Political Consultants and Democratic Governance

Author(s): Mark P. Petracca

Source: PS: Political Science and Politics, Vol. 22, No. 1 (Mar., 1989), pp. 11-14
Published by: American Political Science Association
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Political
Consultants
and DemocraticGovernance
Political Consultants
and Democratic
Governance
MarkP. Petracca

of California,
Irvine
University

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The UnitedStatesfaces a monumental

r
challengeto the practiceof democratic
Thischallenge
stems,inpart,
:?::;
governance.
fromsignificant
changesintheconceptualizationandpracticeofpolitical
if
campaigning
effects
of the
and fromthe revolutionary
P. PETRACCA
MARK
technologydeployed in contemporary
and
campaigns
(see Abramson,Arterton,
are the riseof profesOrren,1988).Two ofthe mainforcesbehindthistransformation
ofelectoralsucthattheydeployinpursuit
andthetechnology
consultants
sionalpolitical
hasa chanceto
cess (see Sabato, 1981and Luntz,1988).Evenbeforethenew president
mid-term
elecattention
is beingfocusedon the 1990congressional
settleintotheoffice
electionin 1992.Indeed,the "permanent
tionsand on the presidential
campaign"now
inthefinal
electoralpolitics
characterizes
theessenceofAmerican
quarterofthe20thcentury(Blumenthal,
1982).
inAmericanpolitical
consultants
of political
Despitethe meteoricriseto prominence
to theiranalysis.
littleattention
have devotedsurprisingly
scientists
political
campaigns,
of consulis difficult
to comprehend
Thisoversight
penetration
giventhe extraordinary
thevastsumsof money
electoralsystem,
fabricofthe American
tantsintothe primary
thatwe haveaboutthe
andtheassumptions
servicesbycandidates,
spenton consultant
of
to a number
silencemaybe attributable
influence
considerable
theywield.Thisanalytic
arefarmorediffactors.First,
groups,consultants
comparedto voters,PACs,or interest
or
consultants
availabledatasourcesto eitheridentify
to study.Thereare no readily
ficult
documenttheiractivities.Second, the considerablevariationin what it means to
the
to identify
makesitdifficult
consultants
ofprofessional
"consult"and intheactivities
essence of consultancy.
Finally,
manyscholarswho studyelectionsdo so by studying
ofelectoralinstitutions
hasmovedawayfromtheanalysis
voters.As a resultourattention
to
role.Ingeneralwe paylessattention
nowplaysucha commanding
inwhichconsultants
thanwe do to
and the processesof campaigning
of electoralinstitutions
the dynamics
thevoters'choice.
influence
thosevariablesthatseem to directly
a new ina campaign
is hardly
of political
advisorsor consultants
The utilization
during
11

March1989

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PoliticalConsultants& DemocraticGovernance
ofCiceroandMachiavelli
The writings
disabuseusofthisnotion.However,fora
novation.
does
electoralpolicyconsulting
numberof reasonsthisrecentsurgeof professional
ifnot an entirely
renderthisa distinctive,
unique,phenomena(see Rosenbloom,1973;
Sabato, 198i; and Luntz,1988).(1) A recentsurveyconductedbytheauthorshowsthat
therehasbeena dramatic
thepasttenyears.
increaseinthenumberofconsultants
during
inthesurveyhad been established,
a
ByJ1964
by 1974fully
only8 percentof thefirms
Thismeansthat50 percentof
quarterhadset up shop,and by 1979halfwere inbusiness.
in 1981,
the firmshave been createdsince 1980withthe greatestincreasesoccurring
are nowemployedby
1982,and 1983(see PetraccaandWiercioch,1988).(2) Consultants
at all political
and Concandidatesforpublicoffice
levels.Candidatesforthe presidency
forstateassemblies,
butso do candidates
andcity
countysheriffs,
gressutilizeconsultants,
councils.Indeed,we might
go so faras to saythatat leastinCalifornia--the
"birthplace"
ofmodernprofessional
a political
consultant
hasnowbecomea prereqconsulting.--hiring
almost
obsesuisiteforentering
California's
anycontestedpolitical
competition
(including
and propositions).
are now partofa largerand
sionwithpolicyreferenda
(3) Consultants
more professional
whichincludesadvertizers,
mediaspecialists,
campaignorganization
direct-mail
etc. (4) We havewitnesseda majorshift
inwho conexperts,voteranalysts,
the campaign.Formerlycampaignswere run by a
trols,guides,and implements
Whilestilla partofthecampaign
candidate'sclosestand mostloyalsupporters.
process
have been displacedby professional
these individuals
consultants.
(5) Not only
political
have consultants
contributed
to the rapidlyrising
costsof political
butthey
campaigns,
fromgrass-roots
havealso brought
inexpenditures
to
activities
abouta shift
bycandidates
ofthe permanent
the high-tech
(and expensive)strategies
campaign.
ThesechangesinthesystemofAmerican
electoralcampaigns
are interesting
andimportantintheirownright.
ourassumptions
abouthowpolitical
Theyalso challenge
campaigns
Let
shouldbe rungiventheirimportant
placeinmosttheoriesofdemocratic
governance.
me raisejustfourofthoseconcernsas observations
aboutthe linkbetweenconsultants
for these arguments
and democraticgovernance.Occasionalempiricalconfirmation
national
of
comesfrommyrecently
consultants.
survey
completed
political

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starkestand

observation
thatwe couldmakeabout
perhapsmostinflammatory
isthattheythreaten
consultants
thefundamental
political
participatory
preceptsofdemoThe mostimportant
craticgovernance.
ofthesebeingthatdemocracy
worksbestwhen
inlocalpolitics.Muchof
extensively
averagecitizens(i.e., political
amateurs)participate
and societal
the individual
and contemporary-highlights
democratictheory-classical
life(see Pateman,
to be achievedfroman extendedand intensive
benefits
participatory
existenceis most likelyto occur
1970and Barber,1984).A rewarding
participatory
findsmostsalientindailylife.Itisthe
aroundthoseissuesandconcernsthattheindividual
inthepolitical
worldaroundthemthatwillyieldthevariously
sugamateurs'investment
to democraticgovernance.JohnStuartMill(1962),forexample,maingestedbenefits
restedlessintheimpactthatintainedthattheadvantageofa representative
government
and moreon thewayin
of nationalpolicy-making
dividuals
mighthaveon the direction
whichthisformofgovernance
wouldencouragelocalparticipatory
activity.
intolocalpoliticsmeansthatthemuchexalted
The penetration
of political
consultants
Thisnot
ofthepolitical
roleoftheamateurisbeingreplacedbythenecessity
professional.
12

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PoliticalConsultants
inpolitics--opportuforamateurinvolvement
onlyreducesthenumberofopportunities
nitieswhichhavealreadybeenreducedbythescaieofmodernrepublican
governmentbutalso directly
diminishes
theircontroloverthepolitical
process.As therecentpresidentialelectionwellillustrates,
a lossofcontrolfosterscynicism
and apathy;italso deprives
oftheintrinsic
citizens
whichtheyrejectinreactionto thedisapofparticipation
benefits
qualityofthe campaign.
pointing

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have a tendencyto fosterambiguity

and symbolism
ratherthan
Second,consultants
choiceandaccountability.
Over theyearsAmerican
havebeenquitecapableof
politicians
a good deal ofsymbolism
and ambiguity
allon theirveryown(see Page, 1976)
generating
and Edelman,1988).However,consultants
exaggeratethistendencyintwo important
in
ways.First,theymakethisstandardpracticeand,second,itbecomesinstitutionalized
the organization
and running
of the campaign.[he tendencyforcampaigns
to be ambecomestheresultofa campaign
standardoperating
biguousandsymbolic
organization's
rather
than
the
of
the
candidate.
This
is
botha productof
procedure
personalproclivities
whatseemsto workforconsultants
andhowconsultants
viewthepolitical
system.Forexconsultants
claimthatadvertising
and
ample,afterfundraising,
strategy the analysisof
are the mostimportant
factorsindetermining
voterpreferences
a successful
campaign
Petracca
and
This
is
consistent
with
advice
Wiercioch,
1988).
(see
givenby Joseph
inthefield-onhowto winanyelecinnovators
Napolitan(1972: 2)-one oftheoriginal
tion."Decide whatyouwantthe voterto feelor how youwanthimto react.Decide
whatyoumustdo to makehimreactthewayyouwant.Do it."Thishardly
an
constitutes
and
for
clarity
precision.
imperative
shifts
thecontrolof a campaign's
Third,the use of consultants
agendafromthecandidate to theconsultant.
Thisthreatens
theprimary
ofwhatelectionsmeanas
assumption
of political
instruments
thattheyrepresent
theselectionofelitesbythe
choice,namely,
mass electoratebased on the authenticity
of a candidate'sstandon the issues(see
ofthesurveyshowthatcandi1974;Sartori,1962;andLipset,1963).Results
Schumpeter,
dates remainveryinvolvedinthecampaign
whenitcomesto generalstrategic
planning.
whenwe
However,thislevelof involvement
bythe candidate(client)dropsoffquickly
inthe campaign.Forty-four
considerotherformsof involvement
percentofthe consultantssurveyedrevealthatwhenitcomesto setting
issuepriorities
candidatesare neither
norveryinfluential.
Whenitcomesto running
an election,60 percentofthe
veryinvolved
consultants
said thattheircandidate-clients
were neitherveryinvolvednorinfluential
in
theday-to-day
tacticaloperationofthe campaign.
consultants
whichare theleastconducive
thoseaspectsofa campaign
Fourth,
emphasize
to participatory
The surveyresultsshowthatconsultants
politics.
emphasizefund-raising,
ofvoterpreferences.
andtheanalysis
Loweston theirlistoffactors
advertising
strategies,
thatmakefora successful
are thecompetenceofthecandidate,political
campaign
organiand useofvolunteer
workers.Indeed,themajority
ofconsulzation,andtherecruitment
tantssurveyeddo not even provideservicesorientedto grass-roots
suchas
politiking
or "get-out-the-vote"
efforts.
The majorservicesthat
precinct
walking,
phonebanking,
consultants
do offerare directmail,fundraising,
TV and radiospots,issueanalysis,
and
Whilecertain
do specializeingrass-roots
thisisnota major
firms
printadvertising.
politics,
of the industry.
orientation
13

March1989

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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

PoliticalConsultants& DemocraticGovernance
of political
consultants
on
A finalcaveatconcludestheseremarks.
The actualinfluence
It has notyetbeen shown
controversy.
campaignoutcomesis a matterof considerable
haveno such
a voter'schoice.Consultants
thatconsultants
influence
themselves
directly
inmaking
to influence.
ofconsultheleapfrominvolvement
Over three-quarters
difficulty
that
tantssurveyedbelievethattheyhavea good deal of influence
overthe information
whichcandidateto elect.However,uncertainty
as to theexact
votersutilize
to determine
thatconsultants
does not diminish
the possibility
maybe radically
degreeof influence
lifeinAmerica.We
ofelectionsand thepracticeofparticipatory
theinstitutions
changing
on electionresults,
ofconsultants
butwe
chooseto discount
theinfluence
maytherefore
cannotignoreor dismiss
theirpotentialimpacton thequalityofdemocratic
governance.

Aboutthe Author
attheUniversity
MarkP. Petracca
isassistant
ofpolitical
science
ofCalifornia,
He
Irvine.
professor

isco-author
I. Page)of TheAmericon
Presidency
(withBenjamin
completeda
(1983)and hasrecently
consultants.
nationalstudyof political

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