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1.DescribethefoundingidealsofAmericangovernment.

Powercorrupts.Absolutepowercorrupts,absolutely.LordActon

UnderstandingAmericangovernmentandpoliticsinvolvesahealthyrespectforthepast.Manyofour
democraticinstitutionsarerootedinhistoricaltraditions.Ofcoursetheessenceofourgovernmentis
foundinthewordsoftheUnitedStatesConstitution.Inthenextcoupleofweekswewillreviewthese
traditionsincludingthedocumentthatbestdefinesthepowersandlimitsoftheUnitedStatesgovernment.

Whygovernmentatall?

ThewordgovernmentisderivedfromaLatinwordthatmeans,tomanage.Associetiesgrewmore
andmorecomplexgovernmentswereformedtohelpmanagegroupnorms.Thesenormsare
establishedintheformoflawsandpublicpolicies.

Throughouthistorytherehavebeenmanydifferentkindsofgovernments.Themostcommonformrelied
onunelectedauthoritarianrulerswhogovernedbyforce.Whenassessinggovernmentstwocritical
wordsmustbeconsideredlegitimacyandauthority.Legitimacyrelatestoacceptingonesgovernment
whileauthorityrelatestothepowergiventoagovernmenttofulfillitsresponsibilities.

InourEnglishtraditiontheruleoflawis,inpart,rootedintheMagnaCharta(1215).Thekingslegitimate
powerwasfoundinawrittendocumentandnotonlyinhisarbitrarywill.TheMagnaChartaheraldeda
neweraingovernmentandpolitics.Thekingnolongerruledinisolationofhispeople.

IntheWesterntraditionenlightenmentthinkersdramaticallychallengedbeliefsaboutgovernment
legitimacy.JohnLocke,inthe17thcentury,nolongeracceptedthelegitimacyoftraditionalmonarchies.
Hewroteabouttheimportanceoftheconsentofthegoverned.Alsointhe17thcenturyThomas
Hobbesfavoredstrongcentralizedleadersbutsawlegitimacyinasocialcontractwiththepeople.
Hobbesalsowroteaboutthestateofnaturewheremanwassolitary,poor,nastyandbrutish.A
legitimategovernmentwiththenecessaryauthorityisanessentialsafeguardforacivilsociety.

CertainsalientconceptsgivebreathetothegrandAmericanexperimentinselfrule.

FundamentallyourFoundersmaintainedanessentialcommitmenttoalimitedgovernment.TheUnited
Statesgovernmentwouldsetboundariesaslaidoutinexplicitformalexpressedpowers.Thenew
governmentwouldbecomprisedofthreebranchesthelegislative,executiveandjudicialallseparate
butresponsibleforcheckingandbalancingeachother.Thisseparationofpowersnotonlylimited
governmentbutalsofulfilledthepromiseofourrevolution.Ultimatelegitimacyandauthorityisfoundin
thepeople.Popularsovereigntycouldonlybesafeguardedifgovernmentwaslimited.TheConstitution
dilutedpowerevenmorebycreatingafederalformofgovernment.Inthiswaypowerandauthoritywould
besharedbetweencentral,stateandlocalgovernments.Intheendtheruleoflawwouldprotectnotonly
thelibertybutalsotheequalityofall.

Whereasdirectdemocracyempoweredthepeopletorulewithoutrepresentatives,theframersofour
constitutionoptedforarepublicanformofgovernment.Inthiswaytheuntrustworthypassionsofthe

peoplewereinsulatedthroughthedirectelectionofqualifiedrepresentatives.Republicanismintheory
hopestorepresentallofthepeopleandnotjustmajorities.Theoriginalconstitutiononlyallowedforthe
directelectionoftheHouseofRepresentatives.

AswewillseethegeniusoftheAmericansystemofgovernment,rootedinpersonalliberty,protectseach
andeveryoneofus.Heretheprivilegedandthestrongmustabidebythesamerulesaseverybodyelse.

Eachunitofstudyisbrokendownintoten(10)essentialobjectives.Eachobjectiverequiresacontextof
understanding.Youwillfindthatcontexthere.Readcarefully.Eachwordmatters.Intheendwehope
thatbydistillingthecontentofAmericangovernmentandpoliticstoitsbareessentialsalargernumber
thenbeforecancountthemselvesaseducatedcitizens.Withoutsuchacitizenryourhopeforabright
futureisinperil.

2.IdentifythecriticalhistoricaleventsleadinguptotheratificationoftheU.S.
Constitution.

Inadditiontothecontinentalenlightenmentthinkers,thefoundationsofAmericangovernmentarealso
rootedinourcolonialexperience.Protestantcongregationswereselfgoverning.Thesalutaryneglect
thatcharacterizedtheAmericanexperiencewhencombinedwiththechangingattitudesaboutlegitimate
governmentauthorityonthecontinentprovidedtheessentialbackdroptounderstandingourRevolutionin
1776.

TheAmericanRevolutionwasfoughtandwonforthecauseofliberty.ThomasPaineinCommonSense
(1776)calledlibertythecauseofmankind.ThomasJeffersonintheDeclarationofIndependence
(1776)putinwritinganAmericanpromisetoupholdequalityforall.Governmentherewouldbea
byproductofthepeople.Alllegitimacyandauthoritywouldberootedintheconsentofthegoverned.
Ourpoliticalinstitutionswouldbeselfgoverning.Suchideasweresorevolutionarynolonglastingmodel
ofgovernmentexisted.Ourfirstattemptwouldfail.

TheArticlesofConfederation,thefirstgoverningcharteroftheUnitedStates,succeededinendingthe
warwithEnglandandproposingterritorialrulesforexpansionbutmaintainingorderitcouldnot.There
wereanumberoffatalflawsbuiltintotheArticles.Therewasnoexecutivebranch.Therewasnojudicial
branch.AunicameralCongresscouldnottaxorregulatetrade.TheArticlesofConfederation,
understandably,createdaweakcentralgovernment.TooweakastheUnitedStatesgovernmentwas
unabletoadequatelydealwiththeShaysRebellioninMassachusetts.Allthatwasgainedinthe
AmericanRevolutionfortherightsofmanlookedtobeonshakyground.

Leadersfromtheacrossthenew13StatesjoinedtogetherinPhiladelphiainthesummerof1787tomake
amends.IntheendtheychosenottocorrecttheArticlesbuttostartoverandwriteabrandnew
constitution.Todaytheirworkstillservesasourguidingdocument.InthenewconstitutionourFounding
Fathersaddressedboththestrengthsandweaknessesoftheirearlierexperience.

Historysuggeststhatthisnewconstitutionwasalmostscuttledduetoadisputeoverrepresentation
betweenthelargeandsmallstates.Haditnotbeenforcompromise,theGreatCompromise,theUnited
StatesConstitutionwouldneverhavesucceeded.Creatingatwohouselegislatureplacatedbothlarge
andsmallstates.PopulationwoulddictaterepresentationintheHouseofRepresentativeswhilethe
Senatewouldbemadeupoftwomembersperstate.ThisbicameralCongresscomprisedofaHouse

andSenatewasjustonecompromisethatallowedforournewconstitutiontoberatifiedin1789.The
slaverydisputewassettledwiththe3/5scompromise.

Ratificationdidnotcomeeasy.Nineofthethirteenstateswererequiredtoratifythisnewgoverning
documentbeforeitwasempoweredtoservethepeople.Aseriesofessays,calledtheFederalistPapers,
writtenbyproponentshelpednudgethestatelegislaturestowardratification.Twoofthemostnoted
essayswereFederalist10and51.Federalist10,writtenbyJamesMadison,addressedtheneedfora
republicanformofgovernment.Arepublicandemocracygivespopularcontrolovergovernmentthrough
electedofficials.Italsoassuagedthefearoverdangerousfactionscontrollingthegovernmentatlarge.
Madisonarguedthatfactionscouldneverbeabolishedwithoutremovingpersonalliberty.Alarge
republic,however,couldlimitthem.Alargerepublicwouldmakeitunlikelythatanyonefactionorspecial
interestcouldcontrolthewholegovernment.IndoingsoMadisonwasespousingapluralistsystem.An
eliteclasswouldnotrulehere.Rathermanycompetinggroupswouldattempttoinfluencepublicpolicy.
Pluralismwouldprotectusfromanauthoritariangovernment.Federalist51addressedthefearthata
centralizedgovernmentmightjeopardizeindividualfreedom.Ifmenwereangels,Madisonargued,we
wouldnotneedagovernment.Madisonexplainedhowtheseparationofpowersandasystemofchecks
andbalanceswouldprotectpersonalliberty.Neverthelessastrongbutnottoostrongcentralgovernment
wasessentialtoenjoyingthatliberty.

Onemoreissuewouldneedtobesettledbeforethenecessarynumberofstateswouldsignontothis
newgoverningdocument.TheframerswouldneedtoaddaBillofRights.Themembersofthe
constitutionalconventionarguedthatthisnewgovernmentwouldnotbestrongenoughtoimperil
individualliberty.Theirargumentswereinsufficient.AssurancesweremadethataBillofRightswouldbe
added.Thefirsttenamendments,ourBillofRights,wereproposedandratifiedbythefirstCongressand
ratifiedbythestatesin1791.

WiththeproposalandratificationoftheU.SConstitutionandtheBillofRightssomewouldsayAmerica
hadcompleteditssecondrevolution.Thefirstbroughtindependenceandthepromiseofliberty.The
secondestablishedaworkablegovernmentbasedonpopularsovereigntybutalsoprotectedorder.That
documentstillservesustoday.LetstakeacloserlookattheUnitedStatesConstitution.

3.ExplainhowtheU.S.Constitution,whenratified,impactedtheroleofthecentral
government.

TheoriginalU.S.Constitutionwasorganizedin7Articlesorsections.

Article1describesandenumeratesthepowersgiventoourLegislativebranch.TheLegislativebranchis
oftencalledourfirstbranch.OurbicameralCongresshasthreeprimaryresponsibilities:(1)makelaws
(2)provideoversighttotherestofthegovernment(3)representtheirconstituentsthroughcasework.
OriginallyonlytheHousetheRepresentativeswasdirectlyelected.AtourfoundingSenatorswere
appointedbytheirrespectivestatelegislatures.Thetimes,placesandmannerofallelectionswouldbe
determinedbyeachindividualstate.Article1,Section8enumeratedthebasicexpressedpowersgiven
toourCongress.ThemostnotablepowersgiventotheLegislativebranchweretherighttoraisetaxes,
declarewar,andtoregulateinterstatecommerce.Theinterstatecommerceclausewouldprovetobethe
mostfrequentlyusedprovisiontoexpandthepowerofourcentralgovernment.Themostcontroversial
power,however,isfoundinArticle1,Section8,andclause18.Calledtheelasticclause,thenecessary
andproperclauseempowersourlegislativebranchtopassanylawthatisrelatedtooneofitsexpressed
powers.Needlesstosaythisprovisionhasbeenusedtoextendthereachofgovernmentwheneverthe

vaguelanguageoftheConstitutionprovedinadequate.IntheendourLegislativebranchhasbeengiven
thepowerofthepurse.TheUnitedStatesCongressisresponsibleforcollectingallrevenuesnecessary
tocovertheappropriationsofourgovernmentaccordingtothepreparedbudget.

Article2describesandenumeratesthepowersgiventoourexecutivebranch.Thoughgiventhepower
ofthesword,ourearlypresidentswereconsideredrelativelyweak.Presidentialauthoritywasbased
moreonpersonalitythentheexpressedpowersfoundintheConstitution.ThatiswhytheLegislative
branchovershadowedmanyofourearliestpresidents.NeverthelesstheConstitutionempowersthe
presidenttobecommanderinchief,toappointwiththeAdviceandConsentoftheSenateambassadors,
judgesandotherofficialsoftheExecutivebranch.Ultimatelythepresidentwasempoweredtofaithfully
executethelawspassedbythelegislativebranch.Thepresidentcanvetoalllaws.Asisstilltrue,the
originalConstitutioncreatedanindirectmeanstoelectourpresident.OurFramersfeareddemocracyas
muchastheyfearedmonarchy.AnElectoralCollegewascreatedtoprovideafilterbetweenthedirect
votesofcitizensandtheselectionofourchiefexecutive.Presidentscanberemovedthrough
impeachment.TheHouseofRepresentativescanaccusethepresidentofhighcrimesand
misdemeanorsbutonlytheSenatecanholdthetrialtoremovehimfromoffice.

Article3describesthepowersofthejudicialbranch.AlexanderHamiltoncalledthejudiciarytheleast
dangerousbranch.TheauthorityoftheSupremeCourtwouldgrowassubsequentcongressesgaveit
moreandmorepower.TheSupremeCourtwasempoweredtointerpretwhatourlawsmean.

Article4describestherelationshipbetweenthecentralgovernmentandthestates.TheConstitution
guaranteesarepublicanformofgovernment.TheFullFaithandCreditclauseassuresthatallstateswill
respectthelawsoftheland.Thisalsoincludesthelawsofotherstates.ThePrivilegesandImmunities
clausehasalsobeenusedtolegallybindthestategovernmentsintoonecohesiveunit.

Article5describesthemeansbywhichtheoriginalconstitutioncouldbeamended.Theprocessmay
appearstraightforwardandsimple.Asoftoday,however,ourConstitutionhasonlybeenamended27
times.ThemostcommonwaytoamendtheConstitutionisforaproposaltobemadeby2/3sof
Congressandthenaratificationvoteby3/4softhestatelegislatures.Thoughneverusedassuch,
proposalscanbemadebynationalconventionswithratificationbystateconventions.

Article6assuredthatthedebtsoftheUnitedStatescarriedoverfromtheRevolutionwouldbehonored
andpaid.

Article7prescribedthat9oftheoriginal13stateswouldberequiredtoratifythenewconstitution.

ThoughtheU.S.Constitutiondoesnotmentionpoliticalpartiestwoprimaryfactionsdebateditsmerits.
TheFederalistsadvocatedforastrongercentralgovernmentandpushedhardestforratification.The
AntiFederalistsweresuspiciousofgrantingtoomuchpowertothenewnationalgovernment.Themost
significantreservationwasoveraBillofRights.

TheFederalistsclaimedthattheessentialcivillibertieswerealreadycontainedwithintheoriginal
constitution.TheWritofHabeasCorpus,showmethebody,protectsallcitizensfromunlawful
detention.BillsofAttainderwereprohibited.Allcitizenswouldbeguaranteedatrialbyajudiciary.Nor
couldcitizensbeconvictedthroughExPostFactolaws.Onecannotapplylawafterthefactor
retroactively.Federalistsarguedthatthecentralgovernmentwithitslimitedpowerswouldbeunableto

infringeuponpersonalliberty.AntiFederalistsheldoutfortheassurancethataBillofRightswouldbe
added.

4.DescribetheformalandinformalmethodsusedtochangethemeaningoftheU.S.
Constitution.

Article5oftheUnitedStatesConstitutiondescribesthemeansbywhichtheoriginalconstitutioncouldbe
formallyamended.Theprocessmayappearstraightforwardandsimple.Asoftoday,however,our
Constitutionhasonlybeenamended27times.ThemostcommonwaytoamendtheConstitutionisfora
proposaltobemadeby2/3sofCongressandthenaratificationvoteby3/4softhestatelegislatures.
Thoughneverusedassuch,proposalscanbemadebynationalconventionswithratificationbystate
conventions.

InadditiontotheBillofRightswehaveamendedtheConstitution17moretimesforatotalof27
amendments.Herearethemostnotable:

13th,14thand15thAmendmentsarereferredtoastheCivilWarAmendments.The13thfreedthe
slaves.The14thAmendmentextendedcitizenshipandthe15thgrantedAfricanAmericanmalesthe
righttovote.

16thAmendment(1913)establishedthefederalincometax.

17thAmendment(1913)establishedthedirectelectionofU.S.Senatorsbypopularvote.

19thAmendment(1919)extendedwomenssuffrage.

22ndAmendment(1951)limitedpresidentstotwoterms.

24thAmendment(1964)eliminatedthepolltax.

26thAmendment(1971)extendedtherighttovoteto1820yearolds.

Yetoneshouldnotimaginethatthemeaningofourconstitutionhasexperiencedlittlechange.The
followingwordsofThomasJeffersonhaveanimatedourpoliticssincethedayshefirststatedthem,On
similargrounditmaybeprovedthatnosocietycanmakeaperpetualconstitution,orevenaperpetual
law.Theearthbelongsalwaystothelivinggeneration.Thoughtheformalstructureofourconstitution
hasgonevirtuallyunchanged,themeaningandapplicationhasgonethroughnumerousinformal
changes.

Congressoftenchangesthemeaningofourconstitutionbyexercisingitslegislativeauthority.
Empoweredbytheelasticclause,theU.S.Congresshasbeengrantedtheauthoritytopassnecessary
laws.Theselawsoftenexceedthereachofouroriginalconstitution.Thesechangesallpointtoasimilar
directionthesizeandscopeoftheUnitedStatesgovernmentisevergrowing.

TheCongressisnotaloneinexpandingthepowerandauthorityoftheU.S.constitution.TheSupreme
CourttoocaninformallychangethemeaningoftheU.S.constitutionthroughitsdecisions.By
establishingnewprecedentstheCourtaltersthemeaningandunderstandingofourrulingdocument.

TheExecutivebranchtoocaninformallychangehowouroriginaldocumentisunderstood.Presidential
authorityallowsforexecutiveactionsthatoftengobeyondwhattheframersimagined.Agentsofthe
governmentaswell,makinguptheFederalbureaucracy,oftenpossessdiscretionarypowerthatseemto
movebeyondformalconstitutionallimits.

Intheend,however,weareanationoflawsandlimits.TheSupremeCourtisheldresponsiblefor
interpretingthoselimits.Thepeopleultimatelyholdthehealthofourlivingconstitutionintheirhands.

5.ExplainhowthefirsttenamendmentstotheU.S.Constitution,theBillofRights,limit
thecentralgovernment.

TodayourBillofRightsisfoundinthefirsttenamendmentstotheU.S.Constitution.Itshouldbe
rememberedthattheseprivilegeshavebeengrantedtoallasameanstodirectlylimitthepowerofthe
centralgovernment.

Belowisabriefreviewofourmostcherishedcivilliberties:

Amendment1:FreedomofSpeech,Religion,Press,Assembly,Petition.

Note:Thefreedomofspeechgetspreferentialtreatmentbythecourts.Itisourmostsacredright.Yet
evenfreedomofspeechhasitslimits.Youarenotfreetopublishobscenematerials.Youarenotfreeto
lieorslanderothersnorcanyouwritefalselywhichiscalledlibel.Likewisepriorrestraintorcensorshipof
thepressmustpassoverahighbar.Freedomofreligionissplitintotwoseparateprotections.Wehave
freedomfromanestablishmentofreligion.ThisprotectsusfromanofficialStatereligion.TheLemon
Testprescribestherulesregardinganyapparentcooperationbetweenchurchandstate:(1)The
governmentsactionmusthaveasecularpurpose(2)Thegovernmentsactionmustnothavethe
primaryeffectofeitheradvancingorinhibitingreligion(3)Thegovernmentsactionmustnotresultinan
excessiveentanglementwithreligion.Wealsohavethefreeexerciseofreligion.Thegovernment
cannotinfringeuponourrighttoworshipthewayweplease.

Amendment2:TherighttoBearArms.

Amendment3:FreedomfromQuarteringTroopsinpeacetime.

Amendment4:FreedomfromunreasonableSearchesandSeizures.

Amendment5:RightsgiventotheaccusedincludingDueProcess.Allcitizenswouldbefreefrom
selfincrimination.EminentDomainanytakingofprivatepropertyforpublicpurposesmustbe
accompaniedbyjustcompensation.

Amendment6:RightsoftheAccused.Allcitizenswouldbeguaranteedtherighttoanattorney,aspeedy
trialandanimpartialjury.

Amendment7:Certainrightsappliedincriminalcaseswouldbealsobeprovidedincivillaw.

Amendment8:FreedomfromCruelandUnusualPunishment.

Amendment9:Rightsgiventothepeople.Theenumeratedrightscontainedwithintheconstitutionwere
nottobeconsideredexhaustive.Whereotherrightswerefoundtheybelongtothepeople.[Note:the
enumeratedpowersarethosepowersthatbelongexclusivelytothenationalgovernment].

Amendment10:ReservedRights.Thoserightsnotguaranteedorenumeratedbythefederalconstitution
wouldbereservedtotheStates.The10thAmendmentfurthersolidifiedtheconceptoffederalism.

6.DescribehowtheFourteenthAmendmenthasbeenusedtochangethe
roleplayedbythecentralgovernmentinprotectingcivilliberties.

TheBillofRightswasaddedinfearofanallpowerfulcentralgovernment.Ironicallytheserights
ultimatelyextendedthereachandauthorityofthefederalgovernmentbeyondanyonesimagination.It
wasintendedthatway.Infact,theBillofRightsonlyprotectedourcivillibertiesfrombeinginfringedby
thenationalgovernment.ThiswasclearlydefinedbytheSupremeCourtinthecaseBarronv.Baltimore
(1833).Thecourtmadeclearthattherightscontainedinthefirsttenamendmentsdidnotapplytothe
states.Inotherwords,theUnitedStatesCongresscouldnotviolateyourfreedomofspeechbutthe
StateofNewYorkcould.Itwouldtakeanumberofgenerationsbeforethisconfusionwasremedied.

TheextensionoftheBillofRightstotheStatesiscalledtheselectiveIncorporationDoctrine.Itcouldnot
haveoccurredwithoutthe14thAmendment.The14thAmendmentguaranteedtoallcitizensinallofthe
Statesboththedueprocessoflawandtheequalityofopportunitygrantedtoall.FurthermorenoState
couldabridgetheprivilegesorimmunitiesgiventocitizensoftheUnitedStates.Itwasnotuntil1925in
thecaseGitlowv.NewYorkwheretheSupremeCourtappliedthelanguageofthe14thAmendmentinto
aStatedispute.TodayvirtuallyallofourcivillibertiesasguaranteedintheBilloftheRightshavebeen
appliedorincorporatedtotheStates.Tosummarize,littlebylittletheSupremeCourtappliedor
incorporatedtheBillofRightstotheStatesusingthedueprocessclauseofthe14thAmendment.

7.ExplainhowtheU.S.SupremeCourtovertimehasinterpretedthemeaning
ofourfundamentalfreedomsasfoundintheFirstAmendment.

UltimatelytheUnitedStatesSupremeCourtisempoweredtointerpretwhatourlawsandprivileges
mean.Throughoutourhistorytherehavebeenanumberoflandmarkcourtcasesthathavedefinedthe
meaningofourrights.Belowyouwillfindafewofthemostimportantlandmarkcases:

Marburyv.Madison(1803)establishedjudicialreview.Thisempoweredthecourttoruleonthe
constitutionalityofalllawsincludingpresidentialaction.Thoughrarelyusedinourearlyyearshardlyany
significantquestionintodayspoliticalarenaescapestheCourtsreviewandjudgment.

McCullochv.Maryland(1819)establishedthesupremacyofthenationalgovernment.Inthiscasethe
courtrecognizedthenecessaryandproperclauseasauthoritativewhencreatinganationalbankdespite
theconstitutionssilenceonthematter.Thiscasewouldhavefarreachingconsequencesinthebattle
betweenthenationalgovernmentandthestates.

Schenckv.U.S.(1919)wasanearlycasedefiningthelimitsofourfreespeech.JusticeOliverWendell
Holmesfamouslystatedinhisopinion,Freespeechwouldnotprotectamaninfalselyshoutingfirein
atheater.Therulingprecedentofthiscaseestablishedtheclearandpresentdangerstandard.

Gitlowv.NewYork(1925)incorporatedthefreespeechclauseoftheFirstAmendment.Forthefirsttime
freespeechwouldbeextendedequallyinallStatesthroughthedueprocessclauseofthe14th
Amendment.

Tinkerv.DesMoines(1969)furtherestablishedthereachoftheFirstAmendmentintosymbolicspeech
[laterthiswouldbecodifiedinTexasv.Johnson(1989),theflagburningcase].FurthermoretheCourt
recognizedthatstudentsdonotshedtheirrightsattheschoolhousegate.Mostimportantlysymbolson
clothingand/orinaudibleexpressionsareprotectedbythefreespeechclauseoftheFirstAmendment.

NewYorkTimesv.U.S.(1971)establishedthelimitsoffreepress.Thegovernmentcanuseprior
restraintwhenconfrontedbynationalsecurityissuesbutthebarforsuchcensorshipishigh.Thecourt,
however,choseinthiscasetoraisethestandardofnationalsecurityquitehigh.Herethecourtchosenot
todisallowthepublicationoftheleakedPentagonPapers.

Eversonv.BoardofEducation(1947)definedforthefirsttimetheestablishmentclauseoftheFirst
Amendment.JusticeHugoBlackstatedthatawallofseparationexistedbetweenchurchandstate.
Thiscasealsoincorporatedtheestablishmentclause.Usingthedueprocessclauseofthe
14thAmendmentnostatecouldestablishonereligionoveranother.

BeremindedthattheFirstAmendmentcontainsourmostcherishedrights.Oftenourcourtsgivethema
preferredposition.Governmentsdidnotgivetheserightstous.Ratherweempowergovernmentsto
protectthesenaturalrights.

8.ExplainhowtheU.S.SupremeCourtovertimehasinterpretedthe
meaningofcriminaldueprocessasguaranteedintheBillofRights.

TheBillofRightscontainsmanydiverseprotections.Inadditiontopoliticalrightslikespeechandpress
theyalsoprotectusfromoppressivepolicepowers.Throughoutourhistorytherehavebeenanumberof
landmarkcourtcasesthathavedefinedthemeaningoftheserights.Belowyouwillfindafewofthemost
importantlandmarkcases:

Mappv.Ohio(1961)incorporatedtheexclusionaryruleusingthedueprocessclauseofthe14th
Amendment.Theexclusionaryruledisallowsincourtanyillegallyobtainedevidence.Theexclusionary
ruleprovidesasafeguardforour4thAmendmentrighttobefreefromunreasonablesearchesand
seizures.

Mirandav.Arizona(1966)heldthatanysuspectputincustodybyauthoritiesmustbefirstinformedof
theirrights.TheMirandawarning,hence,hasbecomestandardatthepointofanylegaldetentionYou
havetherighttoremainsilent.Anythingyousaycanandwillbeusedagainstyou.Youhavetherightto
anattorney.Ifyoucannotaffordanattorneyonewillbeprovidedforyou.

Gideonv.Wainwright(1963)incorporatedthe6thAmendmentsrighttoattorney.Notonlyinfederal
casesbutalsoinallStateandLocal,aswell,thegovernmentmustprovidelegalcounsel.

Griswoldv.Connecticut(1965)utilizedthevaguelanguageofthe9thAmendmenttoestablishtherightto
privacy.ThoughnotspecificallymentionedintheConstitutionsBillofRightstherighttoprivacywaslater
extendedtoincludeawomensrighttochooseanabortioninRoev.Wade(1973).Fewjudicialopinions
havebeenmorecontroversial.


Onecommonlymisunderstoodcriminallawpracticeisthepleabargain.Courtshavefrequentlyupheld
theirvalidity.Apleabargainallowsthestateanditsprosecutorstoofferareducedsentenceifthe
accusedagreetopleaguiltytoalesseroffense.Theintentofapleabargainistoreducetheheavy
workloadofthecourtsystem.Pleabargainsultimatelymeanfewertrialsandmoredefendantsdoingtime
fortheiroffences.

Asthesecasesrepresent,theSupremeCourtactsasthefinalarbitratorofourrightsandprivilegesas
UnitedStatescitizens.

9.DescribetheevolutionofcivilrightsinAmericansociety.

Whenlookingatourfoundations,libertywasnottheonlypromisemadeduringourRevolution.Equality
aswellwasanessentialfeatureofouruniqueAmericanexperiment.Ourrecordinextendingequalityto
allhasbeen,assomehavewritten,ourAmericandilemma.Defendingequalityalmosttoreusapart
duringtheAmericanCivilWar.ButasLincolnwroteinhisGettysburgAddress,wefoughtforanewbirth
offreedom.Wecontinuetofight.Ourformofdemocraticrepublicanismupholdsmajorityrulewhile
puttinginplaceprotectionsforminorityrights.

ThecivilrightsmovementheraldedtherightsofWomenandAfricanAmericans.Subsequentlyitwas
extendedtoLatinos.TodaysuchcivilrightsarebeingwagedonbehalfoftheLGBTcommunity.
Federalismoftendelaysandcomplicatestheextensionofcivilrights.Alimitedgovernment,likeours,is
notfittedtomakedramaticchangesinahurry.

Wecanlearnfromthecivilrightsmovementsofthepastonhowbesttopursueevengreaterequalityin
ourfuture.AfricanAmericansfollowingtheCivilWarfoundmuchofAmericatobeunwelcoming.
GratefulfortheirfreedombutJimCrowlawssegregatedandrelegatedthemtosecondclasscitizens.
Workwasdifficulttofind.Theywerenotpermittedtojoininsocietyasequalpartners.EventheUnited
StatesSupremeCourtruledinPlessyv.Ferguson(1896)thatseparatebutequalwasatenable
standard.Dejuresegregation,thatissegregationbylaw,wasindeedconstitutional.

Theearlycivilrightmovementsawthecourtsastheirbattleground.Throughlitigationcivilrights
attorneyscouldarguetheircaseincourt.Theirgreatestvictorycamein1954inthecaseBrownv.Board
ofEducation.BrownoverturnedthePlessyprecedentbyrulingthatseparatewasnotequal.Schools
couldnolongersegregateonthebasisofrace.Thislandmarkdecisionsetinmotionanendtodejure
segregation.Thelawofthelandwouldnolongerpermitaraciallydividedsociety.Itsrationalewasfound
inthedueprocessandequalprotectionclausesofthe14thAmendment.Thenationalgovernmentwas
flexingitsauthorityoverthestates.Defactosegregation,separationbyprivatechoices,stillexists.

Withthecourtssolidlybehindthem,thecivilrightsmovementturnedtoCongress.Politicalpressure
combinedwithaheavydoseofpersonalcouragehelpedtopasstheCivilRightsActof1964andthe
VotingRightsActof1965.Thesehistoricpiecesoflegislationextendedequalityevenfurther.
Segregation,discriminationandprejudicewouldnolongerbeaccepted.Votingrightswouldbeprotected.
Rulestosuppressblackpoliticalparticipationlikeliteracytestswereoutlawed.Americawasmoving
closertoitspromiseofequalityforall.

Affirmativeactionprogramswereputinplacetoofferracialminoritiesachancetocatchupforpast
discrimination.Thispreferentialtreatmenthasnotgoneunnoticed.Thecivilrightsmovementcontinues
asthefightforequalityisnotover.

AfricanAmericanswerenottheonlymarginalizedgroupstowinpoliticalvictoriesinthewakeofthecivil
rightsmovement.OneofthemorenotablevictoriesoccurredforwomenwithTitleIXoftheEducation
Amendmentsof1972.Thisprohibitedanyformofdiscriminationonthebasisofgenderinanyeducation
programoractivity.

Todayanyprogramoractivitythatcontinuestodiscriminatemustpassthestrictscrutinytest.On
occasionourSupremeCourtallowsforinstancesofdiscrimination.Forinstance,womenhaveusually
beenheldoutofdirectcombatroleswhenservinginthemilitary.Suchdiscriminationhasbeenpermitted
usingthestrictscrutinytestbaseduponacompellingstateinterest.Increasinglyourjudiciaryhas
beenaskedtoextenddueprocessnotonlyprocedurallybutsubstantivelyaswell.Proceduraldue
processassuresfairandimpartialtreatment.SubstantivedueprocessempowerstheCourttoidentify
thoseprivatechoicesthatarebeyondgovernmentrestriction.FuturecivilrightsvictoriesrestintheCourt
protectingthesesubstantiverights.

10.DescribehowtheFourteenthAmendmenthasbeenusedto
changetheroleplayedbythecentralgovernmentinprotectingcivilrights.

OurcivillibertiesareprotectedbytheBillofRights.Civilrightsguaranteesequalprotectionunderthe
law.The14thAmendment,moresothenanyotheractofgovernment,hasadvanceddueprocessand
equalprotectionforall.Civillibertieslimitgovernmentactionwhilecivilrightsprotectusfromdejure
actsofsegregation.Thelawcannotpermitactsthatdenyequalitytoall.Forgedintime,theprotectionof
ourcivilrightshasnotbeeneasy.Intheendthecentralgovernmenthasexpandeditsauthorityasithas
beenaskedmoreandmoretosafeguardourmostcherishedrights.

ThomasJeffersonspromissorynote,recordedinourDeclarationofIndependence,claimed:Wehold
thesetruthstobeselfevident,thatallmenarecreatedequal.FurthermoreLincolnfoughttoholdour
Uniontogetherbypromisinganewbirthoffreedom.Ashistoryhasproved,freedomandequalitydonot
comeeasy.Thereisacosttobear.Eachgenerationmusttakeontheexampleofourforefathersand
standupwhencalledupontodefendtheprinciplesweallholddear.

JamesMadisonwrote,Theverysuccessofdemocracydependsupontheknowledgeandskillsofits
citizens.Inreviewingourfoundationsyouaretakinganimportantstepinassuringthatsuccess.
Throughouttheremainingweeksofthissemesteryouwillfindthree(3)primarymetanarrativesthat
coexisttodaywhenstudyingAmericangovernmentandpolitics.Lookforexamplesasweprogress
throughthesemester.Thesegrandnarrativesare:

1.Aneverexpandingandcentralizingnationalgovernment.ThestoryofAmericangovernmentis
astoryoffederalaggrandizement.

2.TheincreasingdemocratizationoftheAmericanpolity.Traditionalrepublicanismandits
inherentelitismhaveincreasinglybeentransformedintoamorepluralisticandpopulist
democracy.

3.Ourmotto,EPluribusUnum,undersiege.TheUnumiseverchallengedbyourPluribus.
Partisanpoliticsandaneverincreasingpluralisticcultureapplyconstanttensionthreateningthe
foundationsofourpoliticalefficacy.

Americanfoundationsultimatelyarebuiltonhope.RalphWaldoEmersoncalledAmericaacountrybuilt
ontomorrow.WehereatCitizenUagree.Thereisalwaysroom2Bagoodcitizen.Nobettertimeto
startthennow.SorenKierkegaardsaid,Lifeisunderstoodlookingbackwardsbutitmustbelived
lookingforwards.

WhenstudyingfoundationsourgazeuponthepastisreallyaninternalGPShelpingusorientourselves
tothefuture.Welcomeaboard.Youareallframersnow.