Chronology of Jesus - Wikipedia, The Free Encyclopedia

Chronology of Jesus - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronology_of_Jesus
Chronology of Jesus
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
See also: Historicity of Jesus, Ministry of Jesus, and Gospel harmony

A chronology of Jesus aims to
establish a timeline for some of the
events of the life of Jesus in the four
canonical gospels. The Christian
gospels were primarily written as
theological documents rather than
historical chronicles and their authors
showed little interest in an absolute
chronology of Jesus. However, it is
possible to correlate the New Testament
with non-Christian sources such as
Jewish and Greco-Roman documents to
estimate specific date ranges for the
major events in Jesus' life.[1][2][3][4]
Medieval Russian icon

depicting the life of Jesus
Two independent approaches can be

used to estimate the year of birth of Jesus, one based on the nativity
accounts in the gospels, the other by working backwards from the date of
the start of his ministry. Scholars estimate a year of birth between 7 and
2 BC.[5] Three independent approaches to estimate the dates of the
ministry of Jesus are: first, the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius
Caesar, second: the date of the building of the Jerusalem Temple and
third, the date of the death of John the Baptist.[6][7][8][9][10][11] Scholars
generally estimate that the ministry of Jesus began around 27-29 AD and
lasted at least one year, and perhaps three years, or more.[6][8][12][13]
Diverse approaches have been used to estimate the date of the
crucifixion of Jesus. One approach uses the attestations of non-Christian
sources such as Josephus and Tacitus.[14][15] Another method works
backwards from the historically well established trial of Apostle Paul in
Achaea to estimate the date of his conversion.[16][16][17][18] Scholars
generally agree that Jesus died between 30-36 AD.[8][16][19][20]
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Contents
1 Context and overview
2 Year of birth
2.1 Nativity accounts: Luke and Matthew
2.2 Working backwards from when Jesus began preaching
3 Years of preaching
3.1 Reign of Tiberius and the Gospel of Luke
3.2 Jerusalem Temple and the Gospel of John
3.3 Josephus' reference to the Baptist
4 Year of death
4.1 Prefecture of Pontius Pilate
4.2 Reign of Herod Antipas
4.3 Conversion of Paul
4.4 Astronomical analysis
4.4.1 Newton's method
5 Date of birth and death
5.1 Day of birth
5.2 Day of death
5.2.1 Hour of death
6 Other approaches
7 See also
8 References
9 External links
Context and overview

See also: New Testament places associated with Jesus and
Josephus on Jesus
The Christian gospels were written as theological documents in the
context of early Christianity rather than historical chronicles and their
authors showed little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in
synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the
age.[1][2] One manifestation of the gospels being theological documents
rather than historical chronicles is that they devote about one third of
their text to just seven days, namely the last week of the life of Jesus in
Jerusalem.[21]
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A 1466 copy of
Jewish historian
Flavius Josephus' first
century work
Antiquities of the
Jews, widely used to
establish the
chronology of
Although the gospels do not provide enough

details regarding exact dates, it is possible to
draw from them a general picture of the life story
of Jesus and to establish some date ranges
regarding the major events in his life via
correlations with non-Christian sources.[1][2][23]
A number of historical non-Christian documents,
such as Jewish and Greco-Roman sources,
have been used in historical analyses of the
existence of Jesus and his chronology.[24]
Virtually all modern historians agree that Jesus
existed, and regard his baptism and his
crucifixion as historical events, and assume that
approximate ranges for these events can be
estimated.[25][26][27] However, as stated in John
21:25 the gospels do not claim to provide an
exhaustive list of the events in the life of Jesus.
[3][28][29]
The year of birth of Jesus can be estimated

using two independent approaches: one based
on the nativity accounts in the gospels of
Matthew and Luke, the other by working backwards from the date of the
start of his ministry, when according to the Gospel of Luke he was about
thirty years old. Most scholars assume a date of birth between 6 and 4
BC.[5]
Jesus.[22]
Three independent approaches have been used to estimate the dates of

the ministry of Jesus. One method relies on Luke 3:1-2's statement that
the ministry of John the Baptist (which preceded that of Jesus) started in
the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar.[6][7] Another approach
is to correlate John 2:20's statement about the Jerusalem Temple being
in construction for 46 years with the date of the building of the Second
Temple.[6][8] A third method uses the date of the death of John the
Baptist based on the writings of Josephus, and correlates it to Matthew
14:4.[9][10][11] Scholars generally estimate that the ministry of Jesus
began around 27-29 AD and lasted one to three years.[6][8][12][13]
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A number of approaches have been used to estimate the date of the

crucifixion of Jesus. One approach uses the attestations of non-Christian
sources such as Josephus and Tacitus.[14][15] Another approach works
backwards from the historically well established trial of Apostle Paul in
Corinth to estimate the date of his conversion, given that in the New
Testament accounts this takes place after the death of Jesus.[16][17][18]
Astronomical calculations have also been suggested as a method for
establishing the date of the crucifixion. One method attempts to establish
the date on which the Passover would have fallen on a Friday in the
Hebrew calendar.[30][31][32]
Based on these calculations, scholars generally assume that Jesus died
between 30-36 AD.[8][16][19][20] The most popular date is 7 April, 30
AD,[33][34] followed by 3 April, AD 33.[35]
Year of birth
The two major, and independent, approaches to estimating the year of
the birth of Jesus combine the accounts given in some of the Canonical
gospels with non-biblical historical data to arrive at a date range, as
discussed in the two sub-sections below. There are a wide range of more
speculative theories, and some are discussed at the end of this article in
the "other approaches" section.
Nativity accounts: Luke and Matthew

The nativity-based approach to estimating
the year of birth of Jesus relies on the
analysis of the nativity accounts in the
Gospels of Luke and Matthew along with
other corresponding historical data.[8][36]
A view of Bethlehem today,
Most mainstream scholars have not yet
from the hills above it
reconciled the Luke and Matthew nativity
stories.[37] Karl Rahner states that the
authors of the gospels generally focus on theological elements rather
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than historical chronologies.[38] However, both Luke and Matthew

associate Jesus' birth with the time of Herod the Great.[38]
Herod the Great is generally believed to have died from 1 BC to 4 BC,
placing the birth of Jesus from 2 BC to 7 BC.[39][40][41][42][43][36][38]
Matthew 2:1 states that "Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Judaea in the
days of Herod the king" and Luke 1:5 mentions the reign of Herod shortly
before the birth of Jesus.[36] The Matthew account implies that Jesus
could have been as much as two years old at the time of the visit of the
Magi, before Herod's death.[44]
Scholars have attempted to address an apparent contradiction between
the two accounts, in that Luke places the birth of Jesus during a Census
of Quirinius (one later census took place in AD 6 also mentioned by Luke
in Acts 5:37). Matthew states the conception took place during the reign
of King Herod around 7-10 years earlier. Some scholars believe Luke
made an error in referring to a census, while others have offered
explanations to reconcile this account with that of Matthew, from
alternative translations of the Greek word prt used by Luke ("before"
the census, rather than "the first" census) to suggestions that the census
was performed in two stages, involving an earlier registration, and that
Quirinius may have served previously in a similiar capacity.[45][46][47]
[48][49][50]
Scholars generally place the date of birth between 7 and 2 BC,[5]

[51][52][53]
Working backwards from when Jesus began preaching

The ministry-based approach to estimating the year of birth is
independent of the nativity accounts, and works backwards from when
Jesus began preaching, based on the statement in Luke 3:23 that he was
"about 30 years of age" at that time.[8][19]
The section below discusses three independent approaches to
estimating this: first by using the "fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius" in
Luke 3:1-2, second via the reference in the dispute of Jesus and the
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Pharisees in John 2:20 ("This temple has

been under construction for forty-six years,
and will you raise it up in three days? ")
and third by the reference of Flavius
Josephus to the imprisonment and
execution (Ant 18.5.2) of John the Baptist
by Herod Antipas.
Dispute of Jesus and the
Pharisees, by James
Tissot, c. 1890
The third reference (i.e. the execution of the

Baptist in Matthew 14:6-12) relates to a
time when Jesus had already started
preaching but the other two references
relate to when he began.

The generally assumed date range for when John the Baptist was active,
based on the reference to the reign of Tiberius in Luke 3:1-2, is from
about 28-29 AD, with the preaching of Jesus following shortly thereafter.
[6][7][19][54][55]
As discussed in the section below, based on the reference
in John 2:13 to the Temple being in its 46th year of construction,
scholarly estimates for Jesus' Temple visit in John 2:20 are around 27-29
AD, when Jesus was "about thirty years of age".[6][56]
By working backwards from this time, some scholars estimate the year
28 AD to be roughly the 32nd birthday of Jesus and his year of birth to be
around 6-4 BC.[8][19][54]
Years of preaching
Reign of Tiberius and the Gospel of Luke
One method for the estimation of the date of the beginning of the ministry
of Jesus is based on the Gospel of Luke's specific statement in Luke
3:1-2 about the ministry of John the Baptist which preceded that of
Jesus:[6][7]
Now in the fifteenth year of the reign of Tiberius Caesar, Pontius
Pilate being governor of Judaea, and Herod being tetrarch of
Galilee, and his brother Philip tetrarch of the region of Ituraea
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and Trachonitis, and Lysanias tetrarch

of Abilene, in the highpriesthood of
Annas and Caiaphas, the word of God
came unto John the son of Zacharias in
the wilderness.
There are, however, two approaches to
determining when the reign of Tiberius
Part of the Madaba Map
Caesar started.[57] The traditional approach
showing Bethabara
is that of assuming that the reign of Tiberius
(), calling it the
started when he became co-regent in 11AD,
place where John baptised
placing the start of the ministry of John the
Baptist around 26 AD. However, some
scholars assume it to be upon the death of his predecessor Augustus
Caesar in 14 AD, implying that the ministry of John the Baptist began in
29 AD.[57]
The New Testament presents John the Baptist's ministry as the precursor
to that of Jesus and the Baptism of Jesus as marking the beginning of
Jesus' ministry.[58][59][60] In his sermon in Acts 10:37-38, delivered in the
house of Cornelius the centurion, Apostle Peter gives an overview of the
ministry of Jesus, and refers to what had happened "throughout all
Judaea, beginning from Galilee, after the baptism which John preached"
and that Jesus had then gone about "doing good".[61]
The generally assumed dates for the start of the ministry of John the
Baptist based on this reference in the Gospel of Luke are about 28-29
AD, with the ministry of Jesus following it shortly thereafter.[6][7][19][54][55]
Jerusalem Temple and the Gospel of John

One method for estimating the start of the ministry of Jesus without
reliance on the Synoptic gospels is to relate the information in the Gospel
of John (2:13 and 2:20) about the visit of Jesus to Herod's Temple in
Jerusalem with historical data outside the gospels about dates of the
construction of the Temple.[6][8][13]
John 2:13 states that Jesus went to the Temple in Jerusalem around the
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start of his ministry and in John 2:20 Jesus is

told: "This temple has been under construction for
forty-six years, and will you raise it up in three
days?".[6][8]
Herod's Temple in Jerusalem was an extensive
and long term construction on the Temple Mount,
with worship and religious rituals performed
during the multi-decade building process, which
was never fully completed, not even by the time
that the Temple was destroyed by the Romans in
[62][63][64]
70AD.
Having built entire cities such as Caesarea Maritima,
Herod saw the construction of the Temple as a key, colossal
monument.[63] The dedication of the initial temple (sometimes called the
inner Temple) followed an 17 or 18 month construction period, just after
the visit of Augustus to Syria.[58][62]
Israel Museum
model of Herod's
Temple, referred to
in John 2:13.
Josephus (Ant 15.11.1) states that the temple's reconstruction was

started by Herod in the 18th year of his reign.[6][19][65] But there is some
uncertainty about how Josephus referred to and computed dates, which
event marked the start of Herod's reign, and whether the initial date
should refer to the inner Temple, or the subsequent construction.
[8][13][58]
Hence various scholars arrive at slightly different dates for the
exact date of the start of the Temple construction, varying by a few years
in their final estimation of the date of the Temple visit.[13][58] Given that it
took 46 years of construction, scholarly estimates for the Temple visit in
the Gospel of John are around 27-29 AD.[6][8][12][13][66]
Josephus' reference to the Baptist

In the Antiquities of the Jews, first century historian Flavius Josephus
refers to the imprisonment and execution of John the Baptist by Herod
Antipas and that Herodias left her husband to marry Herod Antipas, in
defiance of Jewish law.[9][10][11][67]
Scholars view Josephus' accounts of John the Baptist as authentic.[9][68]
His reference to the marriage of Herod and Herodias, which is also
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mentioned in the gospels, establishes a key

connection with the episodes that appear
there.[9]
However, although both the gospels and
Josephus refer to Herod Antipas killing
John the Baptist, they differ on the details
and motives, e.g. whether this act was a
consequence of the marriage of Herod
Antipas and Herodias (as indicated in
Matthew 14:4, Mark 6:18), or a pre-emptive
measure by Herod which possibly took
place before the marriage to quell a
possible uprising based on the remarks of
John, as Josephus suggests in Ant 18.5.2.
[22][69][70][71]
The Baptist scolds Herod.

Fresco by Masolino, 1435
The exact year of the marriage of Herod

Antipas and Herodias is subject to debate among scholars.[10] While
some scholars place the year of the marriage in the range 27-31AD,
others have approximated a date as late as AD 35, although such a late
date has much less support.[10] In his analysis of Herod's life, Harold
Hoehner estimates that John the Baptist's imprisonment probably
occurred around AD 30-31.[72] The International Standard Bible
Encyclopedia estimates the death of the Baptist to have occurred about
AD 31-32.[11]
Josephus stated (Ant 18.5.2) that the AD 36 defeat of Herod Antipas in
the conflicts with Aretas IV of Nabatea was widely considered by the
Jews of the time as misfortune brought about by Herod's unjust execution
of John the Baptist.[71][73][74] Given that John the Baptist was executed
before the defeat of Herod by Aretas, and based on the scholarly
estimates for the approximate date of the marriage of Herod Antipas and
Herodias, the last part of the ministry of John the Baptist and hence parts
of the ministry of Jesus fall within the historical time span of AD 28-35,
with the later year 35 having the least support among scholars.[10][74][75]
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Year of death
Prefecture of Pontius Pilate
See also: Pilate's court, Josephus on Jesus, and Tacitus on Christ
All four Canonical gospels state that Jesus
was crucified during the prefecture of
Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor of
Judea.[76][77]
In the Antiquities of the Jews (written about
93 AD) Josephus, states (Ant 18.3) that
Jesus was crucified on the orders of
Pilate.[78] Most scholars agree that while
this reference includes some later Christian
interpolations, it originally included a
reference to the execution of Jesus under
Pilate.[79][80][81][82][83]
Roman historian Tacitus
In the second century the Roman historian Tacitus[84][85] in The Annals

(c. 116 AD), described the persecution of Christians by Nero and stated
(Annals 15.44) that Jesus had been executed on the orders of Pilate,
[78][86][86]
a reference generally considered genuine, and of value as an
independent source.[84][87][88][89]
Pontius Pilate was governor of Judea from 26 AD until he was replaced
by Marcellus, either in 36 AD or 37 AD, establishing the date of the death
of Jesus between 26 and 37 AD.[90][91][92]
Reign of Herod Antipas

See also: Jesus at Herod's court
In the Gospel of Luke, while Jesus is in Pilate's court, Pilate realizes that
Jesus is a Galilean and thus is under the jurisdiction of Herod Antipas.
[93][94]
Given that Herod was in Jerusalem at that time, Pilate decided to
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send Jesus to Herod to be tried.[93][94]

This episode is only described in the Gospel of Luke (23:7-15).[95][96]
[97][98]
While some scholars have questioned the authenticity of this
episode, given that it is unique to the Gospel of Luke, the International
Standard Bible Encyclopedia states that it fits well with the theme of the
gospel.[11]
Herod Antipas, a son of Herod the Great, was born before 20 BC and
was exiled in the summer of 39 AD following a lengthy intrigue involving
Caligula and Agrippa I, the grandson of his father.[99][100] Although this
episode provides a wider range date for the death of Jesus, it is in
concord with the other estimates in that it indicates that Jesus' death took
place before 39 AD.[101][102]
Conversion of Paul
The Temple of Apollo in

Delphi, Greece, where the
Delphi Inscription was
discovered early in the 20th
century.[103][104]
Another approach to estimating an upper

bound for the year of death of Jesus is the
estimation of the date of Conversion of Paul
the Apostle which the New Testament
accounts place some time after the death of
Jesus.[16][17][18] Paul's conversion is
discussed in both the Letters of Paul and in
the Acts of the Apostles.[16][105]
In the First Epistle to the Corinthians
(15:3-8), Paul refers to his conversion. The
Acts of the Apostles includes three separate
references to his conversion experience, in
Acts 9, Acts 22 and Acts 26.[106][107]

Estimating the year of Paul's conversion relies on working backwards
from his trial before Junius Gallio in Achaea Greece (Acts 18:12-17)
around 51-52 AD, a date which gained historical credibility early in the
20th century following the discovery of four stone fragments as part of
the Delphi Inscriptions, at Delphi across the Gulf from Corinth.[104][108]
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Most historians estimate that Gallio (brother of Seneca the Younger)

became proconsul between the spring of 51 AD and the summer of 52
AD, and that his position ended no later than 53 AD.[103][104][108]
[109][110]
However, the trial of Paul is generally assumed to be in the
earlier part of Gallio's tenure, based on the reference (Acts 18:2) to his
meeting in Corinth with Priscilla and Aquila, who had been recently
expelled from Rome based on Emperor Claudius' expulsion of some
Jews from Rome, which is dated to 49-50 AD.[108][111]
According to the New Testament, Paul spent eighteen months in Corinth,
approximately seventeen years after his conversion.[104][112] Galatians
2:1-10 states that Paul went back to Jerusalem fourteen years after his
conversion, and various missions (at times with Barnabas) such as those
in Acts 11:25-26 and 2 Corinthians 11:23-33 appear in the Book of
Acts.[16][17] The generally accepted scholarly estimate for the date of
conversion of Paul is 33-36 AD, placing the death of Jesus before this
date range.[16][17][18]
Astronomical analysis
One possible approach to dating the death of Jesus is by using
astronomical evidence to establish the dates of Passover. The difficulty
here is that the Jewish calendar was based not on astronomical
calculation but on observation. It is possible to establish whether the
moon was visible on a particular day but not whether it was actually
sighted.,[113] As E. P. Sanders has pointed out, we cannot recreate local
atmospheric conditions of two thousand years ago: "the synoptic
chronology cannot be confirmed by astronomy, but neither can it be
disproved".[114] Nevertheless, some writers such as astronomer Colin
Humphreys have attempted to confirm the crucifixion date using this
method, obtaining 3 April 33[115][116] or 1 April 33.[117][118]
Newton's method
In 1733,[119] Isaac Newton estimated the date of the crucifixion by
calculating the relative visibility of the crescent of the new moon.[30][31] In
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Observations upon the Prophecies of

Daniel, assuming that the crucifixion took
place on Friday, 14 Nisan, and based on
the fact that this date always fell on the full
moon next after the vernal Equinox, he
argued that it must have taken place on 23
April, AD 34.[32] Newton narrowed the
possible years to AD 33 and 34 and
selected the latter by using a 'postponement
rule' from the Hebrew calendar.[30][32][120]
Later scientists used similar methods of
relating the Hebrew and Julian calendars,
Isaac Newton
with the version developed by J. K.
Fotheringham becoming a standard by the
middle of the 20th century.[31][121] Fotheringham narrowed the possible
dates to 7 April, AD 30 and 3 April, AD 33.[122][123] He favored the latter
date on the basis of its coincidence with a lunar eclipse (see below).
In 1990 astronomer Bradley E. Schaefer, following a similar method,
arrived at the date 3 April, AD 33.[124]
J. P. Pratt argued that Newton's reasoning was effectively sound but was
mistaken in using the "postponement rule" from the modern Hebrew
calendar, which was not in use at the time. He argued for AD 33 as the
correct date.[30]
Date of birth and death

Day of birth
The nativity accounts in the New Testament gospels of Matthew and
Luke do not mention a day for the birth of Jesus. Karl Rahner states that
given that the gospels were written as theological documents they do not
pay attention to such details.[38] Scholars such as E.P. Sanders consider
the birth narratives non-historical and not a reliable method for
determining the day of birth.[125]
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Neither gospel account mentions what time of year the birth took place.
The Gospel of Luke reference to shepherds grazing their sheep in the
fields implies a birth during the springtime, summer or early fall.[126]
[127][128]
The day of birth of Jesus, celebrated as Christmas, is based on a feast

rather than historical analysis. In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the Lord's
Day (Sunday) was the earliest Christian celebration and included a
number of theological themes. In the 2nd century, the Resurrection of
Jesus became a separate feast as Easter and in the same century
Epiphany began to be celebrated in the Churches of the East on 6
January.[129] The festival of the Nativity which later turned into Christmas
was a 4th-century feast in the Western Church notably in Rome and
North Africa, although it is uncertain exactly where and when it was first
celebrated.[130]
The earliest source stating 25 December as the date of birth of Jesus is
likely by Hippolytus of Rome, written very early in the 3rd century, based
on the assumption that the conception of Jesus took place at the Spring
equinox which he placed on March 25, and then added 9th months festivals on that date were then celebrated.[131] John Chrysostom also
argued for a 25 December date in the late 4th century, basing his
argument on the assumption that the offering of incense in Luke 1:8-11
was the offering of incense by a high priest on Yom Kippur (early
October), and, as above, counting fifteen months forward. However, this
was very likely a retrospective justification of a choice already made
rather than a genuine attempt to derive the correct birth date.[132]
Day of death
In the Synoptic Gospels the Last Supper took place on the first night of
Passover, defined in the Torah as occurring after the daylight of the 14th
of Nisan.[133] However, the Gospel of John implies that at the time of the
trial the Jewish leaders had not yet eaten the Passover meal[134][135]
and that his sentencing took place on the day of Preparation of the
Passover.[Jn. 19:14] John's account places the crucifixion on Nisan 14,
since the law mandated the lamb had to be sacrificed between 3:00 pm
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and 5:00 pm and eaten before midnight on

Nisan 14.[136][137][138] This understanding fits
well with Old Testament typology, in which Jesus
entered Jerusalem to identify himself as the
Paschal lamb on Nisan 10[Jn. Ex.] was crucified
and died at 3:00 in the afternoon of Nisan 14, at
the same time the High Priest would have
sacrificed the Paschal lamb,[1 Cor. 5:7]
[cf. Isa. 53:7-9]
and rose before dawn the morning
of Nisan 16, as a type of offering of the First
Fruits.[1 Cor. 15:23] [cf. Lev. 23:9-14] However, "the
day of preparation" has been seen to mean
either the day before Passover or simply Friday;
or both.[139]
A Papyrus 90
fragment of John 19
It is problematic to reconcile the chronology

presented by John with the Synoptic passages and the tradition that the
Last Supper was a Passover meal,[140] placing the crucifixion instead on
Nisan 15. Some scholars have attempted to explain the contradiction by
postulating differences in how post-exilic Jews reckoned time:[141] for
Jesus and his disciples, the Passover could have begun at dawn
Thursday, while for traditional Jews (following Leviticus 23:5), it would not
have begun until dusk that same day.[142][143] Another explanation that
has been suggested is that Jesus chose to celebrate the Passover meal
a day early with his disciples.[Mt. 26:18] [Lk. 22:15] [144]
D.A. Carson points out that there is no evidence that the term 'day of
preparation of Passover' in John 19:14 ever means the day before the
Passover meal. The word translated 'day of preparation' () is
the common word for 'Friday'. It is always the preparation day for the
Sabbath (which is Saturday). The word translated 'Passover' ()
can mean either the Passover meal, Passover lamb or the entire feast of
Unleavened Bread, otherwise known as Passover week. Hence John
19:14 should be understood as 'preparation day of Passover week'.[145]
Hour of death
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A Roman era sundial, at a

museum in Turkey
The estimation of the hour of death of Jesus

based on the New Testament accounts has
been the subject of debate among scholars.
[146][147]
Mark's passion narrative has three
hour segments: in the early part Jesus is
before Pilate, the Crucifixion takes place at
the third hour (9am) in Mark 15:25,
darkness appears at the six hour (noon)
and Jesus' death at the ninth hour
(3pm).[148] However, in John 19:14 Jesus is
still before Pilate at the sixth hour.[146]
Some scholars have presented arguments to reconcile the accounts,[146]

although Raymond E. Brown, reviewing these, concluded that they can
not be easily reconciled.[147] Some have argued that the modern
precision of marking the time of day should not be read back into the
gospel accounts, written at a time when no standardization of timepieces,
or exact recording of hours and minutes was available.[146][149] Andreas
Kstenberger argues that in the first century time was often estimated to
the closest three-hour mark, and any time between 9am and noon could
have been described as about the third or the sixth hour, and that the
intention of the author of the Mark Gospel was to provide the setting for
the three hours of darkness while the Gospel of John seeks to stress the
length of the proceedings, starting in the 'early morning'"[150]
In 1881, Brooke Foss Westcott suggested that the two accounts could be
reconciled by assuming that John had followed the Roman practice of
calculating the new day beginning at midnight, rather than the Jewish
reckoning, although he admitted this would have been unusual at the
time.[151] In New Testament times, Jews regarded the day as beginning
at sunset when precision was required, but otherwise, for practical
purposes, at sunrise. The Evangelist John, writing primarily to Gentiles, it
is suggested, chose the Roman legal use of time of reckoning, of
counting the new day from midnight. Some scholars have postulated that
the Roman reckoning was used by John, and that this is the reason for
the apparent discrepancy with the other Gospel writers. Leon Morris,
however, points out that this Roman practice was used only for dating
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contracts and leases, and days were normally counted from sunrise: "It is
difficult to understand why this Evangelist alone should have such an
unusual method of reckoning time".[152][153] William Barclay has argued
that the portrayal of the death of Jesus in the John Gospel is a literary
construct, presenting the crucifixion as taking place at the time on the
day of Passover when the sacrificial lamb would be killed, and thus
portraying Jesus as the Lamb of God.[154]
Other approaches
A wide range of approaches to the chronology of Jesus have been
suggested over the centuries, but have little support among modern
scholars, e.g. Maximus the Confessor, Eusebius, and Cassiodorus
recorded the death of Jesus in 31 AD. The 3rd/4th century Roman
historian Lactantius states that Jesus was crucified on a particular day in
29 AD, but that did not correspond to a full moon.[155]
Some commentators have attempted to establish the date of birth by
identifying the Star of Bethlehem with some known astronomical or
astrological phenomenon.[156] There are many possible phenomena and
none seems to match the Gospel account.[157] Many scholars regard the
star as a literary invention of the author of the Gospel of Matthew, to
claim fulfillment of an Old Testament prophecy (Numbers 24:17).[158]
See also
Christ myth theory
Detailed Christian timeline
Gospel harmony
Historical Jesus
Life of Christ in art
Life of Jesus in the New Testament
Timeline of the Bible
References
1. ^ a b c Encyclopedia of theology: a
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concise Sacramentum mundi by

Karl Rahner 2004 ISBN
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7.
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^ a b c Interpreting Gospel
Narratives: Scenes, People, and
Theology by Timothy Wiarda 2010
ISBN 0-8054-4843-8 pages 75-78
^ a b Brown, Raymond E. (1994).
The Death of the Messiah: from
Gethsemane to the Grave: A
Commentary on the Passion
Narratives in the Four Gospels.
New York: Doubleday, Anchor
Bible Reference Library. p. 964.
ISBN 978-0-385-19397-9.
^ Paula Fredriksen, 1999, Jesus
of Nazareth, King of the Jews,
Alfred A. Knopf Publishers,
pages=67, 10510, 23234, 266
^ a b c Dunn, James DG (2003).
Jesus Remembered. Eerdmans
Publishing. p. 324.
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Eerdmans
Dictionary of the Bible 2000
Amsterdam University Press ISBN
90-5356-503-5 page 249
^ a b c d e The Bible Knowledge
Background Commentary:
Matthew-Luke, Volume 1 by Craig
A. Evans 2003 ISBN
0-7814-3868-3 pages 67-69
^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Paul L.
Maier "The Date of the Nativity
and Chronology of Jesus" in
Chronos, kairos, Christos: nativity
and chronological studies by Jerry
Vardaman, Edwin M. Yamauchi
1989 ISBN 0-931464-50-1 pages
113-129
9. ^ a b c d e Craig Evans, 2006

"Josephus on John the Baptist" in
The Historical Jesus in Context
edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al.
Princeton Univ Press ISBN
978-0-691-00992-6 pages 55-58
[1] (http://books.google.com
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10. ^ a b c d e f Herodias: at home in
that fox's den by Florence Morgan
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0-8146-5108-9 pages 25-30 [2]
(http://books.google.com
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pg=PA26&
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11. ^ a b c d e International Standard

Bible Encyclopedia: E-J by
Geoffrey W. Bromiley 1982 ISBN
0-8028-3782-4 pages 694-695 [3]
/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&
pg=PA695&
dq=herodias+john+baptist&
hl=en&ei=PJacToTRNKL4gThwKGkCQ&
resnum=1&
ved=0CC0Q6AEwAA#v=onepage
&q=herodias%20john%20baptist&
f=false)
12. ^ a b c The Riddles of the Fourth
Gospel: An Introduction to John
by Paul N. Anderson 2011 ISBN
0-8006-0427-X pages 200
13. ^ a b c d e f Herod the Great by
Jerry Knoblet 2005 ISBN
0-7618-3087-1 page 183-184
14. ^ a b Funk, Robert W.; Jesus
Seminar (1998). The acts of
Jesus: the search for the authentic
deeds of Jesus. San Francisco:
Harper.
15. ^ a b The Word in this world by
Paul William Meyer, John T.
Carroll 2004 ISBN 0-664-22701-5
page 112
16. ^ a b c d e f g h i Jesus & the Rise
of Early Christianity: A History of
New Testament Times by Paul
Barnett 2002 ISBN 0-8308-2699-8
pages 19-21
17. ^ a b c d e The Cradle, the Cross,
and the Crown: An Introduction to
the New Testament by Andreas J.
Kstenberger, L. Scott Kellum
2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3
pages 77-79
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18. ^ a b c d Paul's early period:

chronology, mission strategy,
theology by Rainer Riesner 1997
ISBN 978-0-8028-4166-7 page
19-27 (page 27 has a table of
various scholarly estimates)
19. ^ a b c d e f g The Cradle, the
Cross, and the Crown: An
Introduction to the New Testament
by Andreas J. Kstenberger, L.
Scott Kellum 2009 ISBN
978-0-8054-4365-3 page 114
20. ^ a b Sanders (1993). pp. 11, 249.
Missing or empty |title= (help)
21. ^ Matthew by David L. Turner
2008 ISBN 0-8010-2684-9 page
613
22. ^ a b Jesus in history, thought, and
culture: an encyclopedia, Volume
1 by James Leslie Houlden 2003
ISBN 1-57607-856-6 pages
508-509 [4]
/books?id=17kzgBusXZIC&
pg=PA508&
dq=baptist+josephus+antipas+jes
us&hl=en&
ei=5kmbTvPYB9TP4QSuzIDjAg&
resnum=5&sqi=2&
ved=0CEAQ6AEwBA#v=onepage
&
q=baptist%20herodias%20joseph
us%20antipas%20jesus&f=false)
23. ^ Sanders, EP (1995). The
Historical Figure of Jesus.
London: Penguin Books. p. 3.
24. ^ Jesus and the Gospels: An
Introduction and Survey by Craig
L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN
0-8054-4482-3 pages 431-436
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25. ^ In a 2011 review of the state of

modern scholarship, Bart Ehrman
wrote: "He certainly existed, as
virtually every competent scholar
of antiquity, Christian or
non-Christian, agrees" B. Ehrman,
2011 Forged : writing in the name
of God ISBN 978-0-06-207863-6.
page 285
26. ^ Ramm, Bernard L (1993). An
Evangelical Christology:
Ecumenic and Historic. Regent
College Publishing. p. 19. "There
is almost universal agreement that
Jesus lived"
27. ^ Borg, Marcus (1999). "A Vision
of the Christian Life". The
Meaning of Jesus: Two Visions.
HarperCollins. p. 236. "some
judgements are so probable as to
be certain; for example, Jesus
really existed"
28. ^ Christology: A Biblical,
Historical, and Systematic Study
of Jesus by Gerald O'Collins 2009
ISBN 0-19-955787-X pages 1-3
29. ^ Jesus as a Figure in History:
How Modern Historians View the
Man from Galilee by Mark Allan
Powell 1998 ISBN 0-664-25703-8
pages 168-173
30. ^ a b c d Pratt, J. P. (1991).
"Newton's Date for the
Crucifixion". Journal of the Royal
Astronomical Society 32 (3):
301304.
Bibcode:1991QJRAS..32..301P
(http://adsabs.harvard.edu
/abs/1991QJRAS..32..301P). [5]
/full/1991QJRAS..32..301P)
31. ^ a b c Colin Humphreys, The
Mystery of the Last Supper
Cambridge University Press 2011
ISBN 978-0-521-73200-0, pages
45-48
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32. ^ a b c Newton, Isaac (1733). "Of

the Times of the Birth and Passion
of Christ", in Observations upon
the Prophecies of Daniel and the
Apocalypse of St. John: "Thus
there remain only the years 33
and 34 to be considered; and the
year 33 I exclude by this
argument... "
33. ^ Rainer Riesner, Paul's Early
Period: Chronology, Mission
Strategy, Theology (Wm. B.
Eerdmans Publishing, 1998),
page 58.
34. ^ Josef Blinzler, Der Prozess Jesu
(Pustet, 1960) cited in Colin J.
Humphreys, The Mystery of the
Last Supper: Reconstructing the
Final Days of Jesus (Cambridge
University Press, 2011) page 14.
35. ^ Maier, P.L. (1968). "Sejanus,
Pilate, and the Date of the
Crucifixion". Church History 37
(1): 313. JSTOR 3163182
(//www.jstor.org/stable/3163182).
36. ^ a b c New Testament History by
Richard L. Niswonger 1992 ISBN
0-310-31201-9 pages 121-124
37. ^ Marcus Borg, 'The Meaning of
the Birth Stories' in Marcus Borg,
N T Wright, The Meaning of
Jesus: Two Visions (Harper One,
1999) page 179: "I (and most
mainline scholars) do not see
these stories as historically
factual."
38. ^ a b c d Encyclopedia of theology:
a concise Sacramentum mundi by
Karl Rahner 2004 ISBN
0-86012-006-6 page 731
39. ^ Edwards, Ormond. "Herodian
Chronology," Palestine
Exploration Quarterly 114 (1982)
2942
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40. ^ Filmer, W. E. "Chronology of the

Reign of Herod the Great,"
Journal of Theological Studies ns
17 (1966), 283298.
41. ^ Keresztes, Paul. Imperial Rome
and the Christians: From Herod
the Great to About 200 AD
(Lanham, Maryland: University
Press of America, 1989), pp.143.
42. ^ Vardaman, Jerry; Yamauchi,
Edwin M., eds. (1989). "The
Nativity and Herod's Death".
Chronos, Kairos, Christos: Nativity
and Chronological Studies
Presented to Jack Finegan
(Winona Lake, Indiana:
Eisenbrauns): 8592.
43. ^ Finegan, Jack.Handbook of
Biblical Chronology
(http://www.ingentaconnect.com
/content/brill/not/2009/00000051
/00000001/art00001), Rev. ed.
(Peabody, MA: Hendrickson,
1998) 300, 516.
44. ^ Freed, Edwin D (2004). Stories
of Jesus' Birth. Continuum
International. p. 119.
45. ^ Miller, Glen M. (June 2013). "On
an objection about Luke,
Quirinius, and Herods"
(http://christianthinktank.com
/quirinius.html). Retrieved March
2, 2014.
46. ^ Archer, Gleason Leonard (April
1982). Encyclopedia of Bible
Difficulties. Grand Rapids, Mich.:
Zondervan Pub. House. p. 366.
ISBN 0-310-43570-6.
47. ^ Frederick Fyvie Bruce, The New
Testament Documents: Are They
Reliable? (1943; republished
Eerdman, 2003), page 87-88.
48. ^ Steven L. Cox, Kendell H
Easley, 2007 Harmony of the
Gospels ISBN 0-8054-9444-8
pages 289-290
21 von 28
49. ^ Nikos Kokkinos, 1998, in

Chronos, kairos, Christos 2 by
Ray Summers, Jerry Vardaman
ISBN 0-86554-582-0 pages
121-126
50. ^ C.F. Evans, Tertullian's
reference to Sentius Saturninus
and the Lukan Census in the
Journal of Theological Studies
(1973) XXIV(1): 24-39
51. ^ Some of the historians and
Biblical scholars who place the
birth and death of Jesus within
this range include D. A. Carson,
Douglas J. Moo and Leon Morris.
An Introduction to the New
Testament. Grand Rapids, MI:
Zondervan Publishing House,
1992, 54, 56
52. ^ Michael Grant, Jesus: An
Historian's Review of the Gospels,
Scribner's, 1977, p. 71.
53. ^ Ben Witherington III, "Primary
Sources," Christian History 17
(1998) No. 3:1220.
54. ^ a b c Christianity and the Roman
Empire: background texts by
Ralph Martin Novak 2001 ISBN
1-56338-347-0 pages 302-303
55. ^ a b Hoehner, Harold W (1978).
Chronological Aspects of the Life
of Christ (http://books.google.com
/?id=6z-NcR7fVSIC&
dq=CHronological+Aspects+of+th
e+Life+of+Christ). Zondervan.
pp. 2937. ISBN 0-310-26211-9.
56. ^ Jack V. Scarola, "A Chronology
of the nativity Era" in Chronos,
kairos, Christos 2 by Ray
Summers, Jerry Vardaman 1998
ISBN 0-86554-582-0 pages 61-81
57. ^ a b Luke 1-5: New Testament
Commentary by John MacArthur
2009 ISBN 0-8024-0871-0 page
201
19.03.14 03:30
58. ^ a b c d The Cradle, the Cross,

and the Crown: An Introduction to
the New Testament by Andreas J.
2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3
pages 140-141
59. ^ Jesus and the Gospels: An
Introduction and Survey by Craig
L. Blomberg 2009 ISBN
0-8054-4482-3 page 224-229
60. ^ Christianity: an introduction by
Alister E. McGrath 2006 ISBN
978-1-4051-0901-7 pages 16-22
61. ^ Who is Jesus?: an introduction
to Christology by Thomas P.
Rausch 2003 ISBN
978-0-8146-5078-3 page
62. ^ a b The building program of
Herod the Great by Duane W.
Roller 1998 University of
California Press ISBN
0-520-20934-6 pages 67-71 [6]
/books?id=2ZsB1yQOmyEC&
pg=PA258&
dq=herod+temple+construction&
hl=en&
ei=DredTu3cIqT64QSitp2nCQ&
resnum=4&
ved=0CD8Q6AEwAzge#v=onepa
ge&q=temple%20construction&
f=false)
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63. ^ a b The Temple of Jerusalem:

past, present, and future by John
M. Lundquist 2007 ISBN
0-275-98339-0 pages101-103 [7]
/books?id=R9VeCEwbNvsC&
pg=PA102&
dq=%22john+2:20%22+temple&
hl=en&ei=kpydTvvXBqK4gSg2NHPCQ&
resnum=10&
ved=0CFYQ6AEwCTgU#v=onepa
ge&q=%22john%202%3A20
%22%20temple&f=false)
64. ^ The biblical engineer: how the
temple in Jerusalem was built by
Max Schwartz 2002 ISBN
0-88125-710-9 pages xixx-xx
65. ^ Encyclopedia of the historical
Jesus by Craig A. Evans 2008
ISBN 0-415-97569-7 page 115
66. ^ Jesus in Johannine tradition by
Robert Tomson Fortna, Tom
Thatcher 2001 ISBN
978-0-664-22219-2 page 77
67. ^ Ant 18.5.2-4
68. ^ The new complete works of
Josephus by Flavius Josephus,
William Whiston, Paul L. Maier
ISBN 0-8254-2924-2 pages
662-663
69. ^ Women in scripture by Carol
Meyers, Toni Craven and Ross
Shepard Kraemer 2001 ISBN
0-8028-4962-8 pages 92-93 [8]
/books?id=MFbHT73BxpAC&
pg=PA93&dq=herodias+herod&
hl=en&
ei=FJmcToy0M4abOtTmzIYJ&
resnum=2&
ved=0CDEQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage
&q=herodias%20herod&f=false)
19.03.14 03:30
70. ^ Herod Antipas in Galilee: The

Literary and Archaeological
Sources by Morten H. Jensen
2010 ISBN 978-3-16-150362-7
pages 42-43 [9]
/books?id=I7fAyl2aGgC&pg=PA43&
dq=herodias+herod&hl=en&
ei=FJmcToy0M4abOtTmzIYJ&
resnum=3&
ved=0CDgQ6AEwAg#v=onepage
&q=herodias%20herod&f=false)
71. ^ a b The Emergence of
Christianity: Classical Traditions in
Contemporary Perspective by
Cynthia White 2010 ISBN
0-8006-9747-2 page 48
72. ^ ''Herod Antipas'' by Harold W.
Hoehner'' 1983 ISBN
0-310-42251-5 page 131
/books?id=oO0upEG0g7kC&
pg=PA131&
dq=herodias+herod+antipas&
hl=en&
ei=fECbTq31JvDc4QT8ubiZBA&
resnum=1&
&
q=herodias%20herod%20antipas
&f=false). Books.google.com.
1983-01-28. Retrieved
2012-07-18.
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73. ^ The relationship between John

the Baptist and Jesus of Nazareth
by Daniel S. Dapaah 2005 ISBN
0-7618-3109-6 page 48 [10]
/books?id=S0P18O3fGR4C&
pg=PA48&
dq=baptist+josephus+antipas+jes
us&hl=en&
ei=5kmbTvPYB9TP4QSuzIDjAg&
resnum=1&sqi=2&
&
q=baptist%20josephus%20antipas
%20jesus&f=false)
74. ^ a b Herod Antipas by Harold W.
Hoehner 1983 ISBN
0-310-42251-5 pages 125-127
75. ^ International Standard Bible
Encyclopedia: A-D by Geoffrey W.
Bromiley 1995 ISBN
0-8028-3781-6 pages 686-687
76. ^ Bromiley, Geoffrey W. (1995),
International Standard Bible
Encyclopedia. Wm. B. Eerdmans
Publishing. vol. K-P. p. 929.
77. ^ Matthew 27:27-61, Mark
15:1-47, Luke 23:25-54 and John
19:1-38
78. ^ a b Theissen 1998, pp. 81-83
79. ^ The Cradle, the Cross, and the
Crown: An Introduction to the New
Testament by Andreas J.
2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3
page 104-108
80. ^ Evans, Craig A. (2001). Jesus
and His Contemporaries:
Comparative Studies ISBN
0-391-04118-5 page 316
81. ^ Wansbrough, Henry (2004).
Jesus and the oral Gospel
tradition ISBN 0-567-04090-9
page 185
19.03.14 03:30
82. ^ James Dunn states that there is

"broad consensus" among
scholars regarding the nature of
an authentic reference to the
crucifixion of Jesus in the
Testimonium.Dunn, James (2003).
Jesus remembered ISBN
0-8028-3931-2 page 141
83. ^ Skeptic Wells also states that
after Shlomo Pines' discovery of
new documents in the 1970s
scholarly agreement on the
authenticity of the nucleus of the
Tetimonium was achieved, The
Jesus Legend by G. A. Wells 1996
ISBN 0812693345 page 48: "...
that Josephus made some
reference to Jesus, which has
been retouched by a Christian
hand. This is the view argued by
Meier as by most scholars today
particularly since S. Pines..."
Josephus scholar Louis H.
Feldman views the reference in
the Testimonium as the first
reference to Jesus and the
reference to Jesus in the death of
James passage in Book 20,
Chapter 9, 1 of the Antiquities as
"the aforementioned Christ", thus
relating the two
passages.Feldman, Louis H.;
Hata, Ghei, eds. (1987).
Josephus, Judaism and
Christianity ISBN
978-90-04-08554-1 page 55
84. ^ a b Van Voorst, Robert E (2000).
Jesus Outside the New
Testament: An Introduction to the
Ancient Evidence Eerdmans
Publishing ISBN 0-8028-4368-9
pages 39-42
85. ^ Backgrounds of early
Christianity by Everett Ferguson
2003 ISBN 0-8028-2221-5 page
116
24 von 28
86. ^ a b Green, Joel B. (1997). The

Gospel of Luke : new international
commentary on the New
Testament
/?id=koYlW6IoOjMC&pg=PR85&
dq=Joel+B.+Green,+The+Gospel
+of+Luke,+
(Eerdmans,+1997),+page+168).
Grand Rapids, Mich.: W.B.
Eerdmans Pub. Co. p. 168.
ISBN 0-8028-2315-7.
87. ^ Jesus and His Contemporaries:
Comparative Studies by Craig A.
Evans 2001 ISBN 0-391-04118-5
page 42
88. ^ Mercer dictionary of the Bible by
Watson E. Mills, Roger Aubrey
Bullard 2001 ISBN 0-86554-373-9
page 343
89. ^ Pontius Pilate in History and
Interpretation by Helen K. Bond
2004 ISBN 0-521-61620-4 page xi
90. ^ Pontius Pilate: portraits of a
Roman governor by Warren
Carter 2003 ISBN 0-8146-5113-5
pages 44-45
91. ^ The history of the Jews in the
Greco-Roman world by Peter
Schfer 2003 ISBN
0-415-30585-3 page 108
92. ^ Backgrounds of early
Christianity by Everett Ferguson
2003 ISBN 0-8028-2221-5 page
416
93. ^ a b New Testament History by
0-310-31201-9 page 172
94. ^ a b Pontius Pilate: portraits of a
Roman governor by Warren
Carter 2003 ISBN
978-0-8146-5113-1 pages
120-121
19.03.14 03:30
95. ^ The Synoptics: Matthew, Mark,

Luke by Jn Majernk, Joseph
Ponessa 2005 ISBN
1-931018-31-6 page 181
96. ^ The Gospel according to Luke
by Michael Patella 2005 ISBN
0-8146-2862-1 page 16
97. ^ Luke: The Gospel of
Amazement by Michael Card 2011
ISBN 978-0-8308-3835-6 page
251
98. ^ "Bible Study Workshop - Lesson
228"
(http://www.biblestudyworkshop.c
om/data/Lesson228.pdf) (PDF).
Retrieved 2012-07-18.
99. ^ Herod Antipas by Harold W.
Hoehner 1983 ISBN
0-310-42251-5 page 262
100. ^ All the people in the Bible by
Richard R. Losch 2008 ISBN
0-8028-2454-4 page 159
101. ^ The Content and the Setting of
the Gospel Tradition by Mark
Harding, Alanna Nobbs 2010
ISBN 0-8028-3318-7 pages 88-89
102. ^ The Emergence of Christianity
by Cynthia White 2010 ISBN
0-8006-9747-2 page 11
103. ^ a b The Cambridge Companion
to St Paul by James D. G. Dunn
(Nov 10, 2003) Cambridge Univ
Press ISBN 0521786940 page 20
104. ^ a b c d Paul: his letters and his
theology by Stanley B. Marrow
1986 ISBN 0-8091-2744-X pages
45-49
105. ^ Bromiley, Geoffrey William
(1979). International Standard
Bible Encyclopedia: A-D Wm. B.
Eerdmans Publishing Company.
pp. 689. ISBN 0-8028-3781-6.
106. ^ Paul and His Letters by John B.
Polhill 1999 ISBN 0-8054-1097-X
pages 49-50
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107. ^ The Blackwell Companion to

Natural Theology by William Lane
Craig, James Porter Moreland
2009 ISBN 1-4051-7657-1 page
616
108. ^ a b c Christianity and the Roman
Empire: background texts by
Ralph Martin Novak 2001 ISBN
1-56338-347-0 pages 18-22
109. ^ The Greco-Roman world of the
New Testament era by James S.
Jeffers 1999 ISBN 0-8308-1589-9
pages 164-165
110. ^ The Bible Knowledge
Background Commentary:
Acts-Philemon by Craig A. Evans
2004 ISBN 0-7814-4006-8 page
248
111. ^ The Bible Knowledge
Commentary: New Testament
edition by John F. Walvoord, Roy
B. Zuck 1983 ISBN
0-88207-812-7 page 405
112. ^ Eerdmans Dictionary of the
Bible Amsterdam University
Press, 2000 ISBN 90-5356-503-5
page 1019
113. ^ C. Philipp E. Nothaft, Dating the
Passion: The Life of Jesus and
the Emergence of Scientific
Chronology (2001600) page 25.
114. ^ E. P. Sanders, The Historical
Figure of Jesus (Penguin, 1993)
285-286.
115. ^ "The Date of the Crucifixion"
(http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF
/1985/JASA3-85Humphreys.html),
Colin Humphreys and W. Graeme
Waddington, March 1985.
American Scientific Affiliation
website. Retrieved 17 January
2014.
19.03.14 03:30
116. ^ holtz.org (http://holtz.org/Library

/Social%20Science/History
/Metals%20Age
/Dating%20Jesus%20Death%20b
y%20Lunar%20Eclipse.htm) "Can
you date the crucifixion of Jesus
Christ using astronomy?"
Retrieved 17 January 2014.
117. ^ Colin Humphreys, The Mystery
of the Last Supper Cambridge
University Press 2011 ISBN
978-0-521-73200-0, page 37
118. ^ Staff Reporter (18 April 2011).
"Last Supper was on Wednesday,
not Thursday, challenges
Cambridge professor Colin
Humphreys."
(http://www.ibtimes.com/articles
/135477/20110418/colinhumphreys-last-supper-challengebiblical-calendar-jewish-calendarfinal-days-of-jesus-good-fri.htm).
International Business Times.
Retrieved 18 April 2011.
119. ^ [11]
(http://www.newtonproject.sussex.
ac.uk/view/texts/normalized
/THEM00205)
120. ^ Pratt refers to S. Zeitlin's 1966
work "The Judean Calendar
during the Second
Commonwealth and the Scrolls,"
Jewish Quar. Rev 57, 28-45
regarding the use of the
postponement rule.
121. ^ Fotheringham, J.K., 1910. "On
the smallest visible phase of the
moon," Monthly Notices of the
Royal Astronomical Society 70,
527-531.
122. ^ Fotheringham, J.K. 1910
"Astronomical Evidence for the
Date of the Crucifixion," Journal of
Theological Studies 12, 120-127.
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123. ^ Fotheringham, J.K. 1934. "The

Evidence of Astronomy and
Technical Chronology for the Date
of the Crucifixion," Journal of
Theological Studies 35, 146-162.
124. ^ Schaefer, B. E. (1990). "Lunar
Visibility and the Crucifixion".
Journal of the Royal Astronomical
Society 31 (1): 5367.
Bibcode:1990QJRAS..31...53S
/abs/1990QJRAS..31...53S).
125. ^ Sanders, E. P. The historical
figure of Jesus. Penguin, 1993
pages 85-88
126. ^ "New Testament History" by
0-310-31201-9 pp. 121-124
127. ^ Luke: an introduction and
commentary by Leon Morris 1988
ISBN 0-8028-0419-5 page 93
128. ^ Stories of Jesus' Birth by Edwin
D. Freed 2004 ISBN
0-567-08046-3 pages 136-137
129. ^ An introductory dictionary of
theology and religious studies by
Orlando O. Espn, James B.
Nickoloff 2007 ISBN
0-8146-5856-3 page 237
130. ^ Christian worship in Reformed
Churches past and present by
Lukas Vischer 2002 ISBN
0-8028-0520-5 pages 400-401
131. ^ Mercer Dictionary of the Bible by
Watson E. Mills, Edgar V.
McKnight and Roger A. Bullard
2001 ISBN 0-86554-373-9 page
142
132. ^ Beckwith, p. 72
133. ^ Lev 23:5-6
(http://tools.wmflabs.org
/bibleversefinder/?book=Lev&
verse=23:5-6&src=he)
134. ^ [Jn. 18:28]
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135. ^ Paul Barnett, Jesus & the Rise

of Early Christianity: A History of
New Testament Times, page 21
(InterVarsity Press, 1999). ISBN
978-0-8308-2699-5
136. ^ Philo. "De Specialibus Legibus
2.145"
(http://www.earlyjewishwritings.co
m/text/philo/book28.html).
137. ^ Josephus. The War of the Jews
6.9.3
138. ^ Mishnah, Pesahim 5.1.
139. ^ The Complete Gospels, Robert
J. Miller, ed., 1992, page 241,
commentary on verse 19:31
140. ^ Matthew 26:17-19;
Mark 14:12-16; Luke 22:7-8
141. ^ Stroes, H. R. (October 1966).
"Does the Day Begin in the
Evening or Morning? Some
Biblical Observations". Vetus
Testamentum (BRILL) 16 (4):
460475. doi:10.2307/1516711
(http://dx.doi.org
/10.2307%2F1516711).
JSTOR 1516711 (//www.jstor.org
/stable/1516711).
142. ^ Ross, Allen. "Daily Life In The
Time Of Jesus"
(http://www.bible.org
/page.php?page_id=3953).
143. ^ Hoehner, Harold (1977).
Chronological Aspects of the Life
of Christ. Grand Rapids:
Zondervan.
144. ^ Heawood, Percy J. (July 1951).
"The Time of the Last Supper".
The Jewish Quarterly Review,
New Series (University of
Pennsylvania Press) 42 (1):
3744. JSTOR 1452717
(//www.jstor.org/stable/1452717).
145. ^ The Gospel According to John
by D.A. Carson 1991 ISBN
0-85111-749-X page 604
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146. ^ a b c d Steven L. Cox, Kendell H

Easley, 2007 Harmony of the
Gospels ISBN 0-8054-9444-8
pages 323-323
147. ^ a b Death of the Messiah,
Volume 2 by Raymond E. Brown
1999 ISBN 0-385-49449-1 pages
959-960
148. ^ The Gospel of Mark, Volume 2
by John R. Donahue, Daniel J.
Harrington 2002 ISBN
0-8146-5965-9 page 442
149. ^ New Testament History by
0-310-31201-9 pages 173-174
150. ^ The Cradle, the Cross, and the
Crown: An Introduction to the New
Testament by Andreas J.
2009 ISBN 978-0-8054-4365-3
page 538
151. ^ Brooke Foss Westcott, The
Gospel according to St. John : the
authorised version with
introduction and notes (1881,
page 282).
152. ^ Hunt, Michal - The Passover
Feast and Christ's Passion
(http://www.agapebiblestudy.com
/documents
/The%20Passover%20Feast%20a
nd%20the%20Week%20of%20Ch
rist%27s%20Passon.htm) Copyright 1991, revised 2007 Agape Bible Study. Retrieved 17
January 2014.
153. ^ Leon Morris - The New
International Commentary on the
New Testament - The Gospel
According to John (Revised) William B. Eerdmans Publishing
Company, Grand Rapids,
Michigan/Cambridge, U.K. - 1995,
pages 138 and 708.
19.03.14 03:30
154. ^ William Barclay (2001). The

Gospel of John
/books?id=GTjS1ADrbMkC&
pg=PA340). Westminster John
Knox Press. p. 340.
ISBN 978-1-61164-015-1.
155. ^ Lactantius, Of the Manner In
Which the Persecutors Died 2: "In
the latter days of the Emperor
Tiberius, in the consulship of
Ruberius (sic) Geminus and
Fufius Geminus, and on the tenth
of the kalends of April, as I find it
written".
156. ^ For example, astronomer

Michael Molnar identified April 17,
6 BC as the likely date of the
Nativity, since that date
corresponded to the heliacal rising
and lunar occultation of Jupiter,
while it was momentarily
stationary in the sign of Aries;
according to Molnar, to
knowledgeable astrologers of this
time, this highly unusual
combination of events would have
indicated that a regal personage
would be (or had been) born in
Judea. Michael R. Molnar, "The
Star of Bethlehem: The Legacy of
the Magi," Rutgers University
Press, 1999.
157. ^ Raymond E. Brown, 101
Questions and Answers on the
Bible, Paulist Press (2003), page
79.
158. ^ Joseph J. Walsh, Were They
Wise Men or Kings?, Westminster
John Knox Press, (2001), p. 40
External links
Catholic Encyclopedia (1910): Chronology of the Life of Jesus Christ
(http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08377a.htm)
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/w/index.php?title=Chronology_of_Jesus&oldid=598374159"
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