Sub-SCS

Mod-1

1.1 Introduction to state of satellite communication :

What is Satellite Communication?
A satellite is an object that is orbiting around earth as planets are orbiting around the sun.When a
communication system is assembled by help of satellite, that is called as a satellite comm..
system.
In satellite communication, Signal transferring between the sender & receiver is done with help
of the satellite. In this process , the signal is basically a beam of modulated microwaves which is
sent towards the satellite. Then the satellite receives the signal from transmitting earth station
(through uplink frequency) ,amplifies the signal & retransmits back to the receiving earth station.
As all the signal transferring is happening in space, this type of communication is known as
space communication.
Two types of satellites are used.
Active satellites are used for linking and also for processing the signals.
The linkage is known as bent pipe technology where processing like frequency translation,
power amplification etc take place.
Active satellites employ Regenerative Technology which consists of demodulation,
processing, frequency translation, switching and power amplification are carried out. Block used
for this purpose is called transponder.
Passive satellites do-not have on-board processing and are just used to link two stations
through space.
Low cost - Loss of power not useful for communication applications.

HISTORY OF SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS

The first artificial satellite was placed in orbit by the Russians in 1957. That satellite, called Sputnik,
signaled the beginning of an era.
The United States, who was behind the Russians, made an all-out effort to catch up, and launched Score
in 1958. That was the first satellite with the primary purpose of communications.
The first regular satellite communications service was used by the Navy in 1960. The moon was used to
bounce teletypewriter signals between Hawaii and Washington, D.C. During the early 1960s, the Navy
used the moon as a medium for passing messages between ships at sea and shore stations. This method of
communications proved reliable when other methods failed.
Military satellite communications technology was at a low level until 1965. At that time high quality
voice transmissions were conducted between a satellite and two earth stations. That was the stepping
stone to the Initial Defense Communications Satellite Program (IDCSP), which will be covered later in
this chapter.
Experience with satellite communications has demonstrated that satellite systems can satisfy many
military requirements. They are reliable, survivable, secure, and a cost effective method of
telecommunications. You can easily see that satellites are the ideal, if not often the only, solution to
problems of communicating with highly mobile forces. Satellites, if properly used, provide much needed
options to large, fixed-ground installations.
For the past fifty years, the Navy has used high-frequency (hf) transmissions as the principal method of
sending messages. In the 1970s, the hf spectrum was overcrowded and "free" frequencies were at a
premium. Hf jamming and electronic countermeasures (ECM) techniques became highly sophisticated
during that period. As a result the need for new and advanced long-range transmission methods became
apparent.
Communications via satellite is a natural outgrowth of modern technology and of the continuing demand
for greater capacity and higher quality in communications.
In the past, the various military branches have had the resources to support their communications needs.
Predicted usage indicates that large-scale improvements will have to be made to satisfy future needs of
the Department of Defense. These needs will require greater capacity for long-haul communications to
previously inaccessible areas. Satellite communications has the most promise for satisfying these future
requirements.
DEFENSE COMMUNICATIONS SATELLITE PROGRAM (DCSP)
The Defense Communications Satellite Program (DCSP) was initiated by the Secretary of Defense in
1962. Phase I of the program was given the title Initial Defense Communications Satellite Program
(IDCSP). The first satellite launch occurred in June 1966 when seven experimental satellites were placed
into orbit. The final launch of this program consisted of eight satellites and occurred in June 1968.

DEFENSE SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM (DSCS) PHASE II

The Phase II Defense Satellite Communications System (DSCP Phase II) has changed from an all-analog
communications system to an all-digital communications system. The performance capability provided by
the Phase II DSCS is limited by equipment availability. Extensive digital traffic capability has become
common. You can credit this to the availability of digital modems (modulator/demodulator) and
broadband equipment. Overall performance of the Phase II DSCS is a great improvement over the
capabilities provided by Phase I DSCS. The Phase II satellites provide a great increase in effective
radiated power and rf bandwidths. You will find these satellite configurations use wide coverage and
narrow beam antennas. They provide an extensive range of communications services and capabilities.
(This will be further discussed later, in this chapter.)
FUNDAMENTAL SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS SYSTEM
A satellite communications system uses satellites to relay radio transmissions between earth terminals.
The two types of communications satellites you will study are ACTIVE and PASSIVE. A passive satellite
only reflects received radio signals back to earth. An active satellite acts as a REPEATER; it amplifies
signals received and then retransmits them back to earth. This increases signal strength at the receiving
terminal to a higher level than would be available from a passive satellite.
A typical operational link involves an active satellite and two or more earth terminals. One station
transmits to the satellite on a frequency called the UP-LINK frequency. The satellite then amplifies the
signal, converts it to the DOWN-LINK frequency, and transmits it back to earth. The signal is next picked
up by the receiving terminal. Figure 4-1 shows a satellite handling several combinations of links
simultaneously.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Satellite comm. System

The advantages of satellite communication over terrestrial communication are

The coverage area of a satellite is greater than that of a terrestrial system

Transmission cost of a satellite is independent of the distance from the center of

the coverage area

Higher Bandwidths are available for use

The disadvantages of satellite communication are

Cost involved in launching satellites into orbit is too high

Satellite bandwidth is gradually becoming used up

There is a larger propagation delay in satellite communication than in terrestrial

communication

Applications of Satellite comm. System

General applications

Weather forecasting

Radio and TV broadcast broadcasting

Military

Satellites for navigation and localization (e.g. GPS)

In context of mobile communication

Global telephone backbones (get rid of large cables)

Connections for communication in remote places or developing areas (for researchers in

Antarctica)

Global mobile communication (satellites with lower orbits are needed like LEOs)

Basicsofsatellitecommunications
This chapter introduces satellite communication technology from a non-specialist point of view.
The basic principles will be introduced along with a list of generic functions that satellite
technology can perform (broadcast, unicast, bi-directional, multicasting). The chapter traces a
broad history of satellite technology and discusses the developments currently taking place,
covering broadcast type functions and additional applications and services.
It will further introduce general trends within the overall ICT sector that have an influence on the
evolution of satellite technology. Although some issues and topics may not seem directly related
to the use of satellites in an educational context, it is important to understand the fundamentals of
the technology. This chapter is not the easiest part of the report and the reader may consider
skipping to the following chapter which discusses the practical applications and return to this
chapter at a later stage. Both chapters are self contained and can be read independently of the rest
of the report.
Introduction
A satellite is an object that orbits or revolves around another object. For example, the Moon is a
satellite of Earth, and Earth is a satellite of the Sun. In this document, we will examine humanmade satellites that orbit Earth. They are highly specialized wireless receiver/transmitters that are
launched by a rocket and placed in orbit around the Earth. There are hundreds of satellites
currently in operation.
Satellite communication is one particular example of wireless communication systems. Similar
and maybe more familiar examples of wireless systems are radio and television broadcasting and

mobile and cordless telephones. Systems of this type rely on a network of ground-based
transmitters and receivers. They are commonly referred to as 'terrestrial' systems as opposed to
satellite systems.
Satellite communication systems differ from terrestrial systems in that the transmitter is not
based on the ground but in the sky: the transmitter here consists of a ground-based part called the
uplink, and the satellite-based part that 'reflects' the signals towards the receivers. This part is
called the transponder.
Purpose
Satellites come in many shapes and sizes and have many uses. The first artificial satellite, called
Sputnik, was launched by the Soviet Union in 1957 and was the size of a basketball. Its purpose
was simply to transmit a Morse code signal repeatedly. In contrast, modern satellites can receive
and transmit hundreds of signals at the same time, from simple digital data to complex television
programmes. They are used for many purposes such as television broadcasting, amateur radio
communications, Internet communications, weather forecasting and Global Positioning Systems
(GPS).
Communications satellites
Communications satellites act as relay stations in space. One could imagine them as very long,
invisible poles that relay high frequency radio waves. They are used to bounce messages from
one part of the world to another. The messages can be telephone calls, TV pictures or Internet
connections. Certain communications satellites are, for example, used for broadcasting: they
send radio and TV signals to homes. Nowadays, there are more than 100 such satellites orbiting
Earth, transmitting thousands of different TV (and radio) programmes all over the world.
Other applications: remote-sensing satellites
Military, government, weather, environment, scientific, positioning
Remote-sensing satellites study the surface of the Earth. From a relatively low height (480 km)
up, these satellites use powerful cameras to scan the planet. The satellite then transmits valuable
data on the global environment to researchers, governments, and businesses including those
working in map making, farming, fishing, mining and many other industries. Instruments on
remote-sensing satellites gather data about features such as the Earth's plant cover, chemical
composition and surface water. Remote-sensing satellites are also used to study changes in the
Earth's surface caused by human activity. Examples of this kind of observation include
investigations into presence of ozone and greenhouse gasses in the atmosphere, the
desertification in West Africa and deforestation in South America.
Weather satellites record weather patterns around the world. Almost all countries use the data
coming from satellites like TIROS (Television Infrared Observational Satellite) ENVISAT to
forecast weather, track storms and carry out scientific research. TIROS is part of a system of
weather satellites operated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
There are two TIROS satellites circling Earth over the poles. They work with another set of
satellites in geosynchronous orbit called Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites

(GOES), such as the Meteosat satellites. Using this group of satellites, meteorologists study
weather and climate patterns around the world.
Many satellites in orbit conduct scientific experiments and observations. SOHO (SOlar and
Heliospheric Observation) for instance is an international project managed by Europe and the
United States. Its very sophisticated instruments can measure activity inside the Sun, look at its
atmosphere or corona and study its surface. SOHO does not orbit Earth. In fact it orbits the Sun,
about a million miles away from Earth. In that position neither the Moon nor the Earth can block
its clear view of the Sun.
The military have developed the Global Positioning System (GPS), but now people are using
these satellite services to determine their exact latitude, longitude and altitude wherever they are
in the world. GPS satellites can be used for navigation almost everywhere on Earth: in an
airplane, boat, or car, on foot, in a remote wilderness, or in a big city. GPS uses radio signals
from at least three satellites in sight to calculate the position of the receiver.
Military and government institutions make extensive use of satellites for a mixture of
communication, remote sensing, imaging, positioning and other services, as well as for more
secret applications such as spying or missile guidance. Extremely useful civilian technology
spin-offs resulted from developments in this sector, although GPS originated as a military
application. The domains of image processing and image recognition also benefited greatly from
Military Research and Development.
Orbits: GEO, MEO, LEO, elliptical, polar
The most common type of communications satellites, particularly the broadcast satellites like
AfriStar, Intelsat, PanAmSat, Eutelsat and ASTRA, are in geosynchronous orbit (from geo =
Earth + synchronous = moving at the same rate). That means that the satellite always stays over
one spot on Earth. It does this by placing the satellite in a position 35,786 km out in space
perpendicularly above the equator. The imaginary ring around the Earth where all geostationary
satellites are stationed for their lifetime is called the Clarke belt. The consequence of this type of
fixed location is that Earth stations (receive as well as transmit stations on the Earth surface) can
almost be permanently fixed because they are constantly pointed to the same point in the sky
where they 'see' the satellite.
A medium Earth orbit (MEO) satellite is one with an orbit from a few hundred miles to a few
thousand miles above the Earth's surface. Satellites of this type are in a higher orbit than low
Earth orbit (LEO) satellites, but lower than geostationary (GEO) satellites. The orbital periods
(the time in between two successive passes over one particular place on Earth) of MEO satellites
range from about 2 to 12 hours. Some MEO satellites orbit in near perfect circles, therefore they
have constant altitude and travel at a constant speed. Others have a more elliptical shaped orbit,
which results in different fly-over times according to the place on Earth from where they can be
seen. A fleet of several MEO satellites with properly coordinated orbits can provide global
coverage. There are several advantages of the use of MEO satellites: because they are closer to
the Earth's surface than geostationary satellites, they require less power to transmit. The Earth
stations (transmitters and receivers) by consequence can be much smaller and have a small rodshaped antenna. It is possible to use mobile and even handheld terminals with such systems.

Low earth orbiting satellite system

A low Earth orbit (LEO) satellite system consists of a large number of satellites each in a circular
orbit at a constant altitude between 320 and 800 km. Because they orbit so close to Earth, they
must travel very fast so gravity does not pull them back into the atmosphere. Satellites in LEOs
circle around the Earth at 27,359 km per hour. The orbits take the satellites over the geographic
poles. Each revolution takes from less than 90 minutes up to a few hours. The fleet is arranged in
such a way that from any point on the surface at any time at least one satellite is in line of sight.
The system operates in a cellular network structure (almost like mobile phones). The main
difference is that in a mobile telephone network the relay towers or aerials are fixed on the Earth
while with satellites these aerials (called transponders or wireless receiver/transmitters) are
moving in space. LEO systems may form the space segment of future mobile phone systems
(such as S-UMTS) that will allow true mobile, global, broadband multimedia connectivity. But
although telecoms experts predicted a bright future for this technology in the beginning of this
century, to date only a few systems have actually got off the ground.
Footprints: global, regional, spot beams
The area on Earth that the satellite can 'see' (or reach with its antennas) is called the satellite
'footprint'. A satellite's footprint refers to the area over which the satellite operates: the
intersection of a satellite antenna transmission pattern and the surface of the Earth.
Global coverage requires that the pattern of satellite antenna transmission covers the largest
possible portion of the Earth that can be viewed from the satellite. For geostationary satellites,
the beam width for global coverage is about 17.4 degrees.
No satellite can cover the whole surface of the Earth at one time: to achieve a global coverage,
multiple transmission beams from at least 3 different satellites are combined.

Combining footprints from Intelsat APR-1, 511 and 701 providing global coverage
The map above shows examples of how different satellites cover different areas. The combined
Intelsat satellite footprints on this map cover the whole Earth. A person in Australia can use this
satellite to communicate with anyone in Alaska. In combination with the regional beams from
these satellites, communication can be established between many areas simultaneously.
Regional or zone coverage is the result of a partial illumination of the global coverage area. The
area may have a simple shape such as a circle or ellipse or may be irregularly shaped (contoured)
to cover certain areas most effectively, for example the shape of a continent or sub-continent.
Typical regional beams measure around 5 degrees in width.
Spot beam coverage is an area that is much smaller than global coverage. The beam width is
reduced to around 2 degrees. Spot beams have the advantage of high antenna gain, but are
disadvantaged because they can only cover a smaller area. This drawback can be overcome by
the combination of multiple spot beams.
Most geostationary telecommunication satellites cover large regions (continents or subcontinents). Sometimes satellites cover different areas at the same time from where they are
positioned. For example: the Eutelsat W1 satellite, a typical broadcast satellite, positioned at 10
degrees East, provides a high-power coverage of Europe with a total of 20 channels. In addition,
the satellite provides a high-power steerable narrow coverage carrying another eight channels
directed towards southern Africa (see map above).
Being on the edge of the satellite footprint means the curvature of the Earth starts to disrupt
transmission. It also means being further away from the satellite and therefore having to transmit
or receive over larger distances through the atmosphere than would be required if
transmitting/receiving from the centre of the footprint. Antenna size and power by consequence
are invariably increased at the edge of the footprint. These values can be deducted from the
footprint maps that are published by satellite service operators (see maps above). The numbers
on the circles on the maps above indicate the signal strength received at that location expressed
in dBW. From tables like the one below, users who wish to receive a transmission can read what
size antenna they need. The size varies depending on the meteorological conditions of the
location: places with regular heavy rainfall will need the larger dimension.

Antenna Size and Signal Strength

Frequency bands
Satellite communications, like any other means of communication (radio, TV, telephone, etc),
use frequency bands that are part of the electromagnetic spectrum. The electromagnetic radiation
spectrum starts with the longest waves (including those in the audible range) and extends through

radio waves and the visible light, which is effectively a very small part of the spectrum, all the
way to the extremely short wavelengths such as radioactive radiation. Within this broad range of
frequencies, the International Telecommunications Union (the United Nations institution that
regulates worldwide use of airwaves) has allocated parts of the spectrum that are suitable for and
dedicated to transmission via satellite. Some of these bands are exclusively dedicated to satellite
transmission; others are shared with terrestrial transmission services.

Satellite communications spectrum

The satellite transmission bands that are of interest to us are the C-, Ku- and Ka-bands.
C-band is the oldest allocation and operates in the frequency range around 6 GHz for
transmission (uplink) and between 3.7 and 4.2 GHz for reception (downlink).
Ku-band is the most common transmission format in Europe for satellite TV and uses around 14
GHz for uplink and between 10.9 and 12.75 GHz for downlink.
Ka-band uses around 30 GHz up- and between 18 and 20 GHz downlink frequency.
C-band and Ku-band are becoming congested by an increasing amount of users, so satellite
service operators are more and more turning to the use of Ka-band.
The selection of the band is not something that individual service providers decide, but is rather
chosen by large satellite operators based on different factors:

Availability: C-band is still the most widely available worldwide. Ku-band is becoming
more available recently in regions which were less covered in the past (South America,
Asia, Africa)
C-band is more prone to interference from other transmission services that share the same
frequencies (adjacent satellites or terrestrial transmissions) than the higher bands
While the C-band technology is cheaper in itself, it requires larger dishes (1 to 3 m) than
Ku- and Ka-band (0.6 to 1.8 m) and therefore imposes relatively higher (installation)
costs on the end-user
Ku- and especially Ka-band make better use of satellite capacity
Higher frequency bands (Ku- and especially Ka-) suffer significantly more from signal
deterioration caused by rainfall: to ensure availability in bad weather conditions, the
signal has to be much stronger. Note that 0.1% of unavailability means in fact that the

service will be interrupted for almost 9 hours over a 1-year period. 1% unavailability
represents 90 hours or almost 4 full days
Satellite control and lifetime
In principle, geostationary satellites occupy a fixed position in space and consequently the
ground-based antennas do not need to be constantly redirected to follow the satellites
movements. The fact that the orientation of ground-based antennas is fixed is a major advantage
of the geostationary satellite orbit used by satellite broadcasters.
In practice however, the satellite wanders slightly around its nominal orbital position under the
gravitational influence of bodies such as the Sun and the Moon, as well as other influences such
as Sun radiation pressure and Earth asymmetry.
It is therefore necessary to take corrective actions in order to keep the satellite within acceptable
margins from its ideal position. This is achieved by activating the so-called thrusters that are
mounted on the body of the satellite as part of its propulsion system.
As long as the satellite has enough fuel left to operate its thrusters, it can be kept in the correct
position. As soon as the satellite is out of fuel, it will drift out of control and into space, which
brings an end to its operational life. The satellite service operator can decide to save on fuel (and
by consequence extend the lifetime expectancy of a satellite) by allowing the satellite to drift a
little bit. Although this may bring down the costs for the communication via the satellite
considerably, there is a consequence on the Earth station side. These stations have to be equipped
for tracking (following the drift of) the satellite. The Earth stations that are used with LEO and
GEO systems use omni-directional antennas that make precise pointing of the antenna
unnecessary.
However, for this application, the ability to see the satellite (line of sight should not be
obstructed by walls, roofs, excess foliage) is still required, which means that indoor use is
excluded.
The communication functions of a satellite (antennas, processors) are powered by electricity
provided through a combination of solar energy and batteries. These batteries automatically take
over the power supply from the large wing-shaped solar cell panels at moments when the
satellite finds itself in the shadow of the Earth.
LEOs and MEOs spin around the Earth at high speeds in order to resist the Earths gravitational
forces. They are designed to be cheaper and therefore are smaller and lighter than large GEOs.
They take less fuel to correct their flight paths and in most cases have a shorter life expectancy
than GEOs. LEO operators expect to renew their satellite fleet between 5 and 7 years. GEO
operators estimate the lifetime of their satellites to be between 10 and 12 years.
Applications of Satellite Communications Technology

Satellite communications systems differ from terrestrial systems in one obvious and important
aspect - the transmitter is no longer located on the ground but rather in the sky. Because it's

positioned in space, it is able to serve a very large geographical area. This has several
advantages.
As few as three geostationary satellites can cover almost the whole of the Earth's surface, with
the exclusion of the sparsely populated polar regions. To achieve the same coverage by terrestrial
means would require a very large and expensive network of ground-based transmitters.
Services can be established quickly, since coverage is available for everyone from the day
transmissions start. There is no need for a phased introduction as is the case with ground-based
transmissions where antennas need to be added to meet the expansion of the serviced area. With
satellite communications, even users in very remote locations enjoy the same level of service as
any other user in the coverage area.
Satellites can overcome national boundaries, providing possibilities for truly international
services.
Although terrestrial systems may be better suited generally to provide communications services,
in many cases the need to be connected can only be met effectively and rapidly by the
implementation of satellite services.

1.1 State of satellite communication:

Orbital mechanismOrbit is the path through which the satellite is revolving around the earth.
Force on a satellite
Inward force is (i.e. centripetal force)

GM

m r
3

G = Gravitational constant = 6.672 10-11 Nm2/kg2

ME = Mass of the earth (and GME = = Keplers constant)
m = mass of satellite
r = satellite orbit radius from center of earth
Outward force is (i.e. centrifugal force)

d2 r
=m 2
dt

Equatingg inward and

d outward forrces we findd

r
d2 r
3= 2
r
dt

d2 r r
+ =0
dt 2 r 3

Solving the
t above tw
wo differentiaal equations leads to six constants (tthe orbital constants)
c
w
which
define the orbit, and three laws of
o orbits (Kepplers Laws of Planetaryy Motion)
RS THREE LAWS
KEPLER
O
Orbit
is an elllipse with thhe larger boddy (earth) at one
o focus
The satellite sweeps
T
s
out equal
e
arcs (aarea) in equaal time (NOT
TE: for an elllipse, this means
m
thhat the orbitaal velocity varies aroundd the orbit)
The square off the period of
T
o revolutionn equals a CONSTANT
C
the THIR
RD POWER of
SEMI-MAJO
OR AXIS of the
t ellipse
KEPLER
R 1: Elliptica
al Orbits

e = ellipsses eccentricity
O = centeer of the eartth (one focuus of the ellippse)
C = centeer of the ellip
pse
a = (Apoogee + Perigeee)/2
e = eccenntricity
e<1 ellipse
e = 0 circle
r0 = distaance of a point in the orbbit to the cennter of the eaarth
p = geom
metrical consstant (width of
o the conic section at thhe focus)
p=a(1-e2)
0 = anglle between r0 and the perrigee
KEPLER
R 2: Equal Arc-Sweeps
A

If

t2 - t1 = t4 - t3

then A12 = A34

Velocity of satellite is SLOWEST at APOGEE; FASTEST at PERIGEE

KEPLER 3: Orbital Period
Orbital period and the Ellipse are related by
T2 = (4 2 a3) /

= Keplers Constant = GME

That is the square of the period of revolution is equal to a constant the cube of the semi-major
axis.

IMPORTANT ORBIT CHARACTERISTICS

(1) Semi-Axis Lengths of the Orbit

a =

p
1 e

p =

h is the magnitude of the angular momentum

b = a 1 e2

1/ 2

e =

h 2C

e is the eccentricity of the orbit

(2) Orbit eccentricity
If

a = semi-major axis,
b = semi-minor axis, and
e = eccentricity of the orbit ellipse,

then

e =

a b
a + b

(1) Time reference

Time of Perigee = Time of closest approach to the earth, at the same time, time the
satellite is crossing the x0 axis, according to the reference used.

tp

t- tp =Time elapsed since satellite last passed the perigee.

Look Angle Determination

Look Angle Determination is required for the observility of the satellite form earth surface to
track the satellite.Look angle is specified in terms of Elevation angle & Azimuth angle.

Nadir direction

Sub

Zenith direction

Sub satellite point is the location on the surface of the earth that lies directly between the
satellite & the centre of earth. It is the nadir pointing direction from the satellite & zenith
pointing direction from the centre of earth. Orbital locations can be represented in terms of their
sub satellite points.

Latitude: Angular distance, measured in degrees, north or south of the equator.

L from -90 to +90 (or from 90S to 90N)

Longitude: Angular distance, measured in degrees, from a given reference longitudinal

line (Greenwich, London).l from 0 to 360E (or 180W to 180E)

Azimuth Angle: Measured eastward (clockwise) from geographic north to the projection
of the satellite path on a (locally) horizontal plane at the earth station.

Elevation Angle: Measured upward from the local horizontal plane at the earth station to
the satellite path.

C El
Cos

sin (

1 +

re
r
2 e cos ( )

rs
rs

1/ 2

Case 1: Earth
E
station
n in the Northhern Hemispphere with
(aa) Satellite to
o the SE of the
t earth stattion:

Az = 180o -

(bb) Satellite to
o the SW off the earth staation:

Az = 180o +

Case 2: Earth
E
station
n in the Southhern Hemispphere with
(cc) Satellite to
o the NE of the
t earth staation:

Az =

(dd) Satellite to
o the NW off the earth sttation: Az = 360o -
tan (l s l e
= tan 1
Where is an interm
mediate anglee
sin (L e )

SATEL
LLITE SU
UBSYSTEM
MS:
Satellite subsystem iss required foor efficient function
fu
of saatellite comm
munication system.
s
Importannt functions of
o Satellite subsystem
s
arre as followees

Primary function of a communications satellite (all other subsystems are to support this
one).
Only source of revenue
Design to maximize traffic capacity
Downlink usually most critical (limited output power, limited antenna sizes).
Early satellites were power limited
Most satellites are now bandwidth limited.
Multiple types of satellite subsystems are

Power System
Attitude and Orbital Control System (AOCS)
Telemetry Tracking Command & Monitoring (TTC&M)
Communications System
(1) Power system
This subsystem is used for uninterrupted power supply to the entire satellite system.

POWER SYSTEMS 1
SOLAR CELLS
1.39kW/m2 available from sun
Cells 10 - 15% efficient (BOL=Beginning Of Life)
Cells 7 - 10% efficient (EOL=End of Life)
SOLAR CELL OUTPUT FALLS WHEN TEMPERATURE RISES
2mv/degree c; three-axis hotter (less efficient) than a spinner
BATTERIES NEEDED
during launch
during eclipse (<70mins)
BATTERY LIMITS
nicd 50% (dod=depth of discharge)
nih2 70% dod
batteries are conditioned before each eclipse season
batteries discharged to limit
batteries then recharged
typical nih2 battery can withstand 30,000 cycles (ample for geo; would be 5 years in leo

(2 ) Attitude and Orbital Control System (AOCS)

AOCS is needed to get the satellite into the correct orbit and keep it there for the entire life
span.(station keeping). Major objectives are
Orbit insertion
Orbit maintenance
Fine pointing
Major parts of AOC are

Attitude Control System

Orbit Control System
(3 ) Telemetry Tracking Command & Monitoring (TTC&M)
TTC&M is used for telemetry service, tracking of satellite, command & monitoring of
satellite.
major TTC&M functions are
Reporting spacecraft health
Monitoring command actions
Determining orbital elements
Launch sequence deployment
Control of thrusters
Control of payload (communications, etc.)
TELEMETRY 1
monitor all important
temperature
voltages
currents
sensors
transmit data to earth
record data at ttc&m stations
TELEMETRY 2
TWO TELEMETRY PHASES OR MODES

Non-earth pointing

During the launch phase

During Safe Mode operations when the spacecraft loses tracking data

Earth-pointing

During parts of the launch phase

During routine operations

TRACKING

measure range repeatedly

can measure beacon doppler or the communication channel
compute orbital elements
plan station-keeping maneuvers
communicate with main control station and users
COMMAND
DURING LAUNCH SEQUENCE

switch on power
deploy antennas and solar panels
point antennas to desired location
IN ORBIT

maintain spacecraft thermal balance control payload, thrusters, etc.

(3) Communications System
This subsystem is used for control & maintenance of the communication required for
the satellite system.
Transmitters ,Receivers & appropriate antennas used in this subsystem.

1.2 Satellite Link Design :

The satellite link is essentially a radio relay link, much like the terrestrial microwave radio relay
link with the singular advantage of not requiring as many re-transmitters as are required in the
terrestrial link.
Transmission of signals over a satellite communication link requires Line-of-Sight (LoS)
communication, but since theoretically three equidistant satellites in the geosynchronous orbit
can effectively cover over 90 percent of the earth surface, the need for multiple retransmissions
is removed. Satellite communication specialists, radio and broadcast engineers are in the
business of determining the factors required for optimal link availability and quality of
performance.
These factors can be divided into two broad categories; the conduit factors and the content
factors. The conduit factors include such factors as: earth-space and space-earth path (a.k.a.

uplink and downlink) effect on signal propagation, quality of earth station equipments, and the
impact of the propagation medium in the frequency band of interest, et cetera.
The content factors deal mainly with the type of message transmitted and the devices involved in
its transformation from one form to another for suitability for transmission over a microwave
medium. These include, but are not limited to: satellite functionality, nature and peculiarities of
the precise nature of information, data protocol, timing, and the telecommunications interface
standards that apply to the service.
It is for these reasons that a proper engineering methodology is required to guarantee timely
deployment and effective and efficient exploitation of satellite communication applications and
devices. These in turn must guarantee delivery of objectives for quality, reliability and
availability. The remaining part of this tutorial paper presents the various component parts
necessary for designing a robust satellite link with appreciable availability and required
signal/noise ratios.
Link analysis basically relates the transmit power and the receive power and shows in detail how
the difference between these two is accounted for. To this end the fundamental elements of the
communications satellite Radio Frequency (RF) or free space link are employed.
Basic transmission parameters, such as antenna gain, beam width, free-space path loss, and the
basic link power equation are exploited. The concept of system noise and how it is quantified on
the RF link is then developed, and parameters such as noise power, noise temperature, noise
figure, and figure of merit are defined.
The carrier-to-noise ratio and related parameters used to define communications link design and
performance are developed based on the basic link and system noise parameters introduced
earlier.
The Satellite Link
Radio Links:

Antenna Gain:
g = (Power density on-axis at given distance) / (power density from isotropic source at same
distance)

g = 4.a/2
Antenna Aperture:
a = ..r2
Power density from transmit antenna at receive aperture is:
pden = (pt.gt)/(4.d2)
Power collected by receive antenna:
pr = ((pt.gt)/(4.d2)).ar. = pt.gt.gr(/(4.d))2.
Path transmission loss ("free space loss"):
lp = ((4.d)/)2
Thermal noise at output of receive antenna:
n = k.T.B
Carrier-to-noise ratio:
pr/nr = (pt.gt.gr.)/(lp.k.T.B)
Hence "Link Budget Equation" expressed in dB:
C/N = Pt+Gt-Lp-La+(G/T)|r-k-10.log(B)
Note: |r means evaluated at r.
When calculating the link budget, we must take account of additional factors:

Interferences from other radio systems

Intermodulation noise
Additional loss, interference and noise due to propagation events (e.g. rain, rain-scatter,
noise degradation, ducting, etc.)

Figure of merit (G/T) is a useful way of categorising the performance of a receiving system.
In a constant RF field, different receiving systems (with the same receive bandwidth) will yield a
C/N proportional to the system G/T.
EIRP is the usual way of combining transmit power and gain:

EIRP = Pt+Gt
So, the link budget equation is normally expressed as:
C/N = EIRP - Lp - La - Lm + G/T - 10log(B) + 228.6
The satellite link:

Uplink and downlink are analysed seperately as individual radio links:

Overall Link Quality:

C/N = C/(Nup+Ndown+Iup+Idown+Nimod)
(c/ntot)-1=(c/nup)-1+(c/ndown)-1+(c/iup)-1+...

EIRP AND G/T

For the RF link budget, the two required antenna properties are the equivalent isotropic radiated power
(EIRP) and the "figure of merit" G/T. These quantities are the properties of the transmit antenna and
receive antenna that appear in the RF link equation and are calculated at the transmit and receive
frequencies, respectively.
The equivalent isotropic radiated power (EIRP) is the power radiated equally in all directions that would
produce a power flux density equivalent to the power flux density of the actual antenna. The power flux
density is defined as the radiated power P per unit area S, or = P/S. But P = * Pin , where Pin is the
input power and * is the radiation efficiency, and
S = d2 A ,where d is the slant range to the center of coverage and A is the solid angle containing the
total power. Thus with some algebraic manipulation,

 = * (4 / A )( Pin / 4 d2) = G Pin / 4 d2

Since the surface area of a sphere of radius d is 4 d2, the flux density in terms of the EIRP is
= EIRP / 4 d2
Equating these two expressions, one obtains
EIRP = G Pin
Therefore, the equivalent isotropic radiated power is the product of the antenna gain of the transmitter and
the power applied to the input terminals of the antenna. The antenna efficiency is absorbed in the
definition of gain.
The "figure of merit" is the ratio of the antenna gain of the receiver G and the system temperature T. The
system temperature is a measure of the total noise power and includes contributions from the antenna and
the receiver. Both the gain and the system temperature must be referenced to the same point in the chain
of components in the receiver system. The ratio G/T is important because it is an invariant that is
independent of the reference point where it is calculated, even though the gain and the system temperature
individually are different at different points.