Pergamon

Journal of School Psychology, Vol. 38, No. 5, pp. 423445, 2000

Copyright 2000 Society for the Study of School Psychology
Printed in the USA
0022-4405/00 $see front matter

PII S0022-4405(00)00034-0

Childrens Relationship with Teachers and

Bonds with School
An Investigation of Patterns and
Correlates in Middle Childhood
Christopher Murray
DePaul University

Mark T. Greenberg
Pennsylvania State University
The purpose of this study was to examine aspects of childrens social and contextual
experience in schools. Children (N 289) in elementary schools completed a measure designed to assess qualities of their relationships with teachers as well as their
perceptions of school environments. Students were then grouped into categories
based on these perceptions and comparisons were made between groups on measures of social and emotional adjustment. Findings indicated that student classifications resembled classifications reported by other researchers for student-teacher relationships. Students classified as having poor relationships with teachers and poor
bonds with school had poorer scores on self- and teacher ratings of social and emotional adjustment than children classified as having positive relationships and
bonds. These findings add to a growing body of research focused on understanding
childrens social and contextual experience in schools by providing a descriptive typology that could be used by researchers and practitioners interested in identifying
students who are having nonoptimal experiences in school settings. 2000 Society
for the Study of School Psychology. Published by Elsevier Science Ltd
Keywords: Student-teacher relationships, School environment, Emotional adjustment, Social adjustment, Elementary school students.

A growing number of researchers are examining the connections between

childrens social-contextual experiences in schools and development. These
investigations have been motivated, in part, by attachment theory (Bowlby,
1982), social control theory (Hirschi, 1969), and developmental systems
theory (Ford & Lerner, 1992). Although these theorists approach human
development from different perspectives, their theories are connected by
the common theme of describing how social and relational experiences influence human development. Children do not develop in isolation; their
Received December 11, 1998; accepted July 22, 1999.
Address correspondence and reprint requests to Christopher Murray, School of Education,
DePaul University, 2320 North Kenmore Avenue, Chicago, IL 60614-3298. Phone: (773) 3257740; fax: (773) 325-7748.

423

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Journal of School Psychology

social relationships and experiences within contexts influence their behavioral, emotional, motivational, and academic adjustments (Connell & Wellborn, 1991; Goodenow, 1993a; Pianta, 1999; Resnick et al., 1997).
Schools, and adults in schools, can have a powerful impact on children.
The relationships that develop between children and their teachers can
have an immediate influence on students motivation and behavior (Wentzel, 1998; Resnick et al., 1997), and also can have effects lasting well after
children have left the school environment (Pederson, Faucher, & Eaton,
1978). Supportive relationships with teachers, and feeling safe and connected to school can provide children with the environmental and social
supports needed to flourish (Battistich, Solomon, Watson, & Schaps, 1997;
Pianta, 1999; Hawkins, Catalano, & Miller, 1992). In contrast, when children feel alienated or detached from schools, they are at risk of developing antisocial behaviors and poor academic adjustments (Newman,
1981; U.S. Department of Education, 1998).
The purpose of this investigation was to develop further understanding
about childrens social and contextual experiences in schools. Childrens
perceptions of their relationships with teachers and bonds with school were
used to classify students into categories according to these experiences.
Comparisons were then made between these groups on measures of social
and emotional adjustment. Identifying variations in childrens perceptions
of school is important because an understanding of these variations can aid
in identifying factors related to supportive or nonsupportive school contexts. Identifying variations in childrens social and contextual experiences
is also important because such information can help researchers and practitioners identify those students who are not experiencing schools as supportive contexts.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Sociologists have long recognized the importance of supportive school environments (Hawkins & Weis, 1985; Hirschi, 1969). According to social
control theorists, feeling a sense of belonging and connectedness within
the context of school increases an individuals involvement with prosocial
groups and provides opportunities for the acquisition of prosocial skills and
behaviors (Hirschi, 1969). In addition, when students feel connected to
school they are less likely to engage in deviant behaviors because these behaviors can jeopardize continued membership within the school context
(Hawkins & Catelano, 1992).
Hirschi (1969) examined associations between school bonding and delinquency in his investigation of over 4,000 students. His findings suggested
that students who liked school and cared about what teachers thought of
them had lower rates of delinquency than students with lower scores on these
same variables. In contrast, students who felt nervous in school had higher
rates of delinquency than students who felt more comfortable in school.

Murray and Greenberg

425

A number of researchers have demonstrated the importance of school

bonds through interventions designed to improve students sense of school
belonging. Eggert, Thompson, Herting, Nicholas, and Dicker (1994) implemented a 5-week curriculum in a course designed to improve conflict
resolution and interpersonal skills. Participants in this course had significantly higher gains in school bonding than students in control classrooms
following the intervention. These changes were accompanied by reduced
drug use among students in the treatment group, suggesting a link between
students sense of school membership and nonnormative behaviors.
Hawkins, Doueck, and Lishner (1988) altered teachers instructional and
classroom management strategies in an effort to improve students positive
school bonds. This 1-year intervention focused on teachers use of positive
classroom management strategies, proactive instructional strategies, and
cooperative learning. Following the intervention, students in the treatment
group had a slightly stronger sense of school belonging (as compared to
pretest), whereas students in the control group exhibited slight decreases
on the measure of school bonding. Students in the treatment group also
had fewer behavior problems following the intervention.
Feeling safe and comfortable in school environments is also associated
with childrens emotional adjustment. Resnick et al. (1997) examined associations between school connectedness and emotional health utilizing data
from over 12,000 youths (Grades 7 through 12) who were part of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. Self-reports of school connectedness were negatively associated with emotional distress, suicide ideation, violence, alcohol use, drug use, and cigarette use after controlling
for poverty status, family structure, race, and gender.
Finally, Goodenow (1993a, 1993b) reported that students sense of
school belonging was related to students academic adjustment. She reported that students with stronger school bonds had greater performance
expectations, intrinsic orientations, and grade-point averages than students
with poorer school bonds. Students who reported stronger school belonging also had fewer absences and tardies as compared to those students with
poorer school-belonging scores.
In addition to the importance of school contexts in general, relationships within the context of school can also serve important developmental
functions (Pianta, 1999). A number of researchers have used attachment
theory (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978; Bowlby, 1982) as a basis
for understanding relationship patterns between children and their teachers. According to attachment theory, warm and supportive relationships,
characterized by open communication, trust, involvement, and responsiveness influence social and emotional development through internalized
models of accessibility and support. Such models provide children with the
security to approach and explore novel situations and can also enhance

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Journal of School Psychology

emotional development by providing children with a secure and consistent

support system (Bretherton & Munholland, 1999).
Applying many of the principles found in attachment theory, Pianta and
colleagues (Pianta, 1994; Pianta & Steinberg, 1992; Pianta, Steinberg, &
Rollins, 1995) have conducted a series of investigations into the characteristics and importance of student-teacher relationships. Using a rating scale
that assesses teacher perceptions of the emotional tone and involvement
present within these relationships, Pianta and Steinberg (1992) found that
kindergarten-aged childrens relationships with teachers were associated
with childrens behavior and general social competence in first grade. Students with warm and open relations with teachers had higher ratings of
peer and assertive social skills, whereas children with conflicted, dependent, or troubled relations with teachers had lower scores on these same
variables.
In a similar investigation, Birch and Ladd (1997) used a portion of the
rating scale developed by Pianta to examine associations between studentteacher relationships and childrens school adjustment. These researchers
found that closeness, dependence, and conflict within teacher-student relationships were significant predictors of childrens academic performance,
school affect, and school involvement after controlling for gender and relational environments.
Other investigators have demonstrated the importance of studentteacher relationships using similar conceptual models. Connell and Wellborn (1991) developed a model of self-systems processes that includes a relatedness component. In their model, relatedness is measured by students
perceptions of emotional security with teachers and by the perceived need
for a closer relationship with teachers. Connell and Wellborn (1991) found
that the students (Grades 3 through 6) self-report ratings of relatedness
with teachers were associated with motivation and task engagement in
school. Using the same theoretical model, Skinner and Belmont (1993) examined the importance of relatedness for 144 children who ranged in age
from 8 to 12 years. These researchers reported that child and teacher ratings on the measure of relatedness were associated with childrens motivation, behavioral engagement, and emotional engagement in school.
In summary, both theory and research focused on understanding the importance of childrens social and contextual experiences in school suggests
that there are important links between the way children experience school
environments and their social, emotional, and academic adjustment. This
growing awareness has led to a need for research focused on understanding
patterns of school experience among children. Identifying patterns is important because typologies could be used to help define critical aspects of
childrens social and relational experience in school. It is also important to
develop methods for identifying students who are not experiencing school
as a supportive context so that these children can be targeted for interventions designed to improve their social and relational experiences in school.

Murray and Greenberg

427

To date, two investigators have provided descriptive typologies of student-teacher relationship patterns. Pianta (1994) identified six types of relationships in his investigation of children in kindergarten. These patterns
included Dysfunctional (5%), Angry/Dependent (3%), Dependent (11%),
Positively Involved (39%), Functional Average (35%), and Uninvolved
(7%). Children in Dysfunctional and Angry/Dependent categories had relationships with teachers characterized by dependency, anger, and conflict.
In contrast, students in the Positively Involved group had relationships with
teachers characterized by emotional warmth and open communication.
These patterns were associated with childrens adjustment. Students in the
Dysfunctional and Angry/Dependant groups had significantly greater
peer, conduct, and learning problems compared with children in the Positively Involved group.
In a similar investigation, Lynch and Cicchetti (1997) classified children
according to degrees of positive/negative emotions when thinking about
teachers, and psychological proximity seeking with teachers. Ten percent
of the students in this investigation had deprived relations, 46% had disengaged relationships, 5% had confused patterns, 18% had optimal patterns,
and 22% had adequate relationship patterns. High levels of psychological
proximity seeking and low levels of positive emotions characterized children with deprived relationships, whereas low proximity seeking and high
positive emotions characterized children in the optimal relations group. Interestingly, many of the children in this investigation were classified as disengaged. These students reported low levels of positive emotions when
thinking about teachers, but they also reported low levels of proximity seeking, suggesting that they did not want closer relationships with teachers.
The purpose of the present investigation was to build on previous work
related to identifying patterns of childrens social and contextual experience in school. This investigation differs slightly from previous research because we were interested in childrens perceptions of their bonds with
school as well as their perceptions of relationships with teachers. However,
we expected childrens perceptions of their relationships with teachers and
bonds with school to resemble patterns found in investigations focused exclusively on student-teacher relationships because childrens perceptions of
school environments are shaped by relationships with teachers as well as experiences within the context of school in general. Therefore, we expected
that children could be organized into conceptually meaningful categories
based on their perceptions of social and relational aspects of the school environment. We also expected that variations in experience would be associated with childrens social and emotional adjustment. We expected students with positive perceptions of their relationship with teachers and their
school environment to report better social and emotional adjustment than
students with negative perceptions of teachers and schools.

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Table 1
Demographic Information
Samplea
(N 289)
Mean age (months)
Gender
Male
Female
Race
Students of color
White
Educational status
Mild/moderate disabilities
Regular education
Grade placement

138

Subsampleb
(n 170)
138

56.7%
43.3%

55.9%
44.1%

38.8%
61.2%

35.3%
64.7%

33.2%
66.8%
5th and 6th

34.1%
65.9%
5th and 6th

The original sample used for primary analyses.

The subsample of the original sample used for secondary analysis examining teacherreport variables.

METHOD
Subjects and Procedures
The participants in this study were part of a longitudinal study, Promoting
Alternative THinking Strategies (PATHS), conducted by researchers at the
University of Washington (Greenberg, Kusche, Cook, & Quamma, 1995).
All participants (N 289) attended elementary schools in an urban school
district in the northwestern United States. Table 1 contains both the demographic information for the sample used in the primary analyses and information for a subsample of the original group who were used in a second
analysis. The original sample and the subsample were virtually identical in
terms of gender, age, race, and educational status. Approximately 57%
were male, average age was 138 months, and approximately 33% of the
sample were students with mild and moderate disabilities. Slightly more students in the original sample were students of color (38% vs. 35%), and the
participants were in fifth and sixth grade at the time of testing. Although
the proportion of students with disabilities in this sample was higher than
the proportion found in national estimates, there are numerous factors in
urban settings that can lead to higher identification rates (e.g., proportion
of racial minorities, socioeconomic status, and limited English proficiency).
The influence of these factors on identification rates in urban settings are
described thoroughly in the Eighteenth Annual Report to Congress on the Implementation of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (U.S. Department of
Education, 1996).
As part of the larger study (PATHS), written consent was obtained from
the parents of all participants. All instruments were administered individually during the second half of the school year by trained interviewers who

Murray and Greenberg

429

attended an intensive course that covered general issues in testing and testing procedures for administering and scoring each measure. Student responses were then entered into a SPSS database by a different group of
trained personnel.
Child Measures
People In My Life (PIML). This measure is an adaptation of the Inventory
of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA) developed by Armsden and Greenberg
(1987) to measure adolescents representations of their relationships with
parents and peers. The underlying structure of the measure is intended to
assess behavioral and cognitive aspects of attachments. The instrument taps
internal working models by measuring 1) the positive affective/cognitive
experience of trust in the accessibility and responsiveness of attachment
figures, and 2) the negative affective/cognitive experiences of anger or
hopelessness resulting from unresponsive or inconsistently responsive attachment figures (Armsden & Greenberg, 1987, p. i).
The PIML (Cook, Greenberg, & Kusche, 1995), is designed to measure
10- to 12-year-old childrens representations of their relationship with parents, peers, and teachers. The questions from the IPPA were adapted so
that they were understandable to younger children. Similarly, questions
from the parent scale of the IPPA were adapted so that they applied to
teachers. For example, on the original IPPA, the question My mother understands me was changed to read My teacher understands me.
In addition to the section on relationships, a series of questions designed
to measure school bonds were developed. The development of this set of
questions was based on prior theory and research in the area of school
bonding (Hirschi, 1969; Hawkins & Catelano, 1992). Questions such as
Most mornings I look forward to going to school and My school is a nice
place to be were designed to measure positive school bonds. Other questions (e.g., I feel scared at my school, My school is a dangerous place to
be) were designed to measure negative perceptions about the school environment. Responses to this measure are made on a 4-point scale ranging
from almost never or never true to almost always or always true. Students responses on this instrument were subjected to a principal components analysis that is described in the Results section.
Social Competence Rating Scale for Children (SCRSC). The SCRSC is an
adapted version of the social competence subscale of the Teacher Child
Rating Scale (TCRS) (Hightower et al., 1986) and is designed to measure
social competencies of children. The measure was adapted for use with
children by changing the question wordings on the teacher version so that
they applied to self. A similar adaptation of this measure was used in an examination of childrens and teachers views of school-based competencies

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Journal of School Psychology

and their relation to childrens peer status (Juvonen, Keough, Ratekin, &
Bernheimer, 1992). These investigators found that the adapted measure is
associated with peer-rated sociometric status. Further, Greenberg and
Kusche (1994) found that the total SCRSC score was significantly associated
(.42, p .001) with teachers ratings on the original measure. Four factors
are included in the SCRSC: School Competence, Social Competence, Good
Peer Relations, and Handles Peer Stress. Three of these factors, School
Competence (6 items, .77), Social Competence (7 items, .84), and
Good Peer Relations (4 items, .84) will be used in the current analyses.
Reynolds Child Depression Scale (RCDS). The RCDS is a self-report measure designed to assess depressive symptomology in children (Reynolds,
1989). Sample items are I feel sad and I feel lonely. Responses are made
on a 4-point scale (1 almost never to 4 all the time). Reynolds (1989)
reported high internal consistency (.90) and high split-half reliability (.89)
on this measure using a sample of over 1,600 students from elementary
schools in the western and midwestern regions of the United States. In a
separate investigation, Reynolds and Graves (1989) reported a test-retest reliability of .85 over a 4-week period. This instrument is associated with other
measures of depression and with measures of anxiety and self-esteem
(Reynolds, Anderson, & Bartell, 1985). The total raw score from the RCDS
will be utilized in this investigation.
Delinquency Rating Scale for Self and Others (DRSSO). The DRSSO is an
adaptation of the widely used National Youth Survey (NYS; Elliot, Huizinga, & Ageton, 1985). The NYS was revised by (a) removing items that
were developmentally inappropriate for children in elementary school settings, and (b) asking about activities of both self and peers. The same questions are given for self and friends, and children are asked to indicate the
number of delinquent acts engaged in during the past year (e.g., Stolen
something that did not belong to you, Broken into a building, house, or
car). The response format includes four categories (1 never, 2 one
or two times, 3 three or four times, and 4 more than four times). The
adapted measure used for this study is a 56-item self-report measure that
yields composite scores or counts of the number of delinquent acts engaged in by self (28 items, .89) and friends (28 items, .94;
Greenberg & Kusche, 1992). In the current study, self-report of delinquency was concurrently related to self-report of substance use (r .33, p
.001) and to special education status (r .46, p .001).
Seattle Personality Questionnaire for Children (SPQC). The SPQC is a
self-report measure designed to assess the general personality characteristics of children. In a previous analysis, Greenberg and Kusche (1990) examined both the 1-year stability and the test-retest reliability of three factors

Murray and Greenberg

431

within this instrument: Conduct Problems, Anxiety, and Somatization. Two

of these factors, Conduct Problems and Anxiety, will be utilized in these
analyses. The Conduct Problems factor contains 14 items related to problem behaviors (e.g., Sometimes I break things on purpose, .85). The
test-retest reliability for this factor was .49, p .001. The Anxiety factor includes 14 items related to anxiety (e.g., I am often afraid something bad
will happen, .84) and the test-retest reliability for this factor was .41,
p .001.
Teacher Measures
The Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist. The Child Behavior Checklist
(CBCL) for Teachers (Achenbach, 1978; Edelbrock & Achenbach, 1984) is
a commonly used rating scale designed to measure the behavioral and emotional adjustment of children and adolescents. The two broad-band factors
on this instrument distinguish internal versus external symptomology in
children. The internalizing band contains questions related to emotional
symptoms of disorder (e.g., depression, anxiety, and dependency). The external band contains questions related to behavioral symptoms of disorder
(e.g., aggression, poor peer relations, and noncompliance).
The Teacher-Child Rating Scale (TCRS). The TCRS is a two-part questionnaire designed to measure the in-school problem behaviors and competencies of children (Hightower et al., 1986). The competence section, which
will be used for these analyses, contains 25 items related to childrens social
competencies. Teachers rate children on a 5-point scale (1 not at all to
5 very well). The three factors include (a) Frustration Tolerance (11
items, .96); (b) Assertive Social Skills (7 items, .93); and (c) Task
Orientation (8 items, .97). This instrument has been shown to be valid
when used to distinguish problem- and low competent-type children
(Hightower et al., 1986).
RESULTS
A number of analyses were conducted to examine aspects of childrens relational and contextual experiences in school settings. First, childrens responses to the school and teacher questions on the PIML instrument were
subjected to a principal components analysis to examine underlying constructs in this measure. Second, correlational analyses examined the relationships between all of the measures included in these analyses. Third, a
cluster analysis was conducted to identify patterns of childrens school experience. Last, differences between cluster groupings on measures of social
and emotional adjustment were examined using self- and teacher reports
of adjustment as criterion variables.

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Journal of School Psychology

Table 2
Summary of the Principal Components Analysis of the Student-Teacher
Relationship Questions and the School Bonding Questions (N 289)
Items
Affiliation with Teacher
Trust my teachers
Teachers understand me
Like my teachers this year
Teachers respect my feelings
Teachers proud of me
Get along well with teachers
Teachers pay attention to me
I can count on teacher when
having a problem
School Bond
I like class activities
Doing well in school
important to me
Feel sure about school work
Like going to school
Kids in my school have good
chance in future
Feel safe at school
School nice place to be
Like classes this year
Dissatisfaction with Teacher
Get upset easily with teachers
Feel angry with teachers
Hard to talk to teachers
School Dangerousness
Lots of drugs and gangs at
school
School is dangerous place
Feel scared at school

Factor Loading

SD

.78
.71
.68
.65
.62
.61
.60

3.35
3.03
3.23
3.20
3.22
3.17
2.87

0.95
1.0
0.99
0.96
0.88
0.97
0.94

.39

3.20

1.0

.73

3.19

0.96

.67
.64
.51

3.67
3.13
2.74

0.69
0.85
1.1

.48
.41
.35
.32

3.38
3.21
3.12
3.23

0.81
0.97
0.99
0.94

.78
.71
.69

1.94
1.77
2.08

1.0
0.96
0.99

.77
.75
.63

1.36
1.34
1.45

0.78
0.77
0.82

Note. Mean scores for each variable reported in raw score form.

Principal Components Analysis

Factor loadings, item means, and standard deviations from the principal
components analysis are provided in Table 2. There were four components
with eigenvalues greater than 1. The first accounted for 20.1% of the variance and was loaded on most heavily by questions related to relationships
with teachers (Affiliation with Teacher). The second component accounted
for 14.2% of the variance and was loaded on most heavily by questions related to positive school experiences (School Bond). The third accounted
for 10.3% of the variance and was loaded on most heavily by questions reflecting negative student-teacher relations (Dissatisfaction with Teacher).
The fourth component was loaded on most heavily by questions related to
negative school experiences (School Dangerousness) and accounted for
9.3% of the variance. The cumulative variance accounted for was 54%. The

Murray and Greenberg

433

reliability coefficients for the four components were Affiliation with

Teacher ( .88), School Bond ( .80), Dissatisfaction with Teacher
( .66), and School Dangerousness ( .60).
Correlations Between Measures
Associations between all measures used in these analyses are presented in
Table 3. In general, the student-teacher relationship and school bonding
variables were associated with the measures of social and emotional adjustment in the expected directions. Students with greater scores on the student-teacher relationship and school bond scales also had greater scores on
scales measuring positive aspects of childrens social and emotional adjustment. Students with stronger relationship and bond scores also had lower
scores on the negative adjustment factors. In contrast, students with greater
dissatisfaction with teacher and school dangerousness scores had poorer social and emotional adjustment scores.
Cluster Analysis
A hierarchical cluster analysis was conducted using the four components
from the principal components analysis (Affiliation with Teacher, School
Bond, Dissatisfaction with Teacher, and School Dangerousness) as grouping variables. Cluster analysis is a procedure used for grouping cases according to a set of factor or variable scores. In essence, the goal is to create
internally cohesive groups while maximizing difference between groups
based on a set(s) of scores (Milligan, 1980). Wards minimum-variance procedure using squared euclidean distances was selected for use with these
data; this algorithm has been rigorously tested (Edelbrock, 1979; Milligan,
1980; Milligan & Cooper, 1987).
Four cluster analyses were conducted specifying three, four, five, and six
clusters, respectively. After inspection of output dendrograms, pseudo-F
statistics, group membership changes and characteristics, and analyses of
differences between solutions on a number of dependent variables, the solution resulting in four clusters was retained. The mean standard scores
and F statistics for each of the four groups are presented in Table 4.
The first cluster contained 73 students who had low scores on the Affiliation with Teacher and School Bond factors, but above-average scores on
the Dissatisfaction with Teacher and School Dangerousness factors. This
group was considered Dysfunctional because of their apparent relationship
and school bonding problems. The second cluster contained 80 children
who had moderate to average scores on all four factors. This group was
called Functional/Average because of the midrange scores observed on all
factors. The third group contained the largest number of students in a single cluster (n 110) and they were called Positively Involved because they

Child Measures (N 289)

1. Affiliation with Teacher
2. School Bond
3. Dissatisfaction with Teacher
4. School Dangerousness
5. General Social Competence
6. Good Peer Relations
7. School Competence
8. Delinquency (Self)
9. Deliquency (Peers)
10. Conduct Problems
11. Anxiety
12. Depression
Teacher Measures (N 170)
13. Frustration Tolerance
14. Task Orientation
15. Assertive Social Skills
16. Internalizing
17. Externalizing

Variable

.32***
.25***
.48***
.41***
.50***
.35***
.25***
.29***
.15*
.21***
.31***
.29***
.27***
.18*
.26**

.22**
.17*
.14
.06
.20**

.75***
.39***
.17**
.34***
.36***
.41***
.37***
.21***
.29***
.06
.16**

.15*
.14*
.15*
.14*
.12*
.31***
.25***
.34***
.28***
.33***
.29***
.16*
.25***

.15*
.18*
.11
.01
.20**

.23***
.16**
.19***
.18**
.26***
.23***
.37***
.22***
.26***

.08
.13
.20**
.20**
.07

.64***
.69***
.31***
.20***
.22***
.20***
.26***

Table 3
Correlation Matrix for All Measures Used in These Analyses

.16*
.17*
.23**
.17*
.04

.60***
.27***
.14*
.20***
.27***
.31***

.20**
.27***
.26***
.23**
.21**

.28***
.16**
.23***
.07
.14*

(continued )

.42***
.36***
.27***
.20**
.39***

.72***
.64***
.19***
.29***

434
Journal of School Psychology

* p .5, ** p .01, *** p .001.

Child Measures (N 289)

1. Affiliation with Teacher
2. School Bond
3. Dissatisfaction with Teacher
4. School Dangerousness
5. General Social Competence
6. Good Peer Relations
7. School Competence
8. Delinquency (Self)
9. Deliquency (Peers)
10. Conduct Problems
11. Anxiety
12. Depression
Teacher Measures (N 170)
13. Frustration Tolerance
14. Task Orientation
15. Assertive Social Skills
16. Internalizing
17. Externalizing

Variable

.45**
.51**
.47**
.41**
.32**
.24**
.44**

.37**
.34**
.22**
.17*
.34**

10

.54**
.22**
.32**

.15*
.17*
.25**
.18*
.10

.68**

11

.24**
.30**
.30**
.21**
.20**

12

Table 3. Continued

.84**
.76**
.56**
.80**

13

.81**
.54**
.75**

14

.61**
.55**

15

.62**

16

17

Murray and Greenberg

435

436

Journal of School Psychology

Table 4
Mean Scores for Each Cluster on Student-Teacher Relationship and School Bond Factors
Cluster
Dysfunctional
(n 73)
Factor
Affiliation with Teacher
School Bond
Dissatisfaction with Teacher
School Dangerousness

Functional/ Positively School

Average
Involved Anxious
(n 80) (n 110) (n 26)

1.17
1.11
0.87
0.24

.19
.15
.30
.36

.80
.78
.40
.36

0.23
0.02
0.38
2.17

168.8
124.2
38.3
127.0

.001
.001
.001
.001

Note. All scores were converted to standard scores with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.

had the highest scores on the Affiliation with Teacher and School Bond factors, and below-average scores on the Dissatisfaction with Teacher and
School Dangerousness factors. The final cluster consisted of 26 students
who had high scores on the School Dangerousness factor and near-average
scores on the other three factors. This group was called School Anxious because of the high levels anxiety and fear related to school.
Analysis of Child Report Measures
To examine differences between clusters on the social and emotional adjustment variables, a multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted using cluster assignment as the predictor variable and childrens
ratings of social and emotional adjustment as criterion variables. Means
and standard deviations for each cluster are provided in Table 5. In the last
two columns of the table, results from the univariate and follow-up procedures are presented. The overall MANOVA was significant, Wilkss .61,
(24, 807), p .001, and all of the univariate tests were also significant. Follow-up comparisons utilizing the Scheffe procedure were conducted to determine differences on the criterion variables (see Table 4).
Social competence. On the SCRS, children in the Dysfunctional, Functional/Average, and School Anxious groups reported poorer general social
competencies than children in the Positively Involved group. Children in
the Dysfunctional and Functional/Average groups reported poorer peer
relations than children in the Positively Involved group. Children in the
Dysfunctional group had poorer peer relations than children in the Functional/Average group.
Results for school competence indicated that children in the Positively
Involved cluster felt more competent at school-related tasks as compared
to children in all other groups; children in the Functional/Average group
also reported higher school competencies than children in the Dysfunctional group.

(4.6)
(3.2)
(4.2)
(4.8)
(6.4)
(5.2)
(9.0)
(7.8)

7.4
8.5
19.0
27.8
26.5

(SD)

17.9
10.8
15.9

15.7
25.8
23.8

4.3
6.3

19.5
12.1
17.8

(3.3)
(7.1)
(5.4)

(3.5)
(5.3)

(4.1)
(2.8)
(3.4)

(SD)

14.6
24.4
22.5

3.4
4.8

22.1
13.5
20.3

(4.0)
(7.0)
(6.7)

(3.4)
(5.3)

(4.2)
(2.4)
(2.8)

(SD)

Positively
Involved
(n 110)
M

Cluster

19.4
30.0
29.4

4.3
7.1

19.0
12.4
17.7

(4.0)
(12.1)
(10.3)

(3.7)
(6.8)

(5.0)
(3.4)
(4.2)

(SD)

School
Anxious
(n 26)

18.7
4.8
9.4

17.2
6.2

15.0
14.2
24.6

.001
.01
.001

.001
.001

.001
.001
.001

1, 4 2, 3
1, 4 3
1 3; 4 2, 3

1 2, 3, 4
13

3 1, 2, 4
2 1; 3 1, 2
2 1; 3 1, 2, 4

Post Hoc tests

Note. Post hoc tests: 1 Dysfunctional, 2 Functional/Average, 3 Positively Involved, 4 School Anxious; SCRSC Social Competence Rating Scale for Children;
DRSSO Delinquency Rating Scale for Self and Others, SPQC Seattle Personality Questionnaire for Children, RCDS Reynolds Child Depression Scale.

Social competence (SCRSC)

Social Competence
Good Peer Relations
School Competence
Deliquency (DRSSO)
Self-count
Friends count
Symptoms of disorder
Conduct Problems (SPQC)
Anxiety (SPQC)
Depression (RCDS)

Variable

Dysfunctional
(n 73)

Functional
Average
(n 80)

Table 5
Comparison of Clusters on Child Self-Report Measures of Social and Emotional Adjustment

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Journal of School Psychology

Delinquency. On the delinquency measure, children in the Dysfunctional

cluster reported significantly higher rates of delinquent behavior than all
other clusters; they also reported that their friends engaged in more delinquent acts than friends of those in the Positively Involved cluster.
Symptoms of disorder. Children in the Dysfunctional and School Anxious
clusters reported more conduct problems than children in both the Functional/Average and Positively Involved groups.
Children in the School Anxious cluster reported higher depression than
children in both the Functional/Average and Positively Involved groups.
Children in the Dysfunctional cluster had higher depression scores than
students in the Positively Involved cluster. Children in both the Dysfunctional and School Anxious groups reported higher levels of anxiety than
children in the Positively Involved cluster.
Analysis of Teacher Report Measures
Next, a subgroup of children (n 170) were examined again using cluster
membership as the predictor variable, but for this analysis, teachers ratings
on the CBCL and the TCRS were used as criterion variables. Only 170 participants were included in this analysis because data from teachers were missing for the other children. Table 1 contains demographic characteristics
for the subsample. The subsample was similar to the original sample on demographic variables, suggesting that exclusion from this second analysis
was unrelated to age, gender, race, or educational status.
Table 6 contains the means, standard deviations, univariate results, and
follow-up comparisons for teacher reports of social and emotional adjustment. The overall MANOVA was significant, Wilkss .84 (15, 448), p
.05, and four of the univariate tests were also significant. Follow-up comparisons were conducted using the Scheffe procedure.
Social competence. Measures of social competence from the TCRS revealed that children in the Positively Involved and Functional/Average
clusters were rated by teachers as having higher frustration tolerance than
children in the Dysfunctional cluster. Children in the Positively Involved
cluster also had greater task-orientation scores than children in the Dysfunctional cluster. There was a significant difference between groups on
the Assertive Social Skills factor; however, follow-up comparisons were not
significant.
Symptoms of disorder. On the CBCL, children in the Dysfunctional cluster were rated by teachers as having more externalizing behaviors as compared to children in both the Functional/Average and Positively Involved

(9.3)
(7.8)
(6.2)
(7.1)
(23.8)

8.0
33.1

(SD)

30.0
21.2
20.0

6.0
18.2

38.1
26.6
23.2

(6.9)
(21.7)

(9.7)
(8.9)
(6.3)

(SD)

7.0
19.4

(7.4)
(23.4)

(10.8)
(9.4)
(7.3)

(SD)

Positively
Involved
(n 74)

37.9
27.0
23.7

Cluster

9.3
36.8

32.5
19.8
19.5

(7.1)
(32.3)

(12.8)
(10.5)
(8.1)

(SD)

School
Anxious
(n 12)

0.1
4.8

6.0
5.0
3.3

ns
.01

.001
.01
.05

ns
1 2, 3

2, 3 1
31
ns

Post Hoc tests

Note. ns not significant, Post hoc tests: 1 Dysfunctional, 2 Functional/Average, 3 Positively Involved, 4 School Anxious; TCRS Teacher Child Rating Scale,
CBCL Child Behavior Checklist.

Social competence (TCRS)

Frustration Tolerance
Task Orientation
Assertive Social Skills
Symptoms of disorder (CBCL)
raw scores
Internalizing scale
Externalizing scale

Variable

Dysfunctional
(n 37)

Functional
Average
(n 47)

Table 6
Comparison of Clusters on Teacher Report Measures of Social and Emotional Adjustment

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clusters. The School Anxious cluster had the highest scores on both the externalizing and internalizing scales; however, these scores were not significantly different from those of the other clusters. This may have been related to the low number of participants within this group (n 12).
DISCUSSION
In this study, children were classified into groups according to self-reported
perceptions of relationships with teachers and bonds with school. These
classifications revealed four patterns: Dysfunctional (25%), Functional/Average (28%), Positively Involved (38%), and School Anxious (9%). These
patterns were associated with childrens social and emotional adjustments.
Students in the Dysfunctional group had poorer self-reported social and
school competence, and greater delinquency, conduct problems, anxiety,
and depression compared to those in the Positively Involved group. Children in the School Anxious group also had poorer school competence and
greater emotional problems compared to children in the Positively Involved group. Teachers reports of competencies were similar. According
to teachers, children in the Dysfunctional group had poorer frustration tolerance, lower task orientation, and more externalizing behaviors than children in the Positively Involved group. Although teacher report scores for
children in the School Anxious group were not significantly different from
those of children in other groups, mean scores for these children suggested
poor task orientation and assertive social skills as well as the highest levels
of internalizing symptomology.
The findings from this investigation resemble those reported by other researchers. Pianta (1994) classified young children according to teachers
reports of student-teacher relationships. Although Pianta (1994) focused
exclusively on student-teacher relationship qualities, there were similarities
between the investigations in terms of the patterns observed among children. In Piantas investigation (Pianta, 1994), 74% of the students had positive or adequate relationships with teachers. These young children had
high or adequate levels of warmth and communication with teachers and
low levels of anger in their interactions with teachers. In our study, 66% of
students were classified as having positive or adequate relationships and
bonds. These children reported positive or average relations with teachers,
and they also reported positive or average perceptions of the overall school
environment. These investigations suggest that the majority of young children are developing adequate or prosocial relationships with their teachers
and such patterns appear to remain relatively stable into middle childhood.
Further, the majority of children in this investigation also reported positive
or adequate perceptions of the overall school environment, suggesting that
the majority of children in this sample viewed elementary schools as adequate or supportive environments.

Murray and Greenberg

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The findings from both investigations also suggest that there are many
students who are not experiencing school as a supportive context. Approximately 25% of the students in this investigation were classified as dysfunctional and an additional 9% were classified as anxious in school. Students
in the Dysfunctional category reported the lowest levels of emotional support and involvement with teachers, low enjoyment and involvement in
school, and high levels of anger in their relationships with teachers. Students in the School Anxious group reported moderate levels of dissatisfaction with teachers and high levels of fear and victimization in school. Pianta
(1994) reported that approximately 19% of the young children in his investigation had Dysfunctional, Angry, or overly Dependent relations with
teachers. Furthermore, Lynch and Cicchetti (1997) reported that 10% of
the children in their sample had deprived relations with teachers and an
additional 46% had relationships characterized as disengaged. Although
the focus of each of these investigations was slightly different, all were concerned with childrens relational or contextual experiences in school. Further, all focused on the affective and responsiveness qualities present
within student-teacher relationships. These features appear to describe important aspects of these relationships.
Taken together, these findings are cause for concern because feeling a
positive connection to teachers and schools can influence childrens social,
emotional and academic adjustment. Having supportive relationships with
adults in school settings may influence childrens level of comfort and their
confidence to approach and explore novel situations within the school setting. Relationships with teachers and bonds with school can also inhibit inappropriate social behaviors if such behaviors jeopardize continued support and membership within the school context (Hawkins & Catalano,
1992). Further, children may be more willing to model and adopt teachers
prosocial behaviors when they are invested in these models. Although the
majority of children may be experiencing the benefits associated with having supportive relationships and supportive school contexts, significant
numbers of students do not appear to be receiving the benefits associated
with these supports.
In this study, childrens patterns of relational and contextual experience
in school were associated with childrens social competencies, delinquency,
emotional and behavioral adjustment, frustration tolerance, and task orientation. Children who perceived teachers as emotionally supportive and responsive and who also enjoyed and felt safe in school had more positive social and emotional adjustment than students who had negative perceptions
of teachers and schools. It is important to note that this study was cross-sectional and causality cannot be inferred. Although it is likely that supportive
teachers and schools directly influence childrens social and emotional development, this study does not demonstrate a causal relationship between
these variables. However, our findings do provide some validation for the

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Journal of School Psychology

observed patterns and also add an additional source of data regarding the
link between childrens social and contextual experiences in schools and
social and emotional development.
Although research focused on understanding student-teacher relationships and positive school experiences is only beginning to emerge as an important area of study, researchers and practitioners could use the findings
from this investigation in the future. Research focused on developing further understanding about the characteristics and patterns of childrens social and contextual experiences in school will help to illuminate the specific experiences leading to variations in childrens perceptions of their
school environments. Currently, there is very little information available regarding the causes of variations in childrens perceptions of school environments and it is likely that there are numerous factors that influence these
perceptions. Longitudinal investigations focused on understanding the
role of individual child characteristics (e.g., sociability, temperament),
teacher characteristics (e.g., teacher style, expectations), and school characteristics (e.g., extracurricular activities, safety, school and class size) are
needed to help identify those factors most strongly linked to childrens perceptions of their school experience. Understanding patterns of childrens
social and contextual experience can aid in this work because classifications
could be used as outcomes in investigations that target various individual
and environmental factors for study. For example, data could be collected
on teacher behaviors, instructional and grouping strategies, school climate,
extracurricular activities, and other variables that may be linked to studentteacher relationships and school bonds. These data could then be used to
predict classification status, or comparisons could be made between students in various categories on data collected at previous time points. Such
investigations would help identify aspects of childrens experience leading
to positive or negative perceptions of the school environment, which in
turn would help researchers and practitioners interested in developing interventions designed to improve childrens experience in school.
Researchers could also use information regarding childrens patterns of
social and contextual experiences in school to target students in nonoptimal categories for interventions designed to improve childrens school experience. Although cluster analysis is a somewhat complicated statistical
procedure, this investigation has highlighted potentially important features
of childrens social and contextual experience in schools. As clearer understanding of the factors leading to supportive relationships and school develops, interventions designed to improve childrens social and contextual experiences can be targeted toward those students in nonoptimal categories.
It is becoming increasingly apparent that many children do not experience
the context of school as supportive. Investigations like this one provide useful information to those interested in identifying and supporting these children in schools.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This research was supported by Grant PHS RO1 MH42131 from the Prevention Branch, National Institute of Mental Health, to the second author.
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