B.SC - Sem-1 Lab - Mannual

Lab Manual Physics B.Sc.
Semester - 1
Experiment No :
VERNIER CALLIPERS
Aim/Objective: To find the Volume of the given hollow cylinder using & Volume of a Metal
Sphere using Vernier nCalliper.
Diagram:
Theory:
Vernier Callipers was invented by a French mathematician Pierre Vernier. It is used to measure the
length of a rod or cylinder, diameter of a sphere, the internal and external diameter of a hollow
cylinder and the depth of a small vessel. The construction of vernier calipers is shown in the
labelled diagram 1.1. It consists of a steel strip graduated in cm. This is called the main scale. There
is another strip known as vernier scale which can slide over the main scale, and is graduated with
the number of divisions. The vernier scale can be fixed at any position on the main scale by means
of a screw. There are two jaws perpendicular to the main scale. One of the jaw is fixed at the left
end of the main scale and other jaw is fixed on the frame of the vernier scale. The lower outside
jaws are used to measure the length or the external diameter of an object (rod or cylinder) and the
upper inside jaws are used to measure the internal diameter of a hollow cylinder. The vernier
callipers is provided with a long thin strip attached at the back of the main scale. This strip is used
to measure the depth of any small vessel.
Least count. The least distance which can be measured accurately by an instrument is called least
count of that instrument. The difference between the values of one main scale division and one
vernier scale division is called the vernier constant or the least count, since it is the least distance
which can be measured by that instrument. If the value of one division of main scale is x and the m
length of n divisions of vernier scale is equal to the length of (n 1) divisions of main scale then,
Least count of vernier = Value of 1 main scale division / Total number of division on vernier scale
1 M.S.D
Least count = TOTAL V.S.D.
Zero error : On bringing both the jaws together, if the zero marks of the vernier scale does not
coincide exactly with the zero mark of the main scale then it is said to have zero error in the
instrument.
There are two kinds of zero error:
Alkesh Gandhi. B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc. (Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics),Ph.D. (P)
Page 1
Lab Manual Physics B.Sc. Semester - 1
(i) Positive zero error
& (ii) Negative error.
Positive zero error : On bringing both the jaws together, if the zero mark of the vernier scale lies to
the right side of the zero mark of the main scale, the zero error is said to be the positive zero error.
To findthis error, bring both the jaws together and note the main scale division by which zero mark
of the vernier scale is ahead (right side) and also the division of vernier scale which coincides with
the division on the main scale. This vernier division is multiplied by the least count of the vernier.
The positive error is then obtained by adding this product to the main scale reading.
Negative zero error : On bringing both the jaws together, if the zero mark of the vernier scale is to
the left side of the zero mark of the main scale, the zeroerror is said to be the negative. To find this
error, bring both the jaws together and note the division of the vernier scale which coincides with
any of the division of the main scale. The number of this vernier division is subtracted from the
total number of divisions on the vernier scale and then the difference is multiplied by the least
count of the vernier. This gives the negative zero error. ToTo get the correct reading, the zero error
with its proper sign is subtracted from the observed reading, i.e. Correct reading= observed
reading- zero error (with sign)
.
Method & Procedure :1. Count the total number of divisions n on the vernier scale.
2. Find the value of one main scale division x.
3. Calculate the least count of the vernier calipers using the following formula
Least count of vernier = Value of 1 main scale division / Total number of division on vernier scale
Page 2
1 M.S.D
Least count = TOTAL V.S.D. = ___________cm= ______________mm

4. Bring both the jaws together and see whether the zero mark of vernier scale coincides with the
zero mark of the main scale or not. If they do not coincide, find the zero error by the method stated
above.
5. Fix the cylinder (or sphere) in between the external jaws and note the main scale reading(i.e.,
Note the main scale division by which the zero mark of the vernier scale is ahead).
6. Now find the vernier scale reading. For this, note the vernier scale division which coincides with
any the main scale division. Multiply this number of vernier division with the least count to get the
vernier scale reading.
7. Find the total reading by adding the main scale and vernier scale readings.
8. From this, subtract the zero error with its proper sign to obtain the correct diameter of the given
Cylinder (or sphere).
9. Repeat the experiment and note the readings at different places along the cylinder (or sphere)
and their mean is obtained and arranged in a tabular form.
Observations:
Least count = 1 Main Scale Division / Total Number of Vernier Scale divisions
1 M.S.D
= TOTAL V.S.D. = ___________________ mm = _______________cm
Zero Error = ____________________ (2) Correction = ____________________
Observed Reading = Main Scale Reading + Vernier Scale Reading
Corrected Reading = Observed Reading + Correction
Observation Table : -
Hollow
Cylinder
01
02
03
04
05
06
07
08
13
14
15
16
17
18
Object
Iron
Sphere
Rectangular
Metal Cube
No.
Main
Scale
Dimension
Reading
A cm
Vernier Scale Reading
Corrected
Value of
Average
Value
Dimension
Value
Coinciding Its Value
C=A + B
DE
D cm
Mark N
B=NLC
cm
cm
Length
Outer
Diameter
Inner
Diameter
Diameter
Length
Breadth
(Width)
Thickness
(Height)
Page 3
Calculations :
For Cylinder :
1
Thickness of the hollow cylinder = 2(Outer Diameter Inner Diameter)

= ____________________ cm
Internal Volume of the hollow cylinder = V = r2 h = = r2 l = ____________ cm3
Outer Surface Area of the hollow cylinder = = 2rh = 2rl = ___________cm2
For Metal Sphere

Curved Surface Area of the sphere = 4r2 = ______________ cm2
Volume of the
sphere
r3 = _________cm3
For Rectangular Cube :

Volume = length X Breadth(Width) x Height (Thickness) = _______cm 3
Precautions.
(1) The cylinder should not be pressed too hard or kept too loose in between the jaws.
(2) While taking the observations, the eyes must be kept perpendicular to the scale.
(3) To avoid the non-uniformity of the cylinderthe readings should be taken at different places
along the cylinder. The diameter of the cylinder should also be measured in two perpendicular
directions at the same place since it may be possible that the cross section of cylinder may not be
circular completely, so this error may also be avoided.
Study Questions:
1Q: What is the advantage of vernier calipers over a regular scale graduated in millimeters?Ans:
We can measure up to a millimeter with regular scale which is graduated in millimeters, Where
as with a vernier calipers with 10 equal divisions on the vernier scale we can measure up to 1/10
(0.1) mm accurately.
2Q:What is the principle of vernier ?.
Ans: (N-1) main scale divisions = N divisions on vernier scale,
(N-1) M.S.D = N V.S.D is the principle of vernier.
3Q:What do you mean by least count of vernier calipers?
Ans: The difference of 1 M.S.D and 1 V.S.D is called least count of a vernier calipers. (or) The
minimum
length which can be measured by a vernier calipers is called its least count.
4Q:What is the use of lower jaws of a vernier calipers?
Page 4
Ans: The lower jaws or used to measure the thickness of object,outer diameters of
tubes,spheres and cylinders.
5Q:What is the use of upper jaws?
Ans: The upper jaws of the vernier calipers are used to measure the inner diameters of rings,tubes
and inner diameters of hallow cyliders , hallow spheres.
6Q:What is the use of the thin strip moving behind the main scale?
Ans: The strip is used to measure the depths of the tubes and level of the liquid inside tubes or jars.
7Q:Two different vernier calipers have different number of equal divisions on their vernier scales i)
10 equal divisions ii) 50 equal divisions . Which can measure more accurately.
Ans: The least count of the I vernier calipers = S/N =
The least count of the II vernier calipers = S/N =
=0.1mm
=0.02mm.
That is the II vernier calipers with 0.02mm of L.C can measure up to 0.02mm accurately.Hence the
accuracy of II vernier calipers in more than I vernier calipers.
8Q:What is the ZERO error of a vernier calipers?
Ans:When two lower jaws of the vernier calipers are in contact, if the zero division of main scale
does not coincide with the zeroth division of vernier scale, such vernier calipers will have zero error.
9Q: What is the formula of least count?
Ans: Least count L.C =
10Q:What is the formula to calculate the volume of the cylinder?

Ans: Volume of the cylinder V =
cylinder.
. , where r = radius of the cylinder and l = length of the
11Q:What is the formula to calculate the volume of a Sphere?

Ans: Volume of the Sphere V =
, where r = radius of the sphere.
12Q:What is the formula to calculate total reading with a vernier calipers?

Ans: Total reading = M.S.R +
.
13.How many types of Zero errors will be possible in vernier calipers?
Ans: Two types of Zero errors are possible in vernier calipers they are i) Negative Zero error ii)
Positive Zero error
Page 5
14. What is Positive zero error,how do we correct such an error in a vernier calipers?
Ans:When two lower jaws of the vernier calipers are in contact, if the zero division of main scale
does not coincide with the zeroth division of vernier scale and the zero of the vernier is to the right
of zero of main scale such an error is called Positive Zero error.So,the zero correction should be
subtracted from the reading which is measured.
Page 6
Experiment No : 02
Date:___/___/20__
MICROMETER SCREW GAUGE
AIM/OBJECTIVE: To study Micrometer. To measure volume of metal wire.

Apparatus: Micrometer Screw Gauge, Metal wire, Small Metal cube, Rectangular plate
Theory:
A micrometer is a device used widely in mechanical engineering and machining for
precision measurement, along with other metrological instruments such as dial
calipers and vernier calipers. Micrometer screw-gauge is used for measuring
accurately the diameter of a thin wire or the thickness of a sheet of metal. It
consists of a U-shaped frame, fitted with a screwed spindle which is attached to a
thimble, as shown in Fig. 1.
Micrometers use the principle of a screw to amplify small distances that are too small to measure
directly into large rotations of the screw that are big enough to read from a scale. The accuracy of a
micrometer derives from the accuracy of the thread form that is at its heart. The basic operating
principles of a micrometer are as follows:
The amount of rotation of an accurately made screw can be directly and precisely
correlated to a certain amount of axial movement (and vice versa), through the
constant known as the screw's pitch (for single start screw thread). A screw's pitch is the
distance it moves forward or backward axially with one complete turn. The screw has
a known pitch such as 0.5 mm. Hence in this case, for one revolution of the screw
the spindle moves axially by 0.5 mm. This movement of the spindle is shown on an
engraved linear millimeter scale on the sleeve. On the thimble there is a circular scale
which is divided into 50 or 100 equal parts.
When the anvil and spindle end are brought in contact, the edge of the circular scale
should be at the zero of the sleeve (linear scale) and the zero of the circular scale should
be opposite to the datum line of the sleeve. If the zero is not coinciding with the datum
line, there will be a positive or negative zero error as shown in Figure
Page 7
Zero error in case of screw gauge

The least count of the micrometer screw can be calculated using the formula given below:
Least count =Pitch/ Number of divisions on the circular scale =0.5 mm/50 =0.01 mm
As an example, to determine the diameter of a wire, the wire is to be placed
between the anvil and spindle end, and the thimble is rotated till the wire is firmly held
between the anvil and the spindle. The ratchet is provided to avoid excessive pressure on
the wire. It prevents the spindle from further movement. The diameter of the wire could
be determined from the reading as shown in figure.
Linear scale
Circular scale
Linear and circular scales of screw gauge

Reading = Linear scale reading + (coinciding cicular scale * Least count) =
2.5 mm+ (46*0.01) = 2.96 mm
Procedure:
01. Find the pitch of the micrometer screw gauge.
02. Determine the least count of the micrometer screw gauge.
03. Determine the error in the micrometer screw gauge.
04. Place wire in between spindle and envil.
05. Measure diameter of the wire.
06. Measure length of the wire.
07. Calculate volume of the metal wire.
08. Similarly calculate volume of a tiny metal plate & volume of a little metal sphere also.
Page 8
OBSERVATIONS :
Range of the micrometer screw gauge : ________(L.C.) to ________mm
Pitch = 1 Main Scale Division on the base line = ________ = ________
Total number of divisions on the circular scale = N = _______mm = _____cm
Least Count LC = Pitch P/ Total number of divisions on the circular scale N = ____
Zero Error = ________mm=__________cm
Correction = ________mm=__________cm
Observation Table : No.

01
02
03
04
05
06
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
Object
Circular Scale
Corrected
Main
Value of
Average
Reading
Value
Scale
Dimension
Dimension
Value
Reading Coinciding Its Value C=A + B
DE
D cm
A cm
cm
cm
Mark N
B=NLC
Length
Cylindrical
Metal Wire
Diameter
Iron Sphere
Diameter
Length
Metal
Cube
Breadth
(Width)
Thickness
(Height)
Length
Rectangular
Breadth
Metal
(Width)
Plat
Thickness
(Height)
Calculations :
For Cylindrical wire :
Radius of the Cylindrical wire = r =D/2 = _______mm=_____cm
Volume of the cylindrical wire = V = r2 h = = r2 l = ____________ cm3
Outer Surface Area of the cylindrical wire = 2rh = 2rl = ___________cm2
Page 9
For Metal Sphere

Curved Surface Area of the sphere = 4r2 = ______________ cm2
Volume of
the sphere
r3 = _________cm3
For Cube :
For Rectangular Metal Plate :

Precautions:
While taking micrometer reading, care should be taken to clamp the spindle in
position, before taking it away from the block, as due to friction the Spindle will
rotate and give a wrong reading.
Turn the spindle always in the clockwise direction to avoid backlash error.
Questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Discuss functions and principle of ratchet drive in case of a micrometer.

Why does zero error occur in a micrometer?
Differentiate among terms accuracy, precision, sensitivity, & readability.
When is an instrument required to be calibrated?
What is the use of calibration chart?
What do you mean by Protector Slip Gauge?
What is wringing? How is it done?
Sketch the type of anvil required for measuring the thickness of a paper, chip
thickness?
Page 10
Experiment No : 03
Date:___/___/20__
SIMPLE PENDULUM
AIM/OBJECTIVE: Determination of Acceleration due to Gravity Using Simple

Pendulum.
Apparatus : Stand with clamp, Small spherical metal bob, Vernier Callipers, Stop watch, String.
Measuring devices: metric Ruler
.
Procedure :
01. Find least count of the vernier callipers.
02. Measire the diameter of the metal bob with the help of vernier callipers. Calculate its
radius.
03. Find the heitht of the hook attached with the bob, using vernier callipers.
04. Tie one end of string-thread with the bob and the other end should be tied with the hook in
such a way that the total length L of the pendulum becomes the length of the string l +
hooks height h + bobs radius r .
05. Oscillate the bob.
06. Measure time period for 20 oscillations.
07. Note down such 3 observations.
08. Find the mean time for the 20 oscillations.
09. Repeat the practical for another length L of the pendulum.
10. Calculate value of g using the formula.
11. Plot graph of L T2 . find g using graph.
Page 11
OBSERVATIONS :
Least count of the veriner callipers : ______cm
Diameter of the bob= D = ________cm
Height of the hook = ________cm
Observation Table :
No. Length of
Pendulum
L= l + r + h
cm
20
Oscillations
Time
sec
t1 t2 t3
& its radius = R = _______cm
Mean Periodic
time Time
t sec T = t/20
sec
g= 4.[ ]
cm/s2
Result : the value of g is nearly 981 cm/s2
Page 12
Experiment No : 04
Date:___/___/20__
Bifiller Suspension
Aim/Object: To determine moment of inertia of rectangular body and verify the

law of perpendiculars by means of Bifiller Suspension.
Apparatus: Bifiller Suspension, Stop Watch, Scale, Balance etc.
Method:
First of all measure the weight of wooden block and then length (l),breadth (b)
and height (h) respectively.
Then calculate Ix, Iy and Iz theoretically.
Suspend the body symmetrically by strings of equal length as shown in fig.
Twist the body through a small angle about the vertical axis-Z and then release it.
The body will execute Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) of time period Tz.
Determine time (t) for 25 oscillations and hence calculate the time period(T z).
Repeat the method for X, Y-axis and find out Tx,Ty.
In above experiment d1 = d2.
Also precede the above method for two different d2.
Observation Table :
Sr.
No
Position
Of
Block
d1
d2
cm
cm
Time required
for 25
0scillations
t1
sec
t2
sec
Mean
t sec
T=
Moment of Inertia
(I)
25
= Mgd1d21T2
sec
162L
M.I
Experimental
Theoretical
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
Result:
(1) Theoretically
(2) Experimentally
Iz = Ix + Iy = ------- gm.cm2
Iz = Ix + Iy = ------- gm.cm2
Calculation:Moment of Inertia I = Mgd1d2T2

162L
Page 13
Proved :Iz = Ix + Iy
theoretically and practically
Page 14
Experiment No : 05
Date:___/___/20__
BAR PENDULUM
Aim/Object:- Determination of gravity g at a place and radius of gyration K of
Bar pendulum.
Apparatus:- Bar Pendulum, Stop-Watch, Telescope Etc.
Mathod:-
A Pendulum is metallic bar about a meter in length, all along the length of which are
drilled equidistant holes, so the c.g. and geometrical centre is same. (c.g. = centre of
gravity)
Then measure the distance (L) from c.g. to holes.
Define one side as positive distance & other side as negative.
Next displace the bar through a small angle and release it for S.H.M. For determining
the time period, focus a telescope on the lower end of bar and observe its oscillations.
Determine time (t) for 25 oscillations and hence calculate the time period T.
Next allow the bar to swing when suspended from second hole & determine the time
for 25 ossillations again.
Repeat this for all the holes of the bar pendulum.
Then follow the same procedure for the other side of bar pendulum.
Observation Table 1:
First side of Bar Pendulum

Sr.
No
Distance from
c.g. to hole
Time require for 25

oscillations
Periodic Time
T
T2
= sec2
t/25
L
cm
t1
t2
sec
sec
sec
L2
cm2
LT2
cm.sec2
sec
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Page 15
Observation Table 2:
Sr.
No
Second side of Bar Pendulum
Distance from
c.g. to hole
Time require for 25

oscillations
Periodic Time
T
T2
= sec2
t/25
L
cm
t1
t2
sec
sec
sec
L2
cm2
LT2
cm.sec2
sec
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
For graph-1
Draw the graph of LT2 L2
We know
For graph-2
As shown in graph take L and L on OX axis
and T on OY axis.
Draw the line RVP touching the two points
of the graph at R and P. Minimum periodic
time Tm can be obtained.
Which is the equation of straight

line y=mx+c
Now From graph
Where K is radius of gyration
Page 16
Experiment No: 06
Date : ____/____/20__
Torsional pendulum
Aim/Objectives: To determine the Modulus of rigidity of the material of the given wire using a
torsional pendulum.
Apparatus:
Torsional pendulum (A Circular brass disc provided with a chuck and nut at its centre,
steel wire or brass wire or copper wire any one, another chuck and nut fixed to a wall bracket), Stop
watch, Screw gauge, Vernier Calipers, Meter scale.
Description: The torsional pendulum consists of uniform circular metal disc of about 8 to 10cm
diameter with 1 or 2 cm thickness, suspended by a wire at the centre of the chuck at the centre of
the disc and upper end is gripped into another chuck which is fixed to a wall bracket.
Theory: When the disc is rotated in a horizontal plane to the radial position then the wire gets
twisted. Wire will exert a torque on the disc tending to returns it to the first position. This is the
restoring torque. For small twists, the restoring torque is proportional to the amount of twist or
the angular displacement (From hooks law) .
Let be the angle through which the wire is twisted. a is the radius
of the Wire, l is the length of the wire between chuck and is the
rigidity of Modulus of the material of the wire, Then the restoring
couple set up in it is equal to
.n.a . c
4
2l
( .a 4 .n)
c -------- 1
2l
1
Where c is the Torsional Constant
(Twisting couple per unit (radian) twist of the wire).
This produces an angular acceleration (dw/dt) in the disc

Therefore if I is the moment of inertia of the disc about the wire
we have
I.
dw
c.
dt
dw
c

dt
I
Page 17
i.e Negative sign shows that torque is directed opposite to the angular displacement, the angular
acceleration (
dw
) of the angular displacement() and therefore its motion is simple harmonic
dt
hence time period is given by
T= 2
1
From
I
c
&
----------------------2
8 I l
a4 T 2
In case of a circular disc whose geometric axes coincide with the axis of rotation. The moment of
MR
I=
2
inertia I is given by
where M is the mass of disc and R is the radius of the disc.
Procedure:
The circular metal disc is suspended. The length of the wire between the chucks is adjusted
to 90cm. When the disc is in equilibrium position, a small mark is made on the curved edge of the
disc. This marking will help to note the number of oscillations made by the disc when the disc
oscillates. The disc is set to oscillate by slowly turning the disc through a small angle.
When the disc is oscillating the time taken for 10 oscillations is noted with the help of a
stopwatch and recorded in the observations table in trail 1. The procedure is repeated for the
same length of the wire and again the time taken for 10 oscillations is noted and recorded in the
observations table in trail 2. From trail 1 and 2 the mean time for 10 oscillations is obtained. The
time period (T) i.e. the time taken for one oscillation is calculated.
The experiment is repeated, by decreasing the length of the wire in steps of 10 cm and the
results are tabulated in table.
The radius of the wire a is to be found accurately with the help of a screw gauge since it
occurs as the fourth power in final equation. The radius and the mass of the disc are found with a
vernier calipers and a rough balance respectively.
The mean value of (l/T2) is substituted in final equation and is calculated.
Page 18
A graph is also drawn with l on the x - axis and T2 on the y axis. It will linear as shown in
the figure. From the graph, the value of T2 for as large as a value of l is noted and this value of
(l/T2) is substituted in final equation and the rigidity of the modulus of material of the material of
the wire is calculated.
Model Graph:
X
T2
Observations:
Mass of the disc : M = _______________gm
Radius of the disc : R = ______________cm
Average radius of the wire : a = ___________cm.
Precautions:
1.The length between the chucks should be measured carefully.

2. Screw gauge and Vernier Calipers readings have to be noted with accuracy.
Table 1: Determination of
Length of Wire
Sl.No
l ( cm)
1
90
80
70
60
50
l
T2
Time Per one

oscillation
Mean (t) T
T2
T= (t/20)
Time for 20 oscillation

Trial1
Trail2
l
T2
Page 19
Table 2: To measure the radius of the disc with Vernier calipers.

L.C. of Vernier Calipers = 1 M.S.D / Total V.S.D. =______ = _______mm = ______cm
S.No.
Main Scale reading
Vernier
(MSR)(cm)
coincidence
(V.C)
V.C. x L.C. = B
Diameter
(cm)
A + B (cm)
01
02
03
04
05
Table 3: To measure the radius of the wire with screw gauge.

Pitch of the screw = Distance travelled by the screw / Number of rotations
L.C. of Screw Gauge =
= = 0.01mm = 0.001cm
Zero Error =
Correction =
S.No.
Reading on the
Head scale
Corrected Head
pitch Scale
Reading
Scale Reading
A(mm)
(H.S.R)
(C.H.S.R)
C.H.S.R x L.C.
B(mm)
Diameter of the
wire
A + B (mm)
01
02
03
04
05
Calculations:
Formulae: Rigidity Modulus of wire =
4
4
Page 20
Result: The rigidity modulus of the material of given wire is determined using Torsional pendulum.
Rigidity modulus of the given wire is
1. From table =
2. From graph =
Page 21
Experiment No: 07
Date : ____/____/20__
Resonance in LCR circuit

Aim: To study frequency response characteristics of LCR series and parallel circuits and to
determine the resonance frequency and determine bandwidth and half power frequencies.
Apparatus: A signal generator, LCR circuit board, inductor 5mH, capacitor0.022f, ammeter,
resistors 1k.
Description: The circuit containing a capacitor C inductor L and resistor R connected in series
or parallel as shown in figures 1 and 2 respectively. When an alternating emf is applied to the
circuit, an alternating current flows in the circuit. The impedance of the circuit is given by
(1)
The effective reactance is inductive or capacitive depending upon XL > XC or XL <
XC. respectively. The inductive reactance is proportional to the frequency and increases as the
frequency increases from zero onwards. The capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the
frequency, decreases from an infinite value to downwards.
At certain frequency both reactance become equal and this frequency is called the
resonant frequency. At resonance the impedance is minimum and is equal to the resistance.
In a parallel resonant circuit, at resonance, the circuit does not allow the current to flow and
works as a perfect choke for AC. Such a circuit is called tank circuit or rejecter circuit.
Theory: In a series LCR circuit, the impedances of an inductor and capacitor are equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction. Hence, the impedance of the circuit is only the resistance.
Therefore the current is maximum at the resonant frequency.
1
fr
2 LC ..2.
In a parallel circuit, the impedance is maximum at the resonant frequency and the current is
minimum. The resonant frequency is given by
(3)
The band width (f) of the circuit is defined as the difference in half power frequencies. These
can be determined by drawing a half power line on the characteristic curve at 70.7% of the
resonant or maximum value of the curve
Page 22
Procedure:
(A) Series Resonance:
The circuit is connected as shown in figure 1. A fixed amplitude o f v o l t a g e is applied
at all frequencies to the circuit through a frequency generator. By changing the frequency in
steps of 100 Hz, the current in the circuit is noted. The readings are tabulated in table 1. A
graph is drawn between frequency on X-axis and current on Y-axis. The shape of the curve
is as shown in figure 3.
fr = frequency at which the current is maximum(I0). The frequencies f1
and f2
corresponds to I=0.707I0 then f2 f1 = f called bandwidth and
Quality factor of the circuit.
fr / f2 f1 = Q called the
Page 23
Part A: Series LCR Circuit.

L = _______________________ mH
S.No.
Frequency (Hz)
C = _______________________ F.
Current ()
f =
Calculations:_____________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
(B)
Parallel Resonance:
Connect the circuit as per figure 2. Constant amplitude of voltage at all frequencies is to be
applied
to t h e c i r c u i t t h r o u g h t h e f u n c t i o n generator. By changing the frequency in
steps of 100 Hz, the current in the circuit is noted. The readings are tabulated in table 2 and
graph is drawn b e t w e e n f r e q u e n c y o n X -axis and current on Y-axis. The shape of the
curve is as shown in figure 4.
f2 f1 = f (bandwidth) and
fr/ f2 f1 = Q (Quality factor)
Page 24
Part B: Parallel LCR Circuit.

L = _______________________ mH
S.No.
C = _______________________ F.
Frequency (Hz)
Current ()
f =
Calculations:________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
Calculations and Results:
1. Plot the graph of frequency (f) V/s. current I for series and parallel cases.
2. Read off the resonant frequency f r
1
2 LC
by locating the maxima / minima in the graphs
i). Resonance frequency for series LCR circuit fr =_______ _________kHz

ii) Resonance frequency for parallel LCR circuit fr =________________kHz
iii). Calculate the value of resonance frequency fr =________________kHz
Results :
1. Estimated value of Q for series resonance from graph =
2. Calculated value of Q
fr
1 L
=
R C
3. % errors in Q =
Page 25
EXPERIMENT-08
Date:
P-N Junction Diode Characteristics
AIM: To find out the V-I characteristics of silicon and germanium diodes in Forward and Reverse bias
configurations.
APPARATUS:
P-N Diodes DR25, BY126

Regulated Power supply (0-30v)
Resistor 1K
Ammeters (0-200 mA, 0-200A), Voltmeter (0-20 V)
Bread board and Connecting wires
THEORY:A p-n junction diode conducts only in one direction. The V-I characteristics of the diode are curve
between voltage across the diode and current through the diode. When external voltage is zero, circuit is
open and the potential barrier does not allow the current to flow. Therefore, the circuit current is zero.
When P-type (Anode is connected to +ve terminal and n- type (cathode) is connected to ve terminal of the
supply voltage, is known as forward bias. The potential barrier is reduced when diode is in the forward
biased condition. At some forward voltage, the potential barrier altogether eliminated and current starts
flowing through the diode and also in the circuit. The diode is said to be in ON state. The current increases
with increasing forward voltage.
When N-type (cathode) is connected to +ve terminal and P-type (Anode) is connected to the ve
terminal of the supply voltage is known as reverse bias and the potential barrier across the junction
increases. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and a very small current (reverse saturation
current) flows in the circuit. The diode is said to be in OFF state. The reverse bias current is due to minority
charge carriers.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
FORWARD BIAS:
Page 26
REVERSE BIAS:
MODEL WAVEFORM:
PROCEDURE:
FORWARD BIAS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For forward bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the anode of the silicon diode and RPS ve
is
connected to the cathode of the diode.
3. Switch on the power supply and increases the input voltage (supply voltage) in steps.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage across the diode for
each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated and a graph is plotted between voltage and
current.
6. Repeat the above procedure for Germanium diode also and tabulate the results.
Page 27
OBSERVATION:
S.NO
APPLIED VOLTAGE
(V)
VOLTAGE ACROSS
DIODE(V)
Diode current
(mA)
PROCEDURE:
REVERSE BIAS:
2. For reverse bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the cathode of the silicon diode and RPS ve is
connected to the anode of the diode.
3. Switch on the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage) in steps.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode voltage across the diode for each
and every step of the input voltage.
5. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated and graph is plotted between voltage and current.
6. Repeat the above procedure for the given Germanium diode also and tabulate the results obtained.
OBSEVATIONS:
S.NO
APPLIED VOLTAGE
(V)
VOLTAGE ACROSS
DIODE(V)
Diode current
(mA)
RESULT:
1. V-I Characteristic is shown in the Graph.
2. Cut in voltage of P-N Junction diode is _______ volt.
Page 28
STUDY QESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
Define depletion region of a diode?

What is meant by transition & space charge capacitance of a diode?
Is the V-I relationship of a diode Linear or Exponential?
Define cut-in voltage of a diode and specify the values for Si and Ge diodes?
What are the applications of a p-n diode?
Draw the ideal characteristics of P-N junction diode?
What is the diode equation?
What is PIV?
What is the break down voltage?
What is the effect of temperature on PN junction diodes?
Page 29
EXPERIMENT-09
Date:
ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
AIM: To observe and draw the static characteristics of a zener diode

APPARATUS:
Zener diode (IZ5.1 or IZ9.1)

Regulated Power Supply (0-30v).
Voltmeter (0-20v) Ammeter (0-100mA)
Resistors (1Kohm)
Bread Board and Connecting wires
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS:
Page 30
THEORY:
A zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in the break down
region. A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when reverse biased. But if the reverse bias is
increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is called Break down Voltage. High
current through the diode can permanently damage the device
To avoid high current, we connect a resistor in series with zener diode. Once the diode starts
conducting it maintains almost constant voltage across the terminals whatever may be the current through
it, i.e., it has very low dynamic resistance. It is used in voltage regulators.
PROCEDURE:
2. The Regulated power supply voltage is increased in steps.
3. The zener current (lz), and the zener voltage (Vz.) are observed and then noted in the tabular form.
4. A graph is plotted between zener current (Iz) and zener voltage (Vz).
5. Do the above steps for forward as well as reverse bias connections as shown in the circuit diagrams.
OBSERVATIONS:
S.NO
ZENER
VOLTAGE(VZ)
ZENER
CURRENT(IZ)
Page 31
MODEL WAVEFORMS:
RESULTS:
1. The Forward knee voltage (Vk) =__________Volts.
2. The breakdown voltage of Zener diode (Vz ) =_________ Volts.
STUDY QUESTIONS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
What type of temperature Coefficient does the zener diode have?

If the impurity concentration is increased, how the depletion width effected?
Does the dynamic impendence of a zener diode vary?
Explain briefly about avalanche and zener breakdowns?
Draw the zener equivalent circuit?
Differentiate between line regulation & load regulation?
In which region zener diode can be used as a regulator?
How the breakdown voltage of a particular diode can be controlled?
What type of temperature coefficient does the Avalanche breakdown has?
Page 32
EXPERIMENT-10
Date:
R-C Time Constant
AIM: To study the exponential decay of charge in a R.C. Circuit and determine the value of time constant.
APPARATUS:
Battery eliminator,
resistors,
electrolytic capacitors,
voltmeter,
ammeter,
tap key,
stop clock
Connecting wires.
THEORY:
When a condenser C is charged through a resistor R, the charge and the voltage across the
condenser
increases with time as an exponential function. If v is the instantaneous voltage at time t, we have
= ( )
When condenser is discharged through a resistance, the voltage falls in accordance with the
formula
= ( )
The product of RC is called time constant. Vo is the maximum voltage of the capacitor.
PROCEDURE:
We can observe that, smaller is the time constant, more rapid is the discharge of the capacitor
The circuit is connected as shown in figure taking one set of R and C. The capacitor C is charged for a short
time till the reading in the voltmeter is constant Maximum voltage. Then tap key is released. The capacitor
now starts discharging through the resistor R. The Voltage decreases steadily. The stop clock is started and
readings are noted down at suitable intervals of time. It is continued till the deflection falls below 36% of
starting value. The experiment is repeated for the other set of R and C and observations are tabulated.
Time constant of capacitor charging circuit is the time(in seconds), required by the voltage across the
capacitor to reach equal to 63.2% of the supply voltage (or the charging current to reach equal to 36.8% of
the initial value of charging current) Due to the unavoidable presence of resistance in the circuit, the charge
on the capacitor and its stored energy only approaches a final value after a period of several times the time
constant of the circuit elements employed.
Page 33
CIRCUIT DIAGRAME:
OBSERVATION:
Sr.
No
Set 1.
R1 = ,
C1 =
Time (t) sec
Voltage(V)
Volts
Set 2.
R2 = ,
C2 =
Time (t) sec
Voltage(V)
Volts
Set 3.
R3 = ,
C3 =
Time (t) sec
Voltage(V)
Volts
Page 34
GRAPH: The graph is drawn between times on X-axis and voltage on Y-axis.
RESULT:
Time constant of R-C circuit: __________________________________sec.
PRECAUTIONS:
Pay particular attention to the polarity of the wiring, while using an electrolytic capacitor which, if wired
backwards will leak a measurable current and may be damaged
Page 35
EXPERIMENT-11
Date:
ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
AIM: To find the voltage regulation of a given zener diode.

APPARTUS:
Zener diode (IZ5.1 or IZ9.1)

Regulated Power Supply (0-30v).
Voltmeter (0-20v) Ammeter (0-100mA)
Resistors (1Kohm)
Bread Board and Connecting wires
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
REGULATION CHARACTERISTICS:
THEORY:
A zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in the break down
region. A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when reverse biased. But if the reverse bias is
increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is called Break down Voltage. High
current through the diode can permanently damage the device.
To avoid high current, we connect a resistor in series with zener diode. Once the diode starts
conducting it maintains almost constant voltage across the terminals whatever may be the current through
it, i.e., it has very low dynamic resistance. It is used in voltage regulators.
Page 36
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram
2. The load resistance is fixed to known value and the zener voltage (Vz), and Zener current
(lz), are measured.
3. The load resistance is varied in steps and the corresponding values are noted down for
each load resistance value.
4. All the readings are tabulated.
OBSERVATIONS:
S.N0
VZ(VOLTS)
IR1 (amperes)
RL ()
MODEL WAVEFORMS:
Page 37
RESULT:
VIVAQUESTIONS:1. Draw the zener equivalent circuit?

2. Differentiate between line regulation & load regulation? In which region zener diode can be used as
a regulator?
3. How the breakdown voltage of a particular diode can be controlled?
4. What type of temperature coefficient does the Avalanche breakdown has?
Page 38

B.SC - Sem-1 Lab - Mannual

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Lab Manual Physics B.Sc.

Alkesh Gandhi. B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc. (Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics),Ph.D. (P)

Lab Manual Physics B.Sc. Semester - 1

(i) Positive zero error

& (ii) Negative error.

Alkesh Gandhi. B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc. (Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics),Ph.D. (P)

Lab Manual Physics B.Sc. Semester - 1

Least count = TOTAL V.S.D. = ___________cm= ______________mm

Vernier Scale Reading

Alkesh Gandhi. B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc. (Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics),Ph.D. (P)

Lab Manual Physics B.Sc. Semester - 1

Thickness of the hollow cylinder = 2(Outer Diameter Inner Diameter)

For Metal Sphere

For Rectangular Cube :

Alkesh Gandhi. B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc. (Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics),Ph.D. (P)

Lab Manual Physics B.Sc. Semester - 1

10Q:What is the formula to calculate the volume of the cylinder?

. , where r = radius of the cylinder and l = length of the

11Q:What is the formula to calculate the volume of a Sphere?

, where r = radius of the sphere.

12Q:What is the formula to calculate total reading with a vernier calipers?

Alkesh Gandhi. B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc. (Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics),Ph.D. (P)

Lab Manual Physics B.Sc. Semester - 1

Alkesh Gandhi. B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc. (Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics),Ph.D. (P)

Lab Manual Physics B.Sc. Semester - 1

AIM/OBJECTIVE: To study Micrometer. To measure volume of metal wire.

Alkesh Gandhi. B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc. (Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics),Ph.D. (P)

Lab Manual Physics B.Sc. Semester - 1

Zero error in case of screw gauge

Linear and circular scales of screw gauge

Alkesh Gandhi. B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc. (Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics),Ph.D. (P)

Lab Manual Physics B.Sc. Semester - 1

Observation Table : No.

Alkesh Gandhi. B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc. (Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics),Ph.D. (P)

Lab Manual Physics B.Sc. Semester - 1

For Metal Sphere

For Rectangular Metal Plate :

Discuss functions and principle of ratchet drive in case of a micrometer.

Alkesh Gandhi. B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc. (Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics),Ph.D. (P)

Lab Manual Physics B.Sc. Semester - 1

AIM/OBJECTIVE: Determination of Acceleration due to Gravity Using Simple

Alkesh Gandhi. B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc. (Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics),Ph.D. (P)

Lab Manual Physics B.Sc. Semester - 1

& its radius = R = _______cm

Result : the value of g is nearly 981 cm/s2

Alkesh Gandhi. B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc. (Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics),Ph.D. (P)

Lab Manual Physics B.Sc. Semester - 1

Aim/Object: To determine moment of inertia of rectangular body and verify the

Calculation:Moment of Inertia I = Mgd1d2T2

Alkesh Gandhi. B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc. (Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics),Ph.D. (P)

Lab Manual Physics B.Sc. Semester - 1

theoretically and practically

Alkesh Gandhi. B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc. (Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics),Ph.D. (P)

Lab Manual Physics B.Sc. Semester - 1

Aim/Object:- Determination of gravity g at a place and radius of gyration K of

First side of Bar Pendulum

Time require for 25

Alkesh Gandhi. B.Sc.(Physics), B.Sc. (Chemistry), M.Sc.(Physics),Ph.D. (P)

Lab Manual Physics B.Sc. Semester - 1

Second side of Bar Pendulum

Time require for 25

Which is the equation of straight

Where K is radius of gyration

Least count = TOTAL V.S.D. = _cm= ____mm

i). Resonance frequency for series LCR circuit fr =_ ___kHz