g , 9 , 3 , i t can be seen t h a t t h e p r e d i c t e d s t r u c t u r a l
r e s p o n s e "using t h i s n o n l i n e a r a n a l y s i s niociel i s alniost t h e same a s
t h a t g i v e n b y A g r a w a l i n ASCE R e p o r t [ 1 9 ] f o r most o f t h e l o a d i n g
p r o c e s s ; b u t n e a r t h e maximum l o a d s t a g e , t h e p r e s e n t model g i v e s
a more s a t i s f a c t o r y p r e d i c t i o n when compared w i t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l
result.

However,

there i s

a gap between the a n a l y t i c a l and

e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s r i g h t from the v e r y beginning o f the loading

process.

T h i s may be due t o some s l a c k i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l setup

w h i c h gave r i s e t o a n i n i t i a l r o t a t i o n o f t h e shear w a l l specimen

Otherwise, load-deflection curve obtained by the proposed model
should be close to that of the experimental one.
In the analysis, the first crack appears horizontally at the
bottom of the wall on the tension side at a total load of 3.1 kN.
Some more horizontal cracks then appear in this bottom area as
loading increases.

When the load is over 5.2 kN, a few cracks

start to appear in an area at a distance of about 3 in.

above the bottom cracked area.

(75 mm)

When the loading increases to 6.5

JcN further cracking is developed between the two cracked areas.

Similar development of the crack patterns is seen as the applied
loading continues to increase. The crack patterns at several load
levels are shown in Fig. 9.4.

221

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9,3

PREDICTION OF THE COUPLED SHEAR WALLS TESTED BY KUANG

In t h i s section,
t e s t e d b y Kuang

[99]

two n i n e - s t o r e y h i g h c o u p l e d s h e a r w a l l s

a r e a n a l y z e d . The g e o m e t r i c d i m e n s i o n s o f b o t h

s p e c i m e n s a r e t h e same o t h e r t h a n t h e d e p t h o f t h e l i n t e l beams.
One o f t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s e x p e r i m e n t I s t o show t h e e f f e c t o f
t h e r a t i o o f d e p t h t o t h e s p a n o f t h e l i n t e l beam on. t h e n o n l i n e a r
behaviour o f

the

structures.

The

geometry d i m e n s i o n s

and

the

r e i n f o r c e m e n t d e t a i l s o f t h e specimens a r e shown i n F i g . 9 . 5 . and

9 . 6 r e s p e c t i v e l y . The p r o p e r t i e s o f b o t h specimens a r e l i s t e d I n
Table 9.2.

Table 9 . 2

M a t e r i a l P r o p e r t i e s o f t h e Coupled S h ea r W a l l

Concrete
Young's modulus

28.3

Compressive strength

38.0

N/mm 2

Young* s modulus

201.3

kN/mm 2

Yield stress

336.0

N/mm 2

kN/mm

Steel:

Both specimens were subjected to three horizontal loads at

the third, the sixth and the ninth storey respectively. The three
loads are distributed in a shape of reversed triangle.
For

specimen

No.

1,

in

the

experiment,

the

first

crack

happened at the junction between the wall and the lintel beam at

225

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227

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t h e 4 t h l e v e l . The t o t a l l o a d i n g c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h i s c r a c k i s
4.6 kN. I n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , t h e f i r s t c r a c k a l s o appears a t the
j u n c t i o n between t h e w a l l and t h e l i n t e l beam a t t h e 4 t h l e v e l ,
b u t a t a t o t a l l o a d o f 2 , 4 kN. S e v e r a l c r a c k p a t t e r n s a t d i f f e r e n t
m a g n i t u d e s o f l o a d i n g a r e g i v e n i n F i g . 9 . 7 . The l o a d - d e f l e c t i o n
curves

from

the

experiment

and

the

analysis

are p l o t t e d i n

Fig. 9.8.
For

specimen No.

2, i n the

experiment,

the f i r s t

crack

a p p e a r e d a t t h e same p l a c e and a t the same l o a d i n g l e v e l a s t h a t

i n specimen No. 1. B u t I n the p r e d i c t i o n , the f i r s t c r a c k appears
a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e w a l l under t e n s i o n a t a l o a d o f 3 . 8 4 kN. The
p r e d i c t e d c r a c k p a t t e r n s f o r d i f f e r e n t l o a d i n g l e v e l s a r e shown i n
F i g . 9 . 9 . The l o a d - d e f l e c t i o n c u r v e s a r e shown i n F i g . 9 . 1 0 .
From t h e s e a n a l y s i s , i t has been shown t h a t f o r t h e coupled
s h e a r w a l l w i t h s h a l l o w l i n t e l beams, t h e c r a c k s w i l l m a i n l y o c c u r
a t t h e l i n t e l beams
upper

1 eve 1 s

are

and the lintel beams located at middle and

damaged

more

seriously

than

those

at

lower

levels. For the coupled shear walls with deep lintel beams, the
ultiinate strength of the structure is greatly increased. However,
the cracks will mainly happen at the bottom of the wall. From the
viewpoint of post-earthquake reparation, this crack pattern must
be avoided.

228

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20
15

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0
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10

D e f l e c t i o n (rm)

Fig. 9.8

Load-Deflection Curves for Specimen No. 1

231

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234

E>cperiment

proposed inodel

10

Deflection (mm)

Fig. 9.10

Load-Deflection Curves for Specimen No. 2

235

9.4

CONCLUSIONS

T h r e e s h e a r w a l l s have been a n a l y z e d w i t h t h e p r o p o s e d model.

Among t h e s e s h e a r w a l l s , one i s a s o l i d s h e a r w a l l ( s p eci men S - 2 ) ,
two a r e c o u p l e d s h e a r w a l l s

(specimen No.

1 and No.

2with

different ratios of span to depth of the lintel beams. The ratios

for specimen No. 1 and No. 2 are 3.33 and 2.0, respectively. In
the solid shear wall, 120 elements are used and for both coupled
shear walls, 180 elements are employed. The analytical results are
in close agreement with the experimental results and the following
conclusions can be reached
1 )

For

coupled

shear walls with deep

lintel beams,

the

stiffness and the ultimate strength of the structure are greater

than those with shallow lintel beams and cracking mainly occurs in
the bottom area of the wall under tension. For the coupled shear
walls with shallow lintel beams, cracking dominantly happens in
the middle and upper level lintel beams. Cracking may appear at a
very low loading level of about 0.2 times of the ultimate loading
capacity of the structure. Coupled shear walls with shallow lintel
beams show a better ductility than the

shear walls with deep

lintel beams.
2 )

The predictions of the ultiinate strength, the deflection,

and the crack patterns of the three shear wall structures agree
well

with

the

experimental

results.

This

indicates

that

the

proposed model can be applied to the nonlinear analysis of shear

wall structures to yield credible results.
3

In the design of a tall building, where possible, the

236

s t r u c t u r e s s h o u l d be a n a l y z e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t parameters t o f i n d
o u t t h e o p t i m a l s t r u c t u r a l form.

These parameters i n c l u d e t h e

b e a m - t o - w a l l s t r e n g t h r a t i o , the s l e n d e r n e s s o f t h e w a l l , and t h e
I n f l u e n c e o f t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t i n w a l l and i n l i n t e l beams, e t c .
The n o n l i n e a r a n a l y s i s technique p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s t h e s i s w i l l
e n a b l e p a r a m e t r i c s t u d i e s t o be performed.

237

CHAPTER 10

CONCLUSIONS

10.1

SUMMARY

An a p p r o p r i a t e and e f f e c t i v e model f o r n o n l i n e a r a n a l y s i s o f
reinforced

concrete

structures

has

been

developed

in

this

r e s e a r c h . The c o n s t r u c t i o n o f the model i n c l u d e s : (1) t h e setup o f

t h e f a i l u r e f u n c t i o n , the i n i t i a l y i e l d f u n c t i o n and t h e l o a d i n g
function f o r

concrete

(2)

the

derivation

of

the

constitutive

relation for concrete;

(3) the establishment of the bond stress

distribution function;

(4) the formation of

the crack strength

expression for a reinforced concrete member or segment and (5)

t h e s i m u l a t i o n o f the p o s t - c r a c k i n g behaviour f o r a r e i n f o r c e d
concrete structure.
The proposed f a i l u r e f u n c t i o n shows good agreement w i t h t h e
a v a i l a b l e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a . The l o a d i n g f u n c t i o n possesses t h e
continuous

derivative

over

the

common

boundary

of

compress ion-compress i o n zone and t ens io n-co m pres s io ii zone ( p l a s t i c

d e f o r m a t i o n o f concrete mainly hstppens i n these two zones). T l i i s
e n a b l e s a continuous r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e behaviour o f concrete
i n t h e v i c i n i t y o f the boundary.
The c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n f o r c o n c r e t e i s d e r i v e d based on
t h e proposed heterogeneous hardening p l a s t i c i t y t h e o r y adopting
t h e a s s o c i a t e d f l o w r u l e . A v a r i a b l e heterogeneous i n d e x has been
introduced.

The

stress-strain

behaviour

238

and

the

contraction

d i l a t a t i o n b e h a v i o u r o f c o n c r e t e c a n be w e l l c a p t u r e d b y t h i s
constitutive relation.
specimens

under

In

various

r e s u l t s are obtained.

the a n a l y s i s
combined

of

stress

the

concrete

states,

test

satisfactory

The c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n can be g r e a t l y

s i m p l i f i e d b y a d j u s t i n g t h e heterogeneous i n d e x i f t h e n o n l i n e a r
behaviour o f a r e i n f o r c e d concrete s t r u c t u r e i s mainly a t t r i b u t e d
t o the c r a c k i n g o f concrete.
F o r t a k i n g t h e c r a c k s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t i n t o account I n t h e
a n a l y s i s o f a r e i n f o r c e d concrete s t r u c t u r e ,
d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n i s proposed.
simulate

the

a new bond s t r e s s

The f u n c t i o n can a d e q u a t e l y

actual distribution of

the

bond s t r e s s a t

i n t e r f a c e between t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t and t h e c o n c r e t e .
w i t h t h e bond s t r e s s - s l i p f u n c t i o n ,

the

the

Compared

proposed bond s t r e s s

d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n i s more c o n v e n i e n t t o a p p l y t o n o n l i n e a r
a n a l y s i s o f the r e i n f o r c e d concrete s t r u c t u r e s .
The

influence

of

the

actual

nonuniform d i s t r i b u t i o n o f

c o n c r e t e s t r e s s i n t r a n s v e r s e and l o n g i t u d i n a l d i r e c t i o n s i n a
r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e member o r segment o n t h e c r a c k s t r e n g t h o f t h e
member

or

segment

has

been c o n s i d e r e d by

suggested

crack

s t r e n g t h e x p r e s s i o n . The suggested c r a c k s t r e n g t h e x p r e s s i o n and

t h e p r o p o s e d bond s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n have been a p p l i e d
to

the

prediction of

load-elongation

the

relation

cracking
of

load,

various

crack

tension

spacing

and

members.

The

a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s match t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a v e r y w e l l .
In

the

simulation of

the

crack s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t

on

r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e , o r t h o g o n a l c r a c k i n g assumption i s
adopted.

The

tangential

stress-strain

239

relation

for

cracked

r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e i s d e r i v e d based on t h e p r o p o s e d bond s t r e s s
d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n . The e v a l u a t e d c r a c k s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t i s
dependent

on

certain

parameters

such

as

the

ratio

of

r e i n f o r c e m e n t , t h e s t r e n g t h o f c o n c r e t e and t h e m o d u l i o f c o n c r e t e
and r e i n f o r c i n g b a r e t c .
The p r o p o s e d model has

been s u c c e s s f u l l y a p p l i e d t o

n o n l i n e a r a n a l y s i s o f reinforced concrete s t r u c t u r e s ,

the

such as

r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e deep beams, s o l i d r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s h e a r
w a l l and c o u p l e d r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e s h e a r w a l l s , e t c . P a r a m e t r i c
s t u d i e s a r e a l s o conducted on t h e r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e deep beams
and t h e r e i n f o r c e d concrete c o u p l e d s h e a r w a l l s . F o r deep beams
and s h e a r w a l l s , i t appears t h a t t h e v a r i o u s c u r r e n t d e s i g n codes
a r e l a c k i n g o f d e t a i l design guidance. Nonlinear a n a l y s i s by the
p r e s e n t model w i l l produce r e s u l t s e c o n o m i c a l l y t o g i v e a b e t t e r
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the behaviour o f t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s under s e v e r e
loading conditions.

10.2

CONCLUSIONS

1.

From t h e v i e w p o i n t o f s t r a i n hardening,

the presented

heterogeneous h a r d e n i n g p l a s t i c i t y t h e o r y i s a g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f
t h e e x i s t i n g s t r a i n hardening p l a s t i c i t y t h e o r y . The t h e o r y can be
d e g e n e r a t e d i n t o t h e o r d i n a r y homogeneous o r u n i f o r m h a r d e n i n g
p l a s t i c i t y t h e o r y by s e t t i n g t h e heterogeneous i n d e x t o 1. The
p r o p o s e d t h e o r y i s t h e r e f o r e s i g n i f i c a n t i n t h a t i t i s a more
g e n e r a l p l a s t i c i t y t h e o r y f o r c o n c r e t e and i s more a p p r o p r i a t e f o r
practical application to

the a n a l y s i s o f

r e i n f o r c e d concrete

structures.
2.

The d e r i v e d c o n s t i t u t i v e r e l a t i o n f o r c o n c r e t e can w e l l

c a p t u r e t h e n o n l i n e a r s t r e s s - s t r a i n behaviour and t h e c o n t r a c t i o n
a n d d i l a t a t i o n b e h a v i o u r o f c o n c r e t e under v a r i o u s combined s t r e s s
s t a t e s , I t a l s o s a t i s f i e s a l l t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s o f continuum
mechanics,

such as

Moreover,

the

the

concrete

uniqueness,
parameters

stability
involved

and c o n t i n u i t y .

can be

determined

r e l a t i v e l y e a s i l y from the a v a i l a b l e experimental d a t a .

3.

E m p l o y i n g the proposed bond s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n ,

t h e t e n s i o n s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t i n a r e i n f o r c e d concrete s t r u c t u r e
c a n be t a k e n i n t o account I n t h e a n a l y s i s w i t h o u t i n t r o d u c i n g t h e
q u a n t i t y o f bond s l i p , w h i c h i s r e q u i r e d I n some o t h e r e x i s t i n g
m o d e l s . The i n v o l v i n g o f t h e q u a n t i t y o f bond s l i p w i l l l e a d t o a
c o m p l i c a t e d n u m e r i c a l procedure.
4.

The n o n l i n e a r a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s o f r e i n f o r c e d c o n c r e t e

structures

will

be

greatly

improved

by

taking

the

tension

s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . The p o s t - c r a c k i n g b e h a v i o u r
o f t h e s t r u c t u r e s c a n be a p p r o p r i a t e l y s i m u l a t e d b y t h i s model.
5.

Disregarding

the

tension

stiffening

effect

in

r e i n f o r c e d concrete s t r u c t u r e w i l l considerably underestimate the

f a i l u r e l o a d i n g c a p a c i t y and o v e r e s t i m a t e t h e d e f l e c t i o n o f t h e
structures.
6.

In

simultaneous

an

iteration

nonlinear

scheme

equations,

for

the

the

solution

scale

for

of

each

the
load

i n c r e m e n t s h o u l d be a p p r o p r i a t e l y chosen. Too s m a l l a s c a l e w i l l
l e a d t o a w a s t e o f c o m p u t a t i o n a l e f f o r t . Too l a r g e a s c a l e w i l l
lead

to

premature

divergent

result.

Analysis

and

adjustment

t e c h n i q u e s h o u l d be used t o o b t a i n t h e c r e d i b l e r e s u l t .
7.

The proposed model can s u c c e s s f u l l y p r e d i c t n o t o n l y t h e

u l t i m a t e c a p a c i t y but a l s o
concrete

structure.

In

the f a i l u r e

the

design o f

mode

of*

a r e i n f orced.

some v i t a l

reinforced

c o n c r e t e s t r u c t u r e s , such a s n u c l e a r r e a c t o r s , a i r - r a i d s h e l t e r s ,
e t c . , t h e f a i l u r e mode o f t h e s t r u c t u r e i s h i g h l y s i g n i f l e a n t
Under

such circumstance,

should

be

used

in

the finite element nonlinear analysis

addition

to

experimental

investigation

to

achieve a safe and optimal design.

8,

The

proposed

model

is

simple

and

can

be

easily

incorporated into the existing nonlinear analysis programs.

10.3

FURTHER RESEARCH

1.

The present constitutive relation for concrete Is mainly

for plane stress problems in which a lot of reliable experimental

data are available.

Indeed, many reinforced concrete structures

are under such stress states. A constitutive relation for three

dimensional problems can be established employing

the proposed

heterogeneous

making

hardening

plasticity

theory

by

some

modifications on the failure function, the initial yield function

and the loading function.
2.

In evaluating the crack stiffening effect in a reinforced

concrete structure, it has been assumed in the proposed model that

the reinforcing bars are einbedded in two orthogonal directions. It
is

anticipated

that

the

model

can

be

further

developed

for

reinforced concrete structures in which the reinforcing bars are

242

l a i d out i n non-orthogonal d i r e c t i o n s .
3.

Changing t h e u l t i m a t e bond s t r e s s v a l u e and t h e shape o f

t h e bond s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n w i t h t h e v a r i a t i o n o f t h e
magnitude and d i r e c t i o n o f t h e s t r e s s i n a r e i n f o r c i n g b a r , t h e
p r o p o s e d bond s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n f u n c t i o n can be a p p l i e d t o s t u d y
the

nonlinear

behaviour

of

reinforced

concrete

structures

subjected t o c y c l i c loading.
4.

I n t h e n o n l i n e a r a n a l y s i s o f the response o f r e i n f o r c e d

concrete

structures

material

mechanisms

concrete cracking,
concrete

and

up

to f a i l u r e ,

such

as

a variety of

concrete

yielding

aggregate i n t e r l o c k i n g ,

reinforcing

bar,

complicated

and

crushing,

bond a c t i o n between

reinforcement

yielding,

dowel

e f f e c t , a s w e l l as the time depending e f f e c t such as creep and

shrinkage

should

be

carefully

and

appropriately

taken

into

a c c o u n t . However many u n c e r t a i n t i e s a r e s t i l l e x i s t i n g i n these

m a t e r i a l mechanisms. More a c c u r a t e e x p e r i m e n t a l d a t a a r e r e q u i r e d
f o r t h e f u r t h e r a n c e o f the a n a l y t i c a l model.
5.

The c o n c r e t e u n i a x i a l compressive s t r e n g t h and t e n s i l e

s t r e n g t h used i n t h i s model f o r s t r u c t u r a l n o n l i n e a r a n a l y s i s can

be

obtained

by

testing

standard

cubes

and

split

cylinders

r e s p e c t i v e l y . From t h e a v a i l a b l e r e s u l t o f 2-D t e s t c a r r i e d o u t by
K u p f e r , e t c . l 4 7 ] , t h e r a t i o o f e q u a l b i a x i a l compressive s t r e n g t h
t o t h e u n i a x i a l compressive s t r e n g t h f o r specimens o f 20 x 20 x 5
cm has been determined. T h i s r a t i o i s adopted t o d e r i v e t h e equal
biaxial

conipresslve

strength

of

the

concrete

whoso

uniaxial

c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e n g t h i s determined by t e s t i n g s t a n d a r d cubes.
e m p l o y i n g s u c h s t r e n g t h parameters,

243

the a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s a r e

found t o

be i n s a t i s f a c t o r y

agreement

with

the

experiments.

However, problems w i l l a r i s e t h a t r e s u l t s from d i f f e r e n t s i z e s o f

specimens a r e used i n the model. S i n c e t h e r e a r e few e x p e r i m e n t a l
results

available

on

multi-dimensional

tests

of

concrete

s p e c i m e n s , n e e d l e s s t o say on the e f f e c t o f s i z e and shape o f t h e

t e s t specimens, t h e s o - c a l l ' s i z e e f f e c t are undetermined yet. If
In future, more data are available on this aspect, the present
proposed

model

could

be

re-calibrated

experimental data.

244

by

adopting

the

new

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Accepted by Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE.

NOTATION
The f o l l o w i n g symbols are used i n CHAPTER 2
i,u
1

= concrete Poison's ratios in direction 1 and 2:

cr^ = minlmuro and maximum principal stresses;

t

21

= shear stress;

E , E = concrete elastic moduli in direction 1 and 2

1
2
'
f = concrete stress at strain e

= concrete failure stress at failure strain e

= strain corresponding to maximum stress f

E = concrete initial tangent modulus

55

concrete secant modulus

G K - initial shear and bulk moduli;

o' o
f

cu=

ultimate uniaxial compressive strength of concrete;

c, p - material constants
r
c

ou

= hydrostatic stress corresponding to failure;

x
= octahedral shear strength;
on
r
c x ^ octahedral normal and shear stress
0, 0
= experimental constant
I
j

i
2

- f i r s t invariant of the s t r e s s state tensor,

= second invariant of the d e v i a t o r i c s t r e s s
tensor, S,

f , f. , f

:ultimate

strength of

concrete

under u n i a x i a l

compressive loading, u n i a x i a l t e n s i l e loading and

equal b i a x i a l compressive loading;
fr , f

= i n i t i a l discontinuous strength o f
TL

259

concrete imder

uniaxial

compressive

loading,

uniaxial

tensile

loading and equal b i a x i a l compressive loading;

non-dimensionalized

quantities

of

f ,

be

with

respect to f
c

nondimensionalized q u a n t i t i e s of f , f
c

b e

with

respect to f
C

e l a s t i c compliance matrix;
work-hardening rate;
Willam-Warnke* s

five-parameter

function

or

Hsieh-Ting-Chen's four-parameter function

1 / 3 mean stress;
i
shape factor
hardening parameter;
Haigh-Westgarrd coordinates;
material constants
i s o t r o p i c e l a s t i c tensor;
p l a s t i c modulus;
current values o f p l a s t i c s t r a i n ;
p l a s t i c f r a c t u r i n g work;
current e l a s t i c tensor which i s a function of W
current compliance tensor;
hardening parameters
effective plastic strain corresponding to the mode
of uniaxial compression hardening;
effective plastic strain corresponding to the mode
of equal-biaxial compression hardening;
effective plastic strain corresponding to the mode

o f u n i a x i a l tension hardening;
a , a , a
1

= coefficients

= hardening parameter
[c]

= e l a s t i c material property matrix;

h = p l a s t i c hardening modulus
>
<
j = f r a c t u r i n g modulus;
^ = p l a s t i c s t r a i n parameter;
k = f r a c t u r i n g s t r e s s parameter
Z = constant;

hardening-sof tening function;

x = coefficient;
i
X = Inelastic dilatancy
e

2*

=
s second and t h i r d Invariants of stress
3

a ,..., a

c , c

= stress-independent inelastic strain;

= constants;
= m a t e r i a l c o n s t a n t s ; and
= material constants.

The following symbols are used in CHAPTER 3:

(
r

o'

= octahedral normal and shear stresses;

r ul'

u' V

= m a t e r i a l constants;
,f f '

= concrete

uniaxial

tensile

strength,

uniaxial

compressive s t r e n g t h and e q u a l - b i a x i a l compressive

strength;

f
p

= i n i t i a l y i e l d s t r e s s under u n i a x i a l compression;

py

=initial yield

octahedral

normal

stresses

under

h y d r o s t a t i c compression and h y d r o s t a t i c tension

=octahedral normal and shear stresses at the uniaxial

Ouc

compression path at failure loading level

=octahedral normal and shear stresses at the uniaxial

ot

tension path at failure loading level

:
=octahedral normal and shear stresses at the uniaxial
Oic
tension path at initial yield loading level;
k

= gradients

of

the

straight

lines

at

failure

and

initial yield loading levels

n = nonlinear index;

nonnegatIve f a c t o r depending on the current s t a t e o f

stress;
K = b u l k modulus;

cr

= u n i a x i a l compressive s t r e s s l e v e l where the p l a s t i c

component

of

the

incremental

strain

starts

to

change i t s sign;
f
T

Oc

= hardening parameter corresponding to cr^

= octahedral normal and shear stresses at the imiaxial
compression path;

k = gradient of the straight line connecting the two

y

points where the loading function cuts the uniaxial

tension path and the uniaxial compression path;
H = plastic hardening modulus;
[c] = elastic matrix;
[c]

= elastoplastic matrix;
E = initial tangent modulus of concrete under uniaxial
compressive loading;

262

= r a t i o of p r i n c i p a l s t r e s s i n orthogonal d i r e c t i o n to
principal stress i n direction

pt ept

<
r

= ultimate stress and strain in

direction i

= u l t i m a t e s t r a i n under u n i a x i a l compression;
e^,

= ultimate

strains

in

minor

principal

direction

corresponding to the s t r e s s r a t i o s given i n the

subscript

ultimate

strains

corresponding

to

in

the

major

principal

stress ratios given

direction
in

the

subscript and
e: = plastic

and

elastic

components

of

the

strain

in

principal direction i.
The following symbols are used in CHAPTER 4:
Poison's ratios;
compressive

strain

corresponding

to

the

uniaxial

compressive strength f
G

initial shear modulus of concrete;

ratio of reinforcement;

elasticity modulus;.
tensile strength of concrete;

E
E
cl'

secant moduli for cracked concrete in the direction

normal and parallel to the cracks,

secant

moduli

for

reinforcement

in

and

direction;
post cracking modulus in the direction of tensile
stress in dainage region li

263

=tangent modulus p a r a l l e l to the crack i n the damage

region k;
= s h e a r modulus f o r cracked concrete
= t e n s i l e strength of concrete
=extensional strain at f
tu

= s t r e s s e s and v i r t u a l s t r a i n s i n uncracked domains;

=average stresses

and v i r t u a l average s t r a i n s

In

cracked domains;
a 5e,.
. a =average quantities of stress and v i r t u a l s t r a i n In
<r.
reinforcement i n cracked domains
i.f Su. =external force and virtual displacement

,a
a
is

=average bond stress and virtual bond slip on cracked

domains;

_
C+R

(UN)

=volume of uncracked reinforced concrete;

..(UN) = v o l u m e for concrete and reinforcement

in. cracked

domains;
S = area on which the external loading is applied;
r
<
Cm
S(
= total length of steel bar in cracked domain;
T
= a v e r a g e b o n d stress;
$ = diameter of s t e e l bar;
* = modified steel bar length within the concrete strut;
i
a
a
e
e
= average strains of steel bar and concrete between
is, ic
adjacent cracks;
b
^

/f

b , = crack spacing in x' and y' directions;

, n , = direction

cosines

of

the

angle

enclosed

by

the

normal to the crack and the reinforcement in x' and

y' directions;

264

average s t r e s s i n the concrete s t r u t obtained by

d i s r e g a r d i n g the tension s t i f f e n i n g e f f e c t ;
average u n i a x i a l s t r e s s i n the d i r e c t i o n of concrete
strut;
average shear s t r e s s due to the aggregate i n t e r l o c k ;
te n sion s t i f f e n i n g factor
stress of steel bar at the cracks
strain at formation of crack of order r;
uniaxial tensile strain of concrete
primary crack spacing
tangent

stiffness

matrix

for

concrete

and

reinforcement;
bond stress;
bond stress-slip modulus;
bond slip;
displacements of steel bar and concrete;
bar perimeter
cross sectional area of concrete associated with one
steel bar;
stress in steel bar and in concrete;
elements of the uncracked compliance matrix

and

the cracked compliance matrix C

s t r a i n energy density d i s s i p a t e d by cracking;
energy

d i s s i p a t e d i n the opening of a crack;

width of the fracture-process zone;

/

crack s t r a i n a t f
stresses existing in region II at cracking and after

cracking
m = average strain in steel bar over length s :
^
m
% = steel strains in region I and II;
f s o = concrete stress in region II
S

=
= angle between

the

normal

to

the

crack

and

the

reinforcement d i r e c t i o n ; and
. = a participation factor.
The following symbols are used in CHAPTER 5

tilt

ultimate value of bond stress;

transfer length
constant
E / E ;
s

A/ A ;
s

E ,E
s

moduli of steel bar and concrete;

cross-sectional areas of steel bar and concrete;

A ,A
D

diameter of the steel bar;

peak value of bond stress

c x :

s x

stresses of concrete and steel bar at x;

tensile loading;
half-length of the segment;
distance from the inner end

of the ultimate bond

stress plateaii to the centre of the segment,

stresses of concrete and s t e e l bar a t the inner end
o f the t r a n s f e r length;
average stresses of concrete and s t e e l bar along the
length of the segment

266

uit = a v e r a S e ultimate value o f bond s t r e s s ;

u i t = a v e r a g e ultimate transferred loading;

= concrete uniaxial compressive and tensile strengths

and

=crack

strength

of a

reinforced

concrete

tension

member
The following symbols are used in CHAPTER 6
(in

the

following symbols

the

subscript i means

in x

or y

direction)
S

,sf
y

=initial crack spacing in yJ and

y' directions

6 =angle between the x axis and the initial crack line;

i
2L
i :embedment

2S. =characteristic crack spacing;

length of the reinforcing bar between two

parallel cracks
. =ultimate value of bond stress;

uitt

1 . =peak value of bond stress;

ml

tt

=transfer length;
=distance from the inner end

of the ultimate bond

stress plateau to the centre between two cracks;

A

=diameter

and

transverse

sectional

areas

of

the

reinforcing bar;
=transverse sectional area of the concrete associated
with one steel bar;
sol

=stress in th reinforcing box at the cracks,

=ratio of reinforcement;

c-C:

).sL =stresses

in

concrete

267

and

reinforcing bar

at

the

centre between two cracks

Si,

average stresses in the concrete and the reinforcing

bar along the embedment length of the steel bar
= average strain In the

E E
f

reinforcing bar;

= moduli of the reinforcement and the concrete

f e = ultimate compressive strength and strain of concrete

c
p
in uniaxial compression test and
c, = concrete cover.
Tht* following symbols are used In CHAPTER 7:
nodal displacement vector;
load vector;
assembled stiffness matrix;
counters for iteration and load increment

I and
(K4 )

tangent stiffness matrix;

s t ra i n-*d i sp 1 acement matrix;
stress-strain matrix of material;

(K)
t
0 T

initial stiffness matrix;

RTOL convergence tolerance;

= : c o n v e r g e n c e tolerances; and

n
r

E2s

convergence tolerances.

268

APPENDIX I
INVARIANTS OF STRESSES
i iirst invariant of stress:
Second i n v a r i a n t of s t r e s s
T h i r d i n v a r i a n t of stress

INVARIANTS O F STRAINS
First Invariant of strain
Second invariant of strain:
Third invariant of strain

INVARIANTS OF DEVIATORIC STRESSES

First invariant of deviatoric stress
J
1

35

Second invariant of deviatoric stress

J
2

(
T 2) +
2

(cr
3

- 2(
T ) +

Third invariant of deviatoric stress

J = {r - c
r ) (cr
3
1
0
2

- c
r ) (cr 0
3
o

INVARIANTS OF DEVIATORIC STRAINS

First invariant of deviatoric strain

c
r )

Srrond i n v a r i a n t of d e v i a t o r i c strain
/

f.

P +

+ l cr

- eJ ) 2 + (e
3
3

- e )2] / 6
i

Third invariant of deviatoric strain

J

Od'AIIKDEAi. STRESSES
in f aht^cirail normal stress
r
(

0-

tcr

)/ 3

Ut tahtfdrai rehear stress

*

o
.2, 1/2
) 2 + (oro - cr ) J

* I Ccr

tK^TAHEDKAL STRAINS
DrtahiHlral normal s t r a i n
r

a
s (C

+ C *4 ) / 3

Z 3

Octiihedral shear stress

)2 + ( _

) +

270

"

1/2

APPENDIX I!

The i n t e g r a t i o n s o f

<
r

c x

<
r and

<
r f o r f i r s t circumstance:

C
T D f^t
,
7-"
u dx
A

2 . SOlSirDu
sin(^) _ 2

cos (-

j
cos()
t
t

1
_X,
.. fit Xv
. c o si /

IR D rVT
_sw W|IW_

1 1

,v

2,5016irDu
A

2 sin(+ 2
1. It2
t

2.5016itDu
t.
\
? (_ i - 4~ i )

0.47367rDii .
mt

t
/ 7 r x
~ cos (n
t

f 41 A

C 0S(-)

2.50167rDu

i x
t

21 x
11
U
t
t , f n x,
sin(j +

I.

a,4736irDu f U
i
u i
~ X " |

0.47367rDu U - I )

dx

x
t

,7r
cos(75

0.4?36TrDu I U - t )

0.3408

(i - 0,3408l t )P

The integrations of

,<r

and ;

for second circumstance

For 0,72861 s x s t

u dx

2.5016irDu
Hit

sin("fl~) - 2 :

cos A

For a

CM

a
s x ^ 0.7286

f
u
'o.7286 1

0.7286
U

dx +
J

272

2d x

cos(-

2.50167rDu
hit

,
/71 x n
,11 x
- sin{-j~) + 2 -

ttDu

ult

cos

(0,72861

cos(jj

- x)

.72861
,li49irDu

wit

irDu ^(0,72861

- x)

ult

For 0

7286
dx +

dx

dx

0.72861

(Ll$49nDu (
ult

,3280IIDU

'ult

5.1709

itDu , (0.7286 - a)
ult

.7675

1.3725a'

CQS(
c o s ( , L L rJ)

T3725a

"

"1^1.3725a

0.72861
u

dx +

dx

728.6

0,18491_

0 . 61787rDu
u l t

irDu uit (0.7286 a)

dx

1,3280TtDu
_

ult r ^

+. 5.1709 ^ c o s ( l : | ^ )
it
1K9134hDu

cx

w v

T X

s m q . 3725a)

1.3725 ^

u i t

dx

Z.5016itDu

TT

^ I
2

w.i t

^ x
. i
- 2
s m lf -

0,72861

72861
cos(^i^) + r r - oosC^-T--)

wit

l,3280itDu

4" 5.1709

as

dx

0.9134TrDuuit

ult

0 38227rDiiui j

dx

cos(

x sin(^JL^)
I 3.7675 s i n l i. 3725aj

I 3 7 l 5 i ) 1 ' 3 7 2 5 "Ira c o s ( I 7 3 7 ^ ) ; | d X

2 - 5 0 1 6 t ^
y
w

_ Zi!s i n ( ! ^ ) + 3c
4
I
J

274

r 0.91347tDu

ult

sin(-

0.9134ifDy

1, 3280iiDU
ult

,72861

ult

0.3822TrDu

24.8398a

!0,341SaK cos(

0A l B Z u D n ^ i

1.3725a

TTDU

u l t

2k I

ax

sin{

.3725a^

1.883Sx" cos (:
.3725aJ

Q.ZOUndu^

275

^0.7286