Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PROFESSIONAL
strength & conditioning
EDITORIAL PANEL
Raphael Brandon MSc, ASCC
Clive Brewer MSc, BSc(Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Marco Cardinale PhD, ASCC
Dave Clark MSc, ASCC
Paul Comfort MSc, ASCC
Audrey Duncan PhD, ASCC
Mike Favre MSc, ASCC
Duncan French PhD, ASCC
Jon Goodwin MSc, PGCHE, ASCC, CSCS
Greg Haff PhD, ASCC, FNSCA, CSCS
Liam Kilduff PhD
Jeremy Moody PhD, ASCC
Phil Moreland BAppSci, AssocDip, ASCC
Jeremy Sheppard PhD, CSCS
Narelle Sibte BAppSci, Grad Dip, ASCC
Alan Sinclair MSc (Hons), ASCC, CSCS
Gil Stevenson BEd (Hons), ASCC
Margaret Stone MSc, ASCC
Michael Stone PhD, ASCC
Mark Simpson MSc, ASCC
Graham Turner MSc, BEd (Hons), ASCC
COLUMN EDITORS
Graeme Close PhD, ASCC
Nick Ward MSc, CSCS
Stuart Yule BSc (Physio), ASCC
INSIDE
RECENT TRENDS IN HIGHINTENSITY AEROBIC TRAINING FOR
FIELD SPORTS
page 3
PERFORMANCE NUTRITION
page 17
As usual, our Performance Nutrition section addresses many of the major talking points in the field of nutrition.
In this issue James Morton and Graeme Close address a very topical issue, that of Vitamin D supplementation.
This provides a thorough analysis of the underpinning theory along with important practical advice for coaches.
Also in this issue, Anthony Turner, who directs the MSc programme at Middlesex University, looks at the
challenges of defining agility, and how this impacts upon the appropriate development of agility. Finally, Tim
Sylvester, who is a S&C coach in the SportScotland Institute of Sport system, has authored an article looking at
the literature regarding power outputs in lower limb exercises, and makes some excellent comments based on
this review.
Ian Jeffreys
Editor
UKSCA NEWS
UKSCA ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING
18 June 2011
2010/2011 was the most financially successful year to
date for the UKSCA with a recorded turnover of 442,374
and a profit of 37,523 achieved against a background of
no increase in membership fees since the formation of
the UKSCA in 2005.
BOARD ELECTIONS
The Chair, Jeremy Moody, outlined the recent
electoral process and thanked those members
of the Board that had served over the previous
two year period. The Chair confirmed that
Douglas Bryce had been the only nominee for
the Finance and Administration position and
will continue in this position for another 2
years. The Chair then confirmed the new
Directors as Ian Jeffreys, Pete McKnight,
Bridgitte Swales, Rhodri Lloyd. Details of all
the Board members can be found on the
website under the About section.
Other items covered at the AGM can be found
in the full Powerpoint presentation and minutes
which are available to members under the
Articles section of the website. The annual
accounts will also shortly be published on the
website when they are signed off and
submitted. Please log in first using your email
and password to enable membership access to
the site. Once logged in members can also
access all back issues and articles published in
Professional Strength and Conditioning.
TURNOVER
The primary reason for the increase in turnover is an
increase in the number of members attending UKSCA
workshops in the year and this is supported by a growth
in members from 1307 (241 Accredited) in March 2010 to
1732 (340 Accredited) in March 2011.
The UKSCA has also built up a contingency reserve of
36,055 which gives a level of certainty and security
against the potential challenges that lie ahead such as
the future availability of public funding (which some
members utilise for workshop attendance) and current
economic factors that have the potential to depress other
sources of income.
INCREASED RECOGNITION OF
UKSCA STANDARDS
In July the UKSCA ran a pre-assessment day
for the IRFU in Dublin which will be followed by
an assessment day in Dublin in November this
year. Over the past few months we have also
been running UKSCA Foundation; Planning
Effective Programmes; Plyometrics, Agility and
Speed; and Weight Lifting for Sports
Performance workshops at RAF bases around
the country.
The nature of field sports however, is that there are important explosive
bursts that come at unpredictable times for unpredictable durations with
critical decisions to be made under the fog of fatigue or game pressure.
Continuous aerobic training for 20-40 minutes or more is relatively
ineffective for improving performance in field sports in experienced athletes,
as this type of training does not take into account all the changes in speed,
direction and work time at higher intensities that actually occur during field
sports. Therefore, continuous aerobic training, even if it is performed at
difficult critical speed based intensities, can be seen as less specific to the
needs of experienced field sport athletes.5-7, 9-12
Aerobic
Training Zones
MAS Zone
Heart rate Zone
Zone 1.
Aerobic
Recovery
Zone 2.
Aerobic
threshold
Zone 3.
Aerobic
#2
Zone 4.
Anaerobic
threshold
Zone 5.
Maximal
aerobic
<70% MAS
70-77% MAS
78-85% MAS
86-92% MAS
93-100% MAS
>101% MAS
<70%
70-77%
78-85%
86-92%
93-100%
93-100%
Zone 6.
Supramaximal
aerobic
Table 2. Determining 100% MAS from a 5-minute running test with 30 athletes. Based upon the results, the athletes were
assigned to 6 training groups. Other % MAS running speeds to be used in training (110%, 120%, 130%, 70% etc) are then
easily calculated with a spreadsheet.
Group
Distance completed
during a 5-minute
running test
100% MAS =
Mean distance / 300 s
120% MAS =
m/s
#1 (3 athletes)
5.8 m/s
#2 (4 athletes)
1350-1399 metres
5.5 m/s
#3 (5 athletes)
5.3 m/s
#4 (6 athletes)
5.0 m/s
#5 (6 athletes)
4.8 m/s
#6 (6 athletes)
4.5 m/s
Figure 2. The Supra-maximal aerobic Eurofit method implemented for the 15 athletes assigned into six groups from Table 2.
Each group runs to their respective marker cones in 15 s, rests for 15 s, runs back to the line in 15 s, rests 15 s and repeats
till the end of the set, typically 6-10 minutes.
Figure 4. Modified Tabata protocol with variable interval lengths using ONLY GROUP 4 from Table 2 to illustrate. Group 4s
120% MAS equals 5m/s. Any interval length can used, but a 2:1 ratio should be maintained. The athletes do not know which
cone to run to until after each repetition has started. Set lengths are typically 4-6 minutes.
Table 3. The high-intensity aerobic training program performed on rowing ergometers 2d/wk by female surfboat rowers.
Type of Training
Week 7 Unload
Week 8 Basic
Day 1 Supra-max
aerobic @ 120% MAS
Objective: DEVELOP
high-intensity aerobic
power
Session Summary:
Time spent at 120% MAS = Time spent at 120% MAS = Time spent at 120% MAS =
240 s
360 s
480 s
Session length = 10-mins
Session length = 15-mins
Session length = 20-mins
Session Summary:
Weekly Summary
Conclusions
Experienced athletes gain little in terms of enhancing their
aerobic power from LSD training at 70-80% MAS. Training
at, or above, their 100% MAS has been shown to be more
effective. Three methods have been presented. Two use
supra-maximal intensities (120% MAS) interspersed with
10-15 seconds of passive respite. The third method uses
maximal 100% intensity for 15-30 seconds, interspersed
with either equal time periods of active lower intensity of
60-70% MAS or a 2:1 or 3:1 work:lower-intensity recovery
period (eg. 30 s: at 100% MAS: 15 s at 50% MAS). The two
supra-maximal methods are believed to be best for
developing new levels of high-intensity aerobic power. The
maximal method outlined is thought to best condition
athletes to be able to sustain high-intensity aerobic power
for longer periods or to be able to repeat their high-intensity
efforts, such as is the case with many intermittent sports.
Despite total training duration being quite short ~ (eg. 1-3
sets of 4-10-minutes duration) ~ this training is quite
effective in improving aerobic power, not only for
intermittent field sport athletes, but also for athletes
competing in events of 4-10 minutes duration (e.g.
kayaking, rowing, MMA, wrestling). Integration of this type
of training with challenging small-sided games is also highly
recommended for field or court sport team athletes (soccer,
hockey, basketball, rugby league, rugby union etc) to
complement their skill and tactical development under
stressful situations akin to the real competitive environment.
References
1. Baker D. Large group aerobic conditioning. Strength and
Conditioning Coach. 15(4):21-25. 2007.
2. Baquet, G, Berthoin S, Gerbeaux M and Van Praagh E.
High-intensity aerobic training during a 10-week one-hour
physical education cycle: Effects on physical fitness of
adolescents aged 11 to 16. Int. J. Sports Med. 22:295300.
2001.
3. Berthoin S, Manteca F, Gerbeaux M and Lensel-Corbeil
G. Effect of a 12-week training program on maximal aerobic
speed (MAS) and running time to exhaustion at 100
percent of MAS for students aged 14 to 17 years. J. Sports
Med. Phys. Fitness. 35:251256. 1995.
4. Billat, V and Koralsztein. JP. Significance of the velocity
at O2max and time to exhaustion at this velocity. Sports
Med. 22:90108. 1996.
5. Buchheit, M. The 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test:
Accuracy for individualizing interval training of young
intermittent sport players. J. Strength Cond. Res 22(2):365374. 2008.
6. Castagna, C., Barbero . and J. Carlos. Physiological
demands of an intermittent Futsal-oriented high-intensity
test. J. Strength Cond. Res. 24(9):2322-2329. 2010.
7. Dupont, G., K. Akakpo, and S. Berthoin. The effect of inseason, high-intensity interval training in soccer players. J.
Strength Cond. Res. 18(3):584589. 2004.
8. Dupont, G., N. Blondel, G. Lensel, and S. Berthoin.
Critical velocity and time spent at a high level of O2 for
short intermittent runs at supramaximal velocities. Can.
J.Appl. Physiol. 27:103115.2002.
9. M. Newton. How to conduct a running based Maximal
Aerobic Speed test and structure an aerobic interval
training session based on the test results. Australian
Strength & Conditioning International Conference on
Applied Strength & Conditioning. Gold Coast, Nov. 12-14,
2010.
10. Tabata I, Nishimura K, Kouzaki, M, Hirai Y, Ogita, F,
Miyachi M and Yamamoto K. Effects of moderate-intensity
endurance and high intensity intermittent training on
anaerobic capacity and VO2 max. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc.
28:13271330. 1996.
11. Wong, P-L, Chaouachi, A, Chamari, K, Dellal, A, and
Wisloff, U. Effect of preseason concurrent muscular
strength and high-intensity interval training in professional
soccer players. J Strength Cond Res 24(3): 653-660, 2010.
Week 9 Shock
Naturally, physical preparation for netball should also account for the upper
limb in order to support the sport skills of passing and shooting the ball, as
well as guarding against potential overuse injury. The two-handed chest pass
is often associated with netball; however players also frequently execute
passes with a one-handed over-arm throw, usually with the dominant arm.
This technique was reported to comprise almost half of all passes executed
during an international match.32 That said, the match featured in this study
was from 1986 and trends in the intervening years have seen numerous
technical or tactical changes. The one-handed over-arm pass is employed
particularly for passes over longer distances or requiring greater velocity. In
accordance with this, defensive positions reported a high proportion of onehanded over-arm passes reflecting the number of long passes to players
further up the court executed by these playing positions.32
Playing positions in netball have defined roles and operate in designated
areas within the court. This is reflected by the different somatotypes
exhibited by players selected in different positional groupings (defence,
midfield, attack). Mesomorphy (muscularity) and ectomorphy (height and
limb length) are reported to vary between playing positions at elite level.31
Similarly, the different roles on the court are reflected in a different relative
emphasis on particular athletic movements and sports skills.32 It follows that
an advanced programme of physical preparation should reflect these
differences for individual players in each playing position.
Ankle
The lateral connective tissue structures of the ankle are
among the most frequent sites of injury during sports
participation. Lateral inversion sprain injury accounts for
the majority (85%) of all ankle injuries among
athletes.30 A common mechanism for ankle inversion
sprain injury in netball and related sports is landing
with a plantar flexed ankle position, in combination with
forced inversion, upon touchdown. In accordance with
this, ankle injuries sustained in netball are reported to
be frequently associated with landing and also playerto-player contact.35,51 A study of Greek female
professional basketball, which is the sport closest in
nature to netball, identified that the majority of ankle
sprains during matches occurred within the key area of
the court (i.e. the scoring zone in front of the posts).37
This was attributed to the greater number of ankle
sprain injuries involving player-to-player contact within
these areas. Consequently, the playing positions which
most frequently engage in contesting possession in
these areas of the court were also reported to suffer the
highest incidence of ankle injury in female professional
basketball.37 A similar pattern is likely in netball.
The pattern of ankle injuries monitored during a
playing season in female professional basketball
peaked during the initial two months (particularly the
first month) following the start of the season.37 This
peak in the incidence of ankle injury coinciding with the
start of competitive matches would appear to suggest
inadequate or inappropriate physical preparation of
players during preseason. A similar pattern might
likewise be expected in netball.
The prevalence of ankle injuries in netball33, combined
with the high rate of recurrence with this injury55, may
predispose netball players to the syndrome known as
chronic ankle instability.30 A study of netball indicated
almost half of injuries sustained by players during state
championships were recurrences of previous injuries.35
Chronic ankle instability describes a pattern of
recurrent ankle sprain injury with persisting symptoms
of mechanical and functional instability, such as
episodes of the ankle giving way during normal
activities. Various deficits have been identified in those
suffering with chronic ankle instability, which appear to
often arise from a combination of both mechanical
instability (i.e. physical changes to joint and connective
tissue structures from the initial injury or injuries) and
functional instability factors.
Deficits in strength and possible inhibition of individual
muscles that contribute to providing stability to the
ankle following injury, have been identified as a factor
in functional instability. In contrast to clinical
approaches that typically focus on the peroneal
musculature, based upon the literature it is the invertor
muscles which actually appear to be those most
Knee
Anterior-Cruciate Ligament Injury
The most traumatic type of knee injury netball players
are exposed to is anterior cruciate ligament (ACL)
rupture. Complete rupture of the ACL is often
accompanied by damage to joint cartilage structures
and is further associated with long-term pathology
following surgical repair of the ACL.52 Female team
sports players suffer a considerably higher rate of ACL
injury reportedly 2-10 higher than male athletes in
the same sports52 this is the case particularly in
sports that involve jumping and pivoting movements.27
The classic mechanism for non-contact ACL injury is
deceleration combined with change of direction
executed with the foot planted.52 Both landing and
change of direction movements are frequently
implicated in non-contact ACL injury.27 The
deceleration, landing and change of direction activities
commonly identified with ACL injury feature frequently
in netball, for example, deceleration and landing in the
act of receiving the ball. Similarly, rapid change of
direction movements occur frequently off the ball as
attacking players attempt to evade defensive players in
order to find space to receive a pass and defenders
aim to track the players they are marking and attempt
to intercept the ball.
In addition to experiencing higher incidence of ACL
injury, the mechanism for this injury may also differ for
female athletes.61 Certain anatomical differences exist
between genders; however more relevant on the
basis that they are modifiable are the neuromuscular
factors. Deficits in neuromuscular control of the lower
limb kinetic chain are implicated in the injury
mechanism for ACL rupture, which appears to be the
case for female athletes particularly.27 Females often
exhibit ligament dominance i.e. rely on passive joint
stability rather than active muscular joint stabilisation.14
Furthermore, there is a tendency for female athletes to
demonstrate quadriceps dominance; which is
potentially detrimental as the action of the quadriceps
can increase anterior shear forces at the knee joint.52
The ACL is also particularly prone to injury when
landing and change of direction movements are
executed in an upright stance, which is again
characteristic of female athletes.41
Female athletes also demonstrate different motor
patterns during landing and change of direction
movements, such as reduced hamstring activity and
asymmetric gastrocnemius activation, in comparison to
male athletes.40 A prospective study also identified
differences in joint kinetics (torques or movements of
force measured at the joints) and kinematics (joint
angles) of female athletes who subsequently suffered
Lower Back
The lower back has been identified to be the third most
common site of injury among female team sports
players.47 Defensive positions in netball may be
particularly prone to low back injury due to repetitive
and prolonged exposure to hyperextension postures,
combined with continually reaching overhead as they
try to block opponents shooting and passing
opportunities. Associated stresses placed upon the
lumbar spine and stabilisers of the lumbo-pelvic-hip
complex may cause symptoms of low back pain.
Low back pain is commonly associated with disrupted
motor control of various spine stabilisers and impaired
capacity to sense spine position3 it is open to question
whether these effects are a cause or symptoms that
occur subsequent to the episode of low back pain or
injury. Guarding against low back injury requires
appropriate development of each of the three distinct
subsystems that contribute in different ways to
providing stability to the lumbo-pelvic-hip complex. The
deep lumbar stabiliser muscles serve a unique role
given their attachment at segmental level of the lumbar
spine and pelvis, and the fact that, as postural muscles,
they are designed to fire in a tonic fashion. The more
superficial and larger muscles of the trunk serve to
brace and help control the position of the trunk during
more strenuous activity, which is important both for
reducing stresses placed upon the spine and lower limb
kinetic chain.9,61 Finally, in a weight-bearing stance the
muscles of the hip and pelvis play a vital role in
stabilising the pelvis from the supporting lower limb(s).
Consequently, deficits in strength and flexibility of the
muscles of the hip are commonly identified as a risk
factor for low back injury.41,47
Shoulder
The shoulder can be conceptualised as a loose ball
and socket joint: the position of the socket (i.e.
glenoid fossa) is dictated by the position and
orientation of the scapula; the position of the ball of
the humeral head within the socket of the glenoid fossa
is principally controlled by the rotator cuff muscles.13
Suboptimal positioning and control of the motion of the
scapula (scapula dyskinesis) can lead to suboptimal
positioning of the socket. Conversely, impaired or
imbalanced function of any one of the four rotator cuff
muscles will result in suboptimal positioning of the ball
within the socket. Either scenario, alone or in
Conclusions
The lack of studies pertaining to netball poses
challenges for evidence-based training prescription,
however what data exist all point to the crucial
importance of appropriate physical preparation for
netball players from the point of view of guarding
against injury particularly. Based upon studies from
related sports, there would appear to be multiple
components that should be incorporated into netball
players training. This issue will be addressed in Part 2
of this article, which will appear in the next edition of
Professional Strength and Conditioning. There remains
a critical need for further studies that specifically focus
on netball, particularly at elite level.
References
1. Agel, J., E.A. Arendt, and B. Bershadsky. Anterior Cruciate
Ligament Injury in National Collegiate Athletic Association
Basketball and Soccer: A 13-Year Review. American Journal of
Sports Medicine. 33(4): 524-531, 2005
2. Barber-Westin, S.D., F.R. Noyes, and M. Galloway. Jump-Land
Characteristics and Muscle Strength Development in Young
Athletes. American Journal of Sports Medicine. 34(3): 375-384,
2006
3. Barr, K.P., M. Griggs, and T. Cadby, Lumbar Stabilization: Core
Concepts and Current Literature, Part One, American Journal of
Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 84: 473-480, 2005
4. Besier, T.F., D.G. Lloyd, T.R. Ackland, and J.L. Cochrane.
Anticipatory Effects on Knee Joint Loading During Running and
Cutting Maneuvers. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise.
33(7): 1176-1181, 2001
5. Boling, M.C., D.A. Padua, and R.A. Creighton. Concentric and
Eccentric Torque of the Hip Musculature in Individuals With and
Without Patellofemoral Pain. Journal of Athletic Training. 44(1): 713, 2009
6. Bressel, E., J.C. Yonker, J. Kras, E.M. Heath. Comparison of
Static and Dynamic Balance in Female Collegiate Soccer,
Basketball, and Gymnastics Athletes. Journal of Athletic Training.
42(1): 42-46, 2007
7. Brown, C.N., and R. Mynark. Balance Deficits in Recreational
Athletes with Chronic Ankle Instability. Journal of Athletic Training.
42(3): 367-373, 2007
8. Cools, A.M., D. Cambier, and E.E. Witvrouw. Screening the
Athletes Shoulder for Impingement Symptoms: A Clinical
Reasoning Algorithm for Early Detection of Shoulder Pathology.
PERFORMANCE NUTRITION
Do UK based athletes
require vitamin D
supplementation?
Graeme L Close BSc (Hons), ASCC, PhD and James Morton
BSc (Hons), PhD
In 2008, Willis et al.14 published a review paper entitled Should we be
concerned about the Vitamin D status of athletes? As practicing sports
nutrition consultants as well as a University Lecturers and researchers,
this excellent review made us sit up and take notice of the emerging
literature on vitamin D and athletes. In fact, the more we read, the
more we actually did get concerned. Since this review, there has been
much discussion on the effects of vitamin D status on the health and
performance of athletes however, definitive studies on athletic
populations are unfortunately still lacking. This article will look at the
theory behind why vitamin D status may be important to athletes and
attempt to draw some conclusions and recommendations for the
strength and conditioning/sports nutrition professional.
What is Vitamin D?
James is a senior lecturer in Exercise
Metabolism and Sports Nutrition at
Liverpool John Moores University.
His research interests focus on the
exercise-induced cellular and
molecular responses of human
skeletal muscle and the influence of
diet and nutrition on modulating
these responses. As an early stage
researcher, James has been
awarded with Young Investigator
Awards from the British Association
of Sports and Exercise Sciences and
the European College of Sport
Sciences. He is the current
performance nutritionist consultant to
Liverpool Football Club and also
specialises in providing nutritional
and conditioning support to
professional boxers.
Food
IU per serving
(% RDA)
1,360 (340)
800 (200)
Mackerel (cooked)
400 (100)
100 (25)
46 (12)
Egg (whole)
20 (5)
Fortified Milk
120 (30)
Figure 1. Classification of vitamin D status based on serum 25-OHD levels (taken from Zittermann.17
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
daily vitamin D supplementation is advised for most
people. Given the key role that vitamin D plays in
health, and potentially athletic performance, it would
appear wise to ensure that athletes are not deficient,
and data would suggest that this is highly likely
especially during the winter months. Therefore, it may
be wise to get your athletes tested for vitamin D to
allow sports nutritionists/dietitians/medics to make
informed decisions on the need to supplement or not.
5.
6.
7.
10.
8.
9.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Conclusion
We hope this brief commentary has provided a useful
insight into a contemporary area in sports nutrition, but
furthermore, we hope that it has stimulated interest
amongst readers to conduct further research in this
area. Moreover, we would encourage practitioners to
monitor the vitamin D status of their athletes throughout
the year looking for seasonal variations. Through our
collective efforts we may be able to improve the health,
wellbeing and performance of our athletes.
15.
16.
17.
Introduction
Variations on weight training, strength training, weight lifting, power
lifting, speed training, plyometrics and combination training have
been used by many coaches and athletes down the ages to improve
performance. Even now, with the science and technology available
to assess performance capabilities and training modes, there are still
differences of opinion on which training mode is best suited for
specific performance outcomes. It would be easy to suggest that the
best option would be to employ all the above in a training
programme to ensure that the athlete benefits from every aspect of
strength, power and speed conditioning. However, this would not be
appropriate and as such, it is important that coaches and athletes
utilise the most effective methods of performance improvement for
the specific individual development needs.
The purpose of this review is to compare any significant differences
in the force, velocity and power output of lower limb muscles during
countermovement jump (CMJ) and weighted squat (WS) type
movements, and to assess how these should impact training
prescription.
The Exercises
The squat, as previously described by Yule40 and Chandler and
Stone8 is a widely recognised exercise that is used by athletes and
recreational trainers to improve and increase a range of physical
capacities. Almost every sport that requires the participant to use
their legs in some way will probably use the squat, in one of its
various forms, as part of a training routine to improve lower limb
performance.
A CMJ is a plyometric type movement that utilises the stretchshortening cycle, and is frequently used to develop a range of
physical capacities including speed improvement.6, 22, 38 It is
performed from an upright stance with the feet shoulder width
apart, and the hands either at the side of the body swinging or kept
on the hips throughout the movement. The ankles, knees and hips
are quickly flexed, then forcefully and quickly extended to achieve
as much vertical height as possible. Various studies of the force,
velocity and power outputs for CMJ have shown the benefits of using
these exercises for the performance improvement of speed, strength
and power, and are often used as part of a strength and
conditioning programme.11, 28
Table 1. Means (s.d.) for squat and CMJ and comparative data from related studies.
Sub
Total time
Pmax
Vmax
Fmax
pRFD
Av. RMS
Squat mean
1.14
438.2
0.2125
1129.33
3812.6
0.093
Squat stdev
0.31
563.02
0.20
360.52
2328.64
0.03
CMJ mean
0.68
3656.18
3.988
1105.67
4282.96
0.024
CMJ stdev
0.18
1205.25
1.35
138.84
1092.29
0.02
0.12
6981
1200
Comparative data
Ref. 1
Ref. 1
Squat
Ref. 1
3430
Ref. 1
Second pull
5260
Ref. 2
Jerk
Ref. 2
Snatch
Ref. 2
Clean
Ref. 2
Squat
1100
Ref. 3
CMJ
5023
2.8
2228
Ref. 4
Squat jump
4320
2.46
1374
0.32*
0.98*
0.6
5400
2.6*
3000
2.0*(pull)
2950
1.6*
References
1.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
Defining, Developing
and Measuring Agility
Anthony Turner, MSc, ASCC
Defining Agility
Agility may be defined as the ability to change direction rapidly, without
losing balance, using a combination of strength, power and neuromuscular
coordination.7,8,12,17 Until recently, these types of definition have dominated
and greatly affected the way in which agility is trained and tested. However,
recent developments have questioned whether these definitions truly reflect
the nature of agility in a sports context, and as such, new definitions retain
these movements but also add a reactive element. For example, Young et
al.,16 and Sheppard and Young13 also add that agility is further affected by the
athletes perceptual and decision-making skills (see Caption 1 and Figure 1).
What is not in question is that agility plays a major role in the performance
of many sports and indeed, for team sports such as soccer9 and racquet
sports such as tennis, agility may be the best single indicator of overall
performance.
The significance of these more recent definitions may be illustrated by the
fact that many agility drills are pre-planned and therefore only assess an
athletes ability to change direction (and not respond to a sport-specific
stimulus). However, in most sports, a change in direction is produced in
response to a stimulus such as an opponents actions, and is influenced by
perceptual and decision-making skills.13,15,16 For this reason, the ability to
change direction and speed in a pre-planned movement, such as that
demonstrated in certain agility tests (e.g. T-test, Pro-agility, 5-0-5), may be
better described as change of direction (COD) speed.15
Developing Agility
As a consequence of this updated definition of agility, several tests and drills
have been developed5,3 that require athletes to change direction in response
to a stimulus such as a light, thus incorporating reaction time within the
agility task. Again, this may not replicate on-field play as reaction time will
Agility
Cognitive response to
sports-specific stimulus
Change of direction
speed
Physical skills
Technical skills
Perceptual skills
Decision-making
skills
Speed
Strength
Power
Reactive Strength
Accellerating
Decelerating
Cutting
Side stepping
Backward running
Landing
Visual Scanning
Auditory Scanning
Number of
available options
Speed of decision
processing
Progression Steps
Definition
Example Drills
Technical Drills
Acceleration
Deceleration
Cutting left and cutting right
180 turns
Side stepping
Pattern Running
Reactive agility
training (RAT)
Tag
Copy cat
Mirror image
Shadows
Temporal occlusion
training (TOT)
Technical drills
2.
Pattern running
3.
Testing Agility
At present, agility is largely tested via closed skills such
as performing the T-test, Pro-agility or 5-0-5 in the
quickest time possible. However, following the recent
adaptations to the definition of agility, this therefore
defines them as COD speed test. Nevertheless, despite
the reported methods to test and train true agility, e.g.
via edited video footage projected onto a large screen
(see Caption 2 for details), it is difficult to advocate its
use within a testing environment. For example, apart
from issues concerning cost and resources, a plethora of
video clips would need to be developed and standardised
and a familiarisation period granted to each player.
Moreover, these factors would also significantly influence
the reliability of the test and thus, this value would first
have to be quantified. Alternatively, if hand signals from
In Conclusion
Agility may be defined as the ability to change
direction in response to a sport-specific stimulus,
incorporating physical, technical, perceptual and
decision-making skills. Unless the athlete responds to a
sport-specific stimulus, agility should be defined as
change of direction speed.
It is recommended that agility is trained by
progressing from closed to open skills, whereby the
athlete is eventually exposed to random, sport-specific
stimuli following mastery of the many technical skills.
Due to time, cost and resource constraints, coupled
with issues regarding validity and reliability, it is
currently recommended that testing is conducted in a
closed environment utilising COD speed tests.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
and strengthcoachblog.com. I love the idea of "readyfire-aim" approach. I would rather have done one thing
than thought about three. I read another great tip but,
can't remember where. The tip was to be a 90%
person. If a success oriented person strives to do
100% they rarely complete anything. The advice was
the last ten percent kills you and stalls you. I don't
worry any more if every article or DVD is perfect. I
want to always deliver a quality product but I don't
obsess over it any more. Don't over-plan or over-think,
just strive to get a lot done. Make a list and start
checking stuff off.
MS: Youve been doing this a long time now, what
keeps you in the game?
MB: I love the process. I love trying to find ways to do
it better. Whether it is athletes or personal training
clients, I love trying to find a better way. Day in and
day out I still want to see our athletes get better and
our coaches improve. Seeing the kids who started with
me as athletes get college jobs and seeing my interns
work in professional sports. I get a lot of pleasure now
from seeing the young coaches I have worked with go
on to great success. I think in the end, motivation is
internal. I want to be the best. I never expected to be
where I am today.
MS: What would you like your legacy to be?
MB: I want to be remembered as an honest, ethical,
hardworking guy who gave people good value.
MS: Thanks for your time Mike, anything you would
like to wrap up with?
MB: KISS: Keep It Simple Stupid. Demand great
technique and great effort. Coach, thats the job.
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