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hc
f
will be required. Questions could probe the difference between cases in which
photons are absorbed and those in which they are reflected [giving twice the momentum
transfer]. The concept of elastic and inelastic collisions draws upon energy from PH1.
For examples of examination questions, see previous PH4 papers.
PH4.3 Thermodynamics
Statements PH4.3(a)(g) deal with the behaviour of ideal gases. They include a simple
treatment of the kinetic theory of gases, including the concept of the mole. It too is essentially
unchanged from the previous specification.
Statements PH4.3(h)(p) cover the concepts of thermodynamics: heat, work and internal
energy. The 1st Law of Thermodynamics is also included. In spite of its presence in the
current specification, it is a section which many students find obscure and accordingly a set
of notes is provided: go to the WJEC website, www.wjec.co.uk , select Physics and GCE AS/A
under Find resources and view the full list of documents under Related Information.
For examples of examination questions, see previous PH4 papers.
The only introduced concept in this section is that the gravitational field outside a sphericallysymmetric body is identical to that of an identical point mass situated at the centre of the
body. The point of introducing this statement [essentially Gausss Law] is to allow for the
application of Newtons Law of Gravitation to approximately spherical planets, moons and
stars and, in the next section, to the hypothetical dark matter in which galaxies are supposed
to be embedded. It is not explicitly stated, but the other aspect of Gausss Law will be
assumed, i.e. that the net contribution to gravitation field by those parts of a spherically
symmetric mass distribution lying outside the radius of the point in question is zero.
For examples of examination questions, see previous PH5 papers.
PH4.5 Application to Orbits in the Solar System and the Wider Universe.
This section of the specification contains traditional kinematics and application of Newtons
Laws of Motion. Much the theory is covered in A level text books. The section on mutual
orbits is an exception. The applications to missing matter in galaxies and the detection of
extra-solar planets (ESOs) require very little additional theoretical input.
Statements PH4.5 (a) (d) deal with the application of Keplers Laws of Planetary Motion
and Newtons Law of Gravitation to the orbit of objects around a massive central object. With
the exception of the statement of Keplers Laws, this work could have been examined under
the legacy specification. Suitable statements of Keplers Laws are:
K1: The planets orbit in ellipses with the Sun at one focus.
K2: The radius vector sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time.
K3: The square of the period of orbit is directly proportional to the cube of the semimajor axis.
The whole of PH4.5 will concentrate on circular orbits. Very little work will be set on the
elliptical aspects. Candidates should be qualitatively aware of the ellipse. [eccentricity will
not be explored quantitatively] and the meaning of semi-major axis. The implication of K3,
that the period of orbit of an object in circular orbit is the same as that of an object in an
elliptical orbit with the same semi-major axis, should be understood. An example of where
this is important is the Transfer Orbit.
Transfer Orbits
Consider a satellite being carried on the upper stage of its launch rocket. It is currently in a
low circular orbit say an altitude of 500 km [radius of orbit ~ 7000 km]. It needs to be
transferred to a geosynchronous orbit [radius ~42000 km].
low earth
(parking) orbit
geosynchronous
orbit
A
B
transfer orbit
The major axis of the transfer orbit is 7 000 + 42 000 = 49 000 km, so the semi-major axis is
24 500 km. The time taken to transfer can then be worked out because the time taken to
complete half an orbit [the dotted line] is the same as the time for half a circular orbit of
radius 24 500 km. Interestingly, though this is not required knowledge, the energy of the
satellite in the transfer orbit is also the same as if it were in a circular orbit of the same radius,
so we can calculate the additional energy [and therefore the impulse] needed to be given at A
and at injection at B.
Derivation of Keplers 3rd Law
This follows from Newtons Law of Gravitation, F G
m1m2
r2
GMm
4 2
mr 2
r2
T
2 3
4 r
.
T2
GM
i.e the orbital period squared is proportional to the radius cubed, which is K3 for a circular
orbit.
Note that, we have assumed that the central body is a point mass, which it will certainly not
be, but it is also correct if the central object is spherically-symmetric [see above]. Note also
that, historically, the derivation was done in the opposite direction, with Keplers 3 rd Law
being the evidence for the inverse square relationship.
Weighing the Earth
Note that, in this analysis, we have assumed that the mass of the moon is negligible and that
the moon orbits about the centre of the Earth. In fact ME ~ 81 MM so the assumption leads to
some inaccuracy albeit small [~1%].
This type of analysis is very useful in obtaining information about remote objects in the
universe. For example, we can weigh other planets and determine their mean densities,
furnishing data which is useful for developing models of their composition. We can also
weigh stars, black holes and whole galaxies using the same technique, see e.g. how to
measure the mass of a black hole on the Physics page of the WJEC website.
The relationship between T and r furnishes data which is useful for developing candidates
graphical skills. Data on Jupiters satellites for example can be used in a log-log plot to
2
establish the power law relationship. Students could also plot, say, T 3 against a and use the
3
gradient to determine MJ. Alternatively, T against a 2 is a possibility. Note that it is
unproductive to plot T2 against a3 as, whereas most of the points are almost at the origin a
couple are a long way out.
Often the speed of an orbiting object is measured directly, e.g. using Doppler shift [see
below] in which case we could use the following analysis to determine the central mass M.
GMm mv 2
r2
r
GM
v2
Dividing by m and simplifying:
.
r
Dark Matter and he motion of objects in galaxies.
Spiral galaxies are flattened assemblages of stars which all rotate in the plane of the galaxy
around the centre in its gravitational field. In additional to stars, spiral galaxies contain large
quantities of gas and dust from which new stars form. Details of the structure of spiral
galaxies will not be examined. Consider the following observed [simplified] rotational speed
curve for a typical spiral galaxy: [The low radius part of the curve is obtained from
observations of stars and gas clouds in the visible part of the disc. The observed speeds
beyond the visible galactic disc are from orbiting clouds of neutral hydrogen which emit a
characteristic 21 cm line in the microwave region of the spectrum.]
Rotational speed (km s-1)
observed
200
100
central
galactic bulge
calculate
d
50 000
100 000
[N.B. the inner ellipse is my crude attempt using Draw to represent the central galactic bulge]
The calculated curve is that predicted by taking into account the observed normal or
baryonic matter in the galaxy. N.B. Observed doesnt only mean light-emitting it also
includes dark gas clouds, whose speeds we can detect by their absorption lines in the light of
more distant object which we view through them.
GM
, where r is the orbital radius, v is
r
the orbital speed and M is the total mass within the orbit [assuming a spherically-symmetric
distribution]
2
A useful equation in investigating these curves is v
r3 4
3 G r 2 , so v r .
r
So we can see that, for the central regions of a galaxy, coinciding with the galactic
bulge, the observed rotational velocity is consistent with the observed constant density
of matter and the value of the matter density is consistent value of the rotational speeds.
So, using the equation above: v 2 G
4
3
G 4 kr
4 Gk , i.e. v is a constant
r
If we imagined a gas cloud orbiting at, say, 75 000 light years from the centre of the
galaxy, it is doing so in the combined gravitational field of all the matter closer to the
centre. In the case of a spherically-symmetric object we can for such purposes consider
it as a point mass with its whole mass concentrated at its centre. Clearly the visible
galaxy is not spherically symmetric, but it is not a bad approximation to consider it so
for great distances. Beyond the visible disc, where the observed matter density is very
low, wed expect the orbital speed, v, to fall off approximately as r 1 2 , the same
relationship as we observe for the planets in the Solar System. The observation that,
beyond ~ 50 k l-y, the rotational speed is ~ constant implies that the material of the
galaxy extends well beyond the observed galaxy, i.e. the visible galaxy is embedded in
an unobserved cloud of material and also than the whole galaxy has a much greater
mass [~ 10 times] than that of the observable matter.
So v 2
N.B. It is worth emphasising that using Dark Matter to explain the discrepancy
between the observed and calculated orbital speeds is a hypothesis, albeit one which is
widely supported in the theoretical cosmological community. Some theoretical
cosmologists have proposed modifications to the law of gravitation to account for the
observations. The modifications take into account the fact that, at the scale of the Solar
System, the inverse square law works very well. In one such model, by Milgrom, the
modification takes effect at gravitational accelerations of less than 10 -9 m s-2 [i.e. ~10-10
g] and for these accelerations the gravitational force falls of as inverse r rather than
inverse r2]. This is a classic example of watch this space or How Science Works.
m1
r1
r2
m2
Each body exerts an attractive force upon the other and, by Newtons 3rd Law, these are equal
and oppositely directed.
m1r1 2 m2 r2 2
So, we can write
m1r1 m2 r2
So, dividing by ,
m1r1 m2 (d r1 )
Substituting for r2
m2
r1
d
m1 m2
m1
r2
d
Similarly
m1 m2
The orbits of two massive objects, e.g. a binary star system:
Now that the position of the centre of mass is sorted out, we can use Newtons Law of
Gravitation to work out the orbital characteristics of the binary system as follows:
Consider the orbit of body 1 about the centre of mass. The centripetal force is provided by the
gravitational attraction of body 2 upon body 1.
m1r1 2
So we can write
m2
Gm1m2
d 2
m1 m2
d2
G m1 m2
2
d3
4 2 d 3
d3
T2
or T 2
G m1 m2
G m1 m2
m1
Gm1m2
d2
Consider the case of the Earth-Sun system. The Earth-Sun distance is 1496 million km. With
the masses given above, the distance of the centre of mass of the two bodies from the centre
of the Sun is given by:
6 1024
r
1 496 108 km 450 km
30
24
2 10 6 10
In this calculation, clearly the mass of the Earth in the denominator is quite insignificant. The
figure of 450 km compares to a radius for the Sun of 700 000 km so not large!
Aside: In fact, we could come up with this figure without the above analysis, just by using the
idea of Conservation of Momentum. The argument could go as follows.
Let the speed of the Earth in its orbit be vEarth, so its [linear] momentum is given by:
pEarth = 6 1024 kg vEarth
Assuming the momentum of the Earth-Sun system is zero, it follows that the momentum of
the Sun is the same, in the opposite direction. So the orbital speed of the Sun is given by:
vSun
6 1024 vEarth
3 106 vEarth .
30
2 0 10
As the two bodies take the same time, T, to orbit the Centre of Mass:
2 rEarth 2 rSun
vEarth
vSun
So
2 rSun
2 1 496 1011 m
vEarth
3 106 vEarth
So
rSun = 440 km
which agrees to within the accuracy of the data. Can you spot the approximation?
Well return to the idea of using momentum conservation when we analyse extra-solar
planetary systems.
Question 1: If the mass of the Earth were 100 times as great [6 1026 kg], what would be the
effect on:
1.the length of the year;
2.the position of the centre of mass of the Earth-Sun system;
3.the orbital speed of the Earth;
4.the orbital speed of the Sun.
8
Question 2: The dwarf planet, Pluto, has a
mass of 127 1022 kg. Its moon, Charon has a
mass of 19 1021 kg. The mean separation of
their centres is 19 640 km. Use these data to
determine:
1.the position of their centre of mass;
2.the orbital period of the two bodies;
3.the orbital speeds of the two bodies.
orbit
on the Earth
massive
planet
For such a system the data could be presented graphically, e.g. variation in the received
wavelength of the sodium D2 line which has a laboratory wavelength of 58900 nm.
/ nm
5895
0
58900
58850
05
10
15
20 Time /days
10
d3
(1)
GmS
Algebraic manipulation gives the following approximations for the orbital speeds:
G
vS mP
(2) and
mSd
T 2
vP
GmS
(3)
d
For a given star system, normally we would know the mass of the star, mS, from our
knowledge of stellar models and the observations would be the received wavelength of a
spectral line against time. For an edge-on system this variation would be sinusoidal and we
can undertake the following steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
11
d3
to find the total mass, m1 + m2, of
G m1 m2
the system which comes out at 36 1030 kg, so the combined mass of the stars is
roughly twice that of the Sun.
12
5. From this, we can work out that the masses of the individual stars are 09 1030 kg
and 27 1030 kg [remember the 3:1 ratio].
More or less useful references for gravity, spectra and mutual orbits
Check out the applets on:
http://www.ioncmaste.ca/homepage/resources/web_resources/CSA_Astro9/files/html/applets.
html - more GCSE than GCE for Stars, Spectra and Keplers Laws
On http://jersey.uoregon.edu/vlab/elements/Elements.html you can find the wavelengths of
spectral lines [put the mouse cursor on the line and click]
Doppler spectroscopy: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppler_spectroscopy
An example of a radial velocity curve: http://www.howstuffworks.com/planet-hunting2.htm
Mutual orbit simulation: http://www.howstuffworks.com/framed.htm?parent=planethunting.htm&url=http://exoplanets.org/doppler.html
This site also has mutual orbit simulation and a plethora of other applets:
http://phet.colorado.edu/new/simulations/sims.php?sim=My_Solar_System
Data for 51Peg: http://zebu.uoregon.edu/51peg.html
Overview of detecting ESOs: http://astro.unl.edu/naap/esp/detection.html
Another overview : http://www.esa.int/esaSC/SEMYZF9YFDD_index_0.html