38

ELEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS

c, = c,(T), because the contribution to c, from the vibrational modes

depends on the temperature.
(3) At still higher temperature, Z Z 1 and h = h(p, T) because of dissociation and ionization, i.e., because of processes that change the number
of particles.
(4) A gas is both thermally and calorically perfect if T, << T << 0,
and p << p,.
(5) For monatomic gases the effects due to vibrational modes and dissociation are absent.

C H A P T E R 2

One-Dimensional Gasdynamics

2.1

Introduction

We shall begin our study of the motion of compressible fluids with the
case of one-dimensional $ow. This definition applies to flow in a channel or
tube, such as that illustrated in Fig. 2.1, which may be described by specifying the variation of the cross-sectional area along its axis, A = A(x), and
in which the flow properties are uniform over each cross-section, that is,
p = p(x), p = p(x), etc. Similarly,
the velocity u, which is normal to
the cross-section, should be uniform
over each section, u = u ( x ) . These
quantities may also be functions of
time t, if the flow is nonstationary, or
FIG.2.1 One-dimensional flow in a stream
nonsteady.
tube.
These conditions are not as restrictive as they may appear. For instance, if there are sections over which the
flow conditions are not uniform it is still possible to apply the results between sections where they are uniform, that is, one-dimensional. Even at
nonuniform sections the results may often be applied to suitable mean
values.
Furthermore, the one-dimensional results are applicable to the individual
stream tubes of a general, three-dimensional flow, x being the coordinate
along the stream tube.? We shall see in Chapter 7 what additional relations
are needed for this application.
For an incompressible fluid, practically all the information about a onedimensional flow is contained in the kinematic relation, "u is inversely
proportional to A"; the pressure is obtained from the (independent)
Bernoulli equation. In compressible flow, on the other hand, the variation
of the density makes the continuity and momentum equations interdependent, and the relation between velocity and area is then not SO simple.
tIn Chapter 7 we uses for the streamline coordinate, but x appears to he more convenient
here.
39

2.12

ONE-DIMENSIONAL GASDYNAMZCS

ELEMENTS OF GASDYNAMICS

56

Flow at Constant Area

Consider adiabatic, constant-area flow (Fig. 2 . 9 ~ through

)
a nonequilibrium region (shown shaded). If sections 1 and 2 are outside this region,
then the equations of continuity, momentum, and energy are
/xu1 = ~

p1
hl

+ plu12 = +
p2

+ $u12 = h2 +

(2.41~)

(2.41b)

(2.416)

The solution of these gives the relations that must exist between the flow
parameters a t the two sections; it will be worked out presently.

7miajJfb
0'

(a)

(b)

(c)

FIG. 2.9 Illustrating a change of equilibrium conditions in constant area flow. (a) Uniform conditions on either side of a region of nonuniformity or dissipation; ( b ) normal
shock wave; (c) shock wave normal to flow on st:eamline a-b.

There is no restriction on the size or details of the dissipation region so

long as the reference sections are outside it. I n particular, it may be idealized by the vanishingly thin region, shown in Fig. 2.9b, across which the
flow parameters are said to "jump." The control sections 1 and 2 may then
be brought arbitrarily close to it. Such a discontinuity is called a shock
wave.t Of course, a real fluid cannot have an actual discontinuity, and this
is only an idealization of the very high gradients that actually occur in a
shock wave, in the transition from state 1 to 2. These severe gradients
produce viscous stress and heat transfer, i.e., nonequilibrium conditions,
inside the shock.
The mechanism of shock-wave formation, as well as some details of conditions inside the dissipation region, will be discussed later. For application
to most aerodynamic problems, it is sufficient to calculate the jumps in the
equilibrium values, and to represent the shock as a discontinuity. Since
the reference sections may be brought arbitrarily near to the shock, the
device of a constant area duct is no longer needed, that is, the results always
?In this book a shock wave will always be represented by a double line, as in Fig. 2.9b
and c. No implication about its structure is intended. On shadowgraphs (e.g., Fig. 2.10b)
a shock wave appears as a dark line followed by a bright line, for reasons explained in
Article 6.13.

57

apply locally to conditions on either side of a shock, provided it is normal

to the streamline (Fig. 2.9~).
Of course, the shock relations may be applied to equilibrium sections of
real constant-area ducts, such as the one shown in Fig. 2.9a, but it is necessary that the friction forces on the walls be negligible, since there are no
friction terms in the momentum equation. An example is the constant-area
supersonic diffuser, in which an adverse pressure gradient reduces the wall
friction to negligible values. The diffusion occurs through a complicated,
three-dimensional process involving interactions between shock waves and
boundary layer. For equilibrium to be attained the diffuser must be long, in
curious contrast to the normal shock, for which equilibrium is reached in a
very short distance.
Figure 2 . 1 0 ~shows an example of compression in a constant-area duct;
Fig. 2.10b shows, in contrast, an example of a normal shock wave.

2-13 The Normal Shock Relations for a Perfect Gas

Equations 2.41 are the general equations for a normal shock wave. I t
will usually be necessary to solve them numerically (see Exercise 3.6).
However, for a gas that is thermally and calorically perfect it is possible
to obtain explicit solutions in terms of the Mach number M1 ahead of
the shock.
Dividing the two sides of the momentum equation (2.41b), respectively,
by plul and p2u2, which are equal from the continuity equation, gives
U 1 - U 2 = - - p2
- = - - - PI

p2u2

plul

az2
yu2

a12
YUI

Here the perfect gas relation a2 = yplp has been used. Then a12 and
a22 may be replaced by using the energy equation for a perfect gas,
u12

a12

uz2

az2

-+-=-+---2

7-1

7-1

1Y

+1

a,2

27-1

After some rearrangement there is obtained the simple relation

ulu2

b(2.42)

This is known as the Prandtl or Meyer relation.

In terms of the speed ratio M* = ula*, this equation is
M*2

l/M*l

(2.43)

Now M* $ 1 corresponds to M $ 1, and thus the Prandtl relation shows

that the velocity change across a normal shock must be from supersonic to
subsonic, or vice versa. I t will be shown later that only the former is

SMALL-PERTURBATION THEORY

Small-Perturbation
Theory
8.1 Introduction
I n a great number of aerodynamic problems one is interested in the
perturbation of a known fluid motion. The most common and obvious
case is that of a uniform, steady flow (Fig. 8.1). Let U denote the uniform
velocity, and choose a coordinate system in which U is parallel to the

The object of this chapter is to study the case for which these perturbation velocities are small compared with the mean velocity U . We shall
assume that

and shall simplify the equations of motion by neglecting small terms in the
perturbation velocities. In this way we shall be able to arrive a t equations
which, though not always linear, are still much simpler than the full equations, and which form the basis for by far the largest part of airfoil theory,
wing theory, flow past slender bodies, wind tunnel interference problems,
transonic flow, etc.
According to convenience, we shall use the notation X I , x2, x3 or x, y, z
for the coordinate system. xl or x will usually be in the direction of the
undisturbed flow; in two-dimensional problems, it is customary to use y as
the normal coordinate, whereas, in problems involving wing-like (planar)
bodies, it is conventional to let z be the coordinate normal to the wing plane,
and y the spanwise coordinate.
8.2

(a) Uniform flow.

(b) Perturbed flow.

203

Derivation of the Perturbation Equations

The equations of motion for steady frictionless flow were obtained in

Article 7.12, in the form

FIG.8.1 Perturbation of a uniform flow by a thin body.

XI-axis. Density, pressure, and temperature are also uniform in this basic
motion and will be denoted by ,om, p,, Tm, respectively. The corresponding
velocity of sound is am,and the Mach number is U / a , = M,. The velocity
field of this basic flow is given by

Assume now that a solid body, for example, an airfoil, is placed in this
uniform stream. The body disturbs the basic motion, and changes its
velocity field, which, in the presence of the body, may be written,

U, ZI,w

are called "induced" or "perturbation" velocity components.

202

Writing this out in full, and substituting the velocity field defined in Eq.
8.1, we obtain the equation in terms of perturbation velocities

a2 may be obtained in terms of the perturbation velocities, from the energy

equation (7.50~)for a perfect gas,