Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Curriculum Development
Any discussion of curriculum development should consider the social setting, especially the relationship between education and society
or education and the growth of the company.
What is Culture?
Culture
It includes a vast array of easily observed facets of living, such as o material products
o political and social organizations
o characteristic vocations
o modes of dress, food, games, music
o child rearing practices
o religious and patriotic rituals
A kind of social cement that consists of the characteristic habits, ideals, attitudes, beliefs, and ways of thinking of a particular group of
people.
Cultural Classification
Purpose of Education:
o Transition of culture (values, beliefs, and norms of a society)
Dewey said that education is the means of perpetuating and improving society.
o Agree?
o Disagree?
It is up to educators, particularly those in charge of subject matter, to judge which content and activities enhance individual and societal
growth and overall improves society.
o Agree?
o Disagree?
What is society?
A collection of individuals who have organized themselves into a distinct group, American, Mexican, Australian, etc.
Reich
o
o
o
Frontier Personality - "What's good for the individual is good for society."
Corporate Personality - "What is good for the organization is good for the individual."
Liberated Personality - "Be true to oneself, never judge anyone else, and be honest with others."
Compromise
Change
Material well-being
Conformity
Freedom, individual worth and dignity, democratic decision making
What are social astuteness factors that educators should keep in mind when planning the school's curriculum?
o Social setting
o Relationships between schools and society
o Social implications of knowledge and change
o Aims of education
o Reform strategies
Schooling becomes more important as societies become more complex and as the frontiers of knowledge expand.
In technological societies people acquire different proficiencies and abilities; no individual can range over the entire body of complex
knowledge or expect to be proficient in all areas of learning.
Whereas European parents usually raise their children to carry on family traditions, first-and second-generation American parents want
their children to leave home for better lives.
Boys are at a particular disadvantage in elementary school because they tend to learn through active manipulation of their environment
(which schools tend to discourage), whereas girls tend to learn through verbal communication (which schools tend to stress).
Havighurst
o Early Childhood
o Middle Childhood
o Adolescence
o Early Childhood
Forming concepts and learning language
Getting ready to read
Learning to distinguish right from wrong and beginning to develop a conscience
o Middle Childhood
Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games
Building wholesome attitudes toward oneself
Learning to get along with age-mates
Learning appropriate male and female roles
o Middle Childhood
Developing fundamental skills in reading, writing, mathematics
Developing concepts for everyday living
The curriculum can either reflect society or reflect upon and indirectly help shape society.
The first approach tends to coincide with the reality of schools; the second approach borders on the ideal.
Cultural Lag
Usually changes in the scientific, commercial, and industrial aspects of culture come first, followed by lags in the institutions of society,
i.e., teachers using computers, updating technical curriculum, etc.
Contemporary society is changing so swiftly that we have difficulty coping with it and adjusting ourselves to the present and preparing for
the future. We are forced to look to the schools/business for help in understanding and living with social change, but schools are
conservative institutions that usually lag behind change.
Rate of Change
Divide the last 100,000 years of human existence into lifetimes of approximately 75 years each or 1,333 lifetimes
Only during the last 60 lifetimes have we been able to communicate effectively through writing
Only in the last 6 lifetimes did mankind see a printed word
Only in the last 2 has anyone anywhere used a motor
Only in the last 1 have we used electricity
The following has happened within the last 56 years:
o Telecommunications is now instantaneous
o Speed of information processing improved a millionfold
o Rate of population increase went up more than a millionfold
o Jet aircraft, radar, space missiles and satellites common
o Major organs (heart, liver, kidneys) are routinely transplanted
o Moon and Martian landings have been successful
o Elvis has been seen many places since he reportedly died
Direction of Change
Population growth chart has shifted from the almost horizontal to vertical
The dramatic rate of change reaches geometric and exponential proportions, and causes a dramatic shift or change in direction
Our present century is the critical time period for change
What's effect on education -- lag time
o What policies govern our society?
o What should be our educational aims?
o How do we identify the "good" life and what roles should schools play?
o How do schools reduce the gap between the "haves" and "have nots?"
o How do schools prepare students for the world of tomorrow with a knowledge base that is rapidly becoming dated?
With the explosion of knowledge, the questions for curriculum specialists are:
o What knowledge to select
o How to organize it
How do we organize knowledge?
o body of knowledge, a discipline, a field of study, curriculum content -- all subject-centered
o These follow subject-centered approaches vs a student-centered approach; and a cognitive approach rather than a humanistic
approach
o It relies on logic and rational thinking to organize information, concepts, generations, and principles of subjects
o Assumption is that the interconnection of information, concepts, and the like, constitutes bodies of information that have been
validated and are the result of seeking practical, social and educational ends -- the result is compartmentalization of subjects.
Change in Schooling
Had Rip Van Winkle been a teacher and slept for fifty years, he could return to the classroom and perform relatively well; the chalk,
eraser, blackboard, textbook, and pen and parer are still, today, the main tools for most teachers, as they were half a century ago -- or
longer.
The changes and improvements in science, technology, and medicine within the last 10 years have been impressive, and they have
affected almost all of our lives.
The idea of literacy must also be expanded to include not only basic or functional literacy, but also cultural literacy, scientific literacy,
computer literacy, technological literacy, electronic literacy, and research literacy.
There is more need than ever for schools to become caring, personal, and trusting institutions -- to replace the impersonal factory model
that often characterizes most schools.
Considering that we live in a highly technological and scientific society, the enrollments in science and mathematics have serious
implications for the future of our country.
What should be the core school subjects?
o Japan - 1 1/4 science courses per year; 1 1/2 math courses.
Mid -1980s
o Defined what is essential for all students in the US
o Goodlad:
80-90% of curriculum for core rubrics
10-20% for individual talents and interests
Start school at age 4 and conclude at 16
Eliminate all vocational education
Years 16-20 devoted to vocational education and higher education
o Boyer:
Core increased from 1/2 to 3/4 of courses
Stress the traditional courses for first two years
Increased emphasis on foreign language, the arts, civics, non- Western cultures, technology, the meaning of work and
health
All students would complete an interdisciplinary senior-year project
first year -- single track, last two years a transition track
An Interdisciplinary Curriculum
Ornstein
Knowledge should:
comprise the basic tools
facilitate learning how to learn
be applicable to the real world
improve learner's self-concepts, awareness skills, and senses of personal integrity
consist of many forms and methods
prepare the individual for the world of technology
prepare individuals for the world of bureaucracy
permit the individual to retrieve old information
prepare learners for a lifetime of acquiring knowledge
be taught in context with values
Common curriculum
Need to strengthen the core curriculum
Computers and/or technology
Excellence over equity
Tougher standards
Colleges raise admissions standards
Increasing homework
Overall they stress:
Excellence not equity
Academic achievement not the whole child
Increased productivity not relevancy or humanism
Curriculum Development or an instrument of education is based on philosophy which has man as its local point. Philosophy studies man
not only in himself but also in his relations with reality and his relation to God.
With regards to his relations to reality, philosophy is concerned with mans body, mind, passions and emotions, intellect, will and freedom,
immortality, values and behavior patterns, culture, history and science.. It is also concerned with the nature of reality, what man can know.
With regard to mans relations to God, philosophy is concerned with Gods existence, plan and providence.
It takes the mind and the matter as between the child and curriculum, particular and general, individual and society.
3.
4.
When there is a conflict between the two, the curriculum is always favored over the learner, because the learner is considered as
ordinarily self-centered and impulsive.
The learner is fitted into the curriculum a subject matter curriculum.
Facts and skills are grouped homogeneously into subject fields (e.g. history, science, arithmetic) for the mind can not group the
curriculum as a whole.
Essentialism is based on the fact that school has always been somewhat rooted in human need. The application of essentialism
out of proportion tends to stack the educational cards toward conservatism, discourage experimentation, and progress, obstruct
development of other legitimate functions of the school, and thus, diminish the schools net utility and consequence to society.
Reconstructionism a philosophy of ends attainable through the development of powerful means possessed by the learner. To learn
how to exercise that power for there ends is the first priority of an educational curriculum.
The main thesis of reconstructionist position is somewhat as follows:
1.
2.
The transformation of society by technological and scientific revolution is so radical as to require a new moral and intellectual
consensus capable of molding and directing this transformation.
2. It is the task of educators to analyze the social trends, to discern the problems society is being, to speculate on the
consequences of the current social dynamics, and to project the values and the goals which need to be sought to maintain
a democratic way of life.
3. A continuous critical reexamination of the meaning of the democratic way of life under the altered social conditions is
needed.
4. Critical examinations and reconstruction of the current problem and conditions, rather than inculcation of traditional ideas,
most constitute the cores of the educational program of today.
Existentialism is a philosophical view which may b defined in various ways, but it does have three basic approaches which characterize
the central features:
1. As a new attempt to deal with some old persistent ethico religious problems.
2. As a group of revolts against the traditional way of thinking.
3. As a historical movement.
With regard to education, existentialism holds that it is better to work together on the great fronts of human necessity than
to divide an abstract issues. Curriculum needs a philosophical undergirding that stresses these elements:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Since the Trinitarian search for the truth, the good and the beautiful is basically the aim of education, the curriculum which is its tool must
be necessarily be treated in the same manner.
Hence, the Trinity scheme of curriculum:
1.
2.
3.
Emperical Approach the truth is discovered by noting what activities a person usually engages in and is later arranged to produce
the learners cognitive experience in each of them.
Conceptual Approach the activities of one student are grouped under conceptual heads rather than touching the details. This is a
more practical approach.
a.
Reading-to-Wear
In this aspect, the subject matter is found collected, systematized and printed in textbooks, encyclopedias and dictionaries so
that the teacher will only make the appropriate selection in advance from this wardrobe of knowledge assigned to a student to acquire
and make his own.
b.
Custom-made
This is centered more in the pupils problem. The curriculum is made in terms of the pupils need. Hence, there is no ready answer for
any problem. No precise formulation is made in the curriculum in advance of the emergence of the problem. The curriculum is unfolded
by making a selection for the Store-house of culture. The selection of the subject matter is termed knowledge in the form adopted for
use and is used to the extent warranted by its outcome.
Most educators view the subject matter in a curriculum as ready-to-wear knowledge, that is, already the status of knowledge. The subject
matter is held as a truth tempered and hammered on the anvil of experience to as nea perfect shape as human effort can bring it. Thus, the function
of the school is to teach theory rather than to teach to a learner what to do in a particular and concrete situation. Pure theory is important because
it gives the principles and frame of reference by which to organizes the particular of experience.
The curriculum is considered as the funded capital of truth when it takes from the repository of social heritage.
Three Philosophical Doctrines The truth of Knowledge in the curriculum
1.
Idealist
Knowledge in the curriculum is true if it achieves consistency among observers. To researchers, a test is reliable and objective if
the successive impression of a single investigator tend to be consistent with each other and with those of other investigators operating
under the same experimental conditions.
2.
Realists
Knowledge is true if mens ideas correspond to his external reality. This proceeds from the metaphysical theory that there is an
objective world independent of a human knower. The person engaged in education research literally finds the truth. The researcher
discovers it in cutting through the cover of ignorance or misunderstanding during the period of search. Truth is not temporal but
eternal and inimitable.
3.
Pragmatist
Knowledge if true if it is workable. Ideas are true or false only in as much as they clear up some confusions that obstruct
educational practice. Truth does not exist, it happens. The test of truth is in its workability.
The Search for the Good: Theory of Value
The curriculum should also be shaped according to values as required by the needs of the individual and the social culture. The needs of
the individual can be prescriptive and motivational. The needs of society are also considered because education occurs in the social matrix.
Flexibility in the curriculum must be held in meeting the individual differences of learners since individuality is the ultimate nature of reality.
The curriculum should be broad enough to cater to every learner.
Doctrines in Value Theory
1.
2.
For example; the computer shapes the wood into a table. The value of the table is in its form and purpose. The value is inherent
in human desire, it antedates it.
3.
Value is both external and internal like a product of the relations between them
Value is made of environment and organism. The nature of interaction is in interest, meaning to be between as the word
suggests.
According to the first doctrine, values in a curriculum are consummatory when they involve simple and immediate likings. Further, values
are consummatory when they satisfy unique wants which can not be satisfied by any other thing. Satisfying all desires which are consummatory is
not enough. There is no time to realize all worthy desires. Hence, there is a need to choose between desires.
To elucidate the matter, let us look on the two kinds of educational values:
1. Extrinsic or instrumental values are such when they are adjudged as good for something depending on their consequences.
2. Intrinsic values are adjudged good when their goodness is self-contained, inherent and not contingent.
In choosing what is the good thing among desires, the hierarchies of values must be considered. They are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Those with external values. The lowest of which is simple, immediate desire or animal desire, e.g. spontaneous joy in play, song. The
higher values are those rationally adjudged valuable in the light of their consequences and in harmony with the cosmic designs.
Those whose intrinsic values are self-contained and not inherent
Temporal values must give way to external values.
More inclusive takes priority over the exclusive and many-sided over less-varied.
More intellectual content over physical content, or for example, Science has more value than Physical Education.
Aesthetic Dimension of Curriculum
The beautiful occupies a great deal in curriculum making. As art occupies a leisure part of life, so the beautiful must occupy a leisure part
of education. The beautiful can always enrich the aims of the curricular, make them better understood and increase potentiality.
In truth and in fact all subjects have aesthetic values but unfortunately many educators limit aesthetic values to fine arts. Through the joy
of polished performance, a teacher could actually bring the subject matter to such a fine point of perfection that could enhance its appreciative
values. Routine, is the enemy of artistic teaching. By failing to recognize the uniqueness of the moment of teaching when there is a new set of
learners, although with the same subject matter, the teacher could really paralyze the curriculum.
Man is a single unitary being with a duality of composition, a trinity of powers and a suprasensuous destiny. Since the subject of education,
and of curriculum development is man, theological consideration is a must during the process of curriculum process.
1.
God-centeredness
In man, body and soul are substantially united, they interact and are interdependent. The soul which is a spirit is immortal and
continues to live. A curriculum developed for the perfection of the whole man lacks a strong foundation if it puts aside this theological
considerations.
2.
Christ-centeredness
Gods plan and providence can be understood only in the context of time and space. For this reason, He revealed Himself in the
person of Christ, His model incarnated in a tangible Personality. Christ Himself said I am the Way, the Truth and the Life.
3.
Community-centeredness
The community or the people of God is the extension of God and Christ through space and time. He continues to be present in
the community which is connecting link between Him and man. The experience of the community leads naturally to service. God gives
his people different gifts not only for themselves but for others. Each must serve the other for the good of all.
The curriculum must have for its aim the building and experiencing of the community, and service to others. A true education aims at the
formation of the human person to the good of those societies of which as a man, he is a member and in whose responsibilities as an adult, he will
share.
Lets begin with philosophy. The word philosophy is a combination of the Greek word philos (love) and sophia (wisdom) which translated means
love of wisdom. Philosophers are people who seek after wisdom and curious about the world seeking to understand the nature of things.
Oftentimes, the result of philosophy is not so much putting forward new philosophies or propositions but making existing philosophies or propositions
clearer. Philosophers study the works of other philosophers and state anew what others have put forward as well as proposing new philosophies. A
philosopher can be a person who knows philosophy even though he or she engages in little or no philosophising. Philosophy also refers to the
collective works of other philosophers. It can mean the academic exploration of various questions raised by philosophers.
For centuries philosophers have been interested with such concepts as morality, goodness, knowledge, truth, beauty and our very
existence. Among the questions philosophers ask are:
Philosophers use certain methods of inquiry. They often frame their questions as problems or puzzles about subjects they find interesting
and confusing. Popularly, the word philosophy may also refer to someones perspective on life (philosophy of life) or the underlying principles or
method of achieving something.
Now, lets examine
a branch of philosophy,
namely; philosophy of
education. What is philosophy of education? Philosophy of education is the study of questions such as What is education? What is the purpose of
education?, What does it mean to know something? What is the relationship between education and society? The philosophy of education
recognises that the development of a civil society depends on the education of the young as responsible, thoughtful and enterprising citizens which
is a challenging task requiring deep understanding of ethical principles, moral values, political theory, aesthetics and economics; not to mention an
understanding of children themselves.
Most of the prominent philosophers in the last 2000 years were not philosophers of education but have at some point considered and
written on the philosophy of education. Among them are Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau, Dewey, Adler, Confucius, Al Farabi, Tagore and many others [we
will discuss their contributions to education later in the chapter]. These philosophers have been key voices in philosophy of education and have
contributed to our basic understanding of what education is and can be. They have also provided powerful critical perspectives revealing the problems
in education.
Perennialism, the oldest and most conservative educational philosophy has its roots in the philosophy of Plato and Aristotle. Two modern day
proponents of perennialism are Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler. The perennialists believed that humans are rational and the aim of education
is to improve man as man (Hutchins, 1953). The answers to all educational questions derive from the answer to one question: What is human
nature? According to them, human nature is constant and humans have the ability to understand the universal truths of nature. Thus, the aim of
education is to develop the rational person and to uncover universal truths by training the intellect. Towards developing ones moral and spiritual
being, character education should be emphasised.
Perennialism is based on the belief that some ideas have lasted over centuries and are as relevant today as when they were first conceived.
These ideas should be studied in school. A list of the Great Books was proposed covering topics in literature, art, psychology, philosophy,
mathematics, science, economics, politics and so forth. Examples of such books are: Robinson Crusoe written by Daniel Defoe, War and Peace written
by Leo Tolstoy, Moby Dick written by Herman Melville, Euclids book Elements on geometry, Newtons book on Optics, The Sexual Enlightenment of
Children written by Sigmund Freud, An inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith and many others. The book
selected had to have contemporary significance, that is, it should be relevant to the problems and issues of present times. The book should espouse
ideas and issues that have occupied the minds of thinking individuals in the last 2000 years. The book should attract people to read it again and again
and benefit from it.
The perennialists believed that these are history's finest thinkers and writers. Their ideas are profound and meaningful
even today as when they were written. When students are immersed in the study of these profound and enduring ideas, they will appreciate learning
for its own sake as well as develop their intellectual powers and moral qualities.
2.4.2 The Perennialist Curriculum
Based on the beliefs of perennialism, the curriculum proposed had the following characteristics:
The Great Books programme or more commonly called the liberal arts will discipline the mind and cultivate the intellect. To read the book in
its original language, students must learn Latin and Greek. Students also had to learn grammar, rhetoric, logic, advanced mathematics and
philosophy (Hutchins, 1936).
The study of philosophy is a crucial part of the perennialist curriculum. This was because they wanted students to discover those ideas that are
most insightful and timeless in understanding the human condition.
At a much later time, Mortimer Adler (1982) in his book the Paideia Proposal, recommended a single elementary and secondary curriculum for
all students. The educationally disadvantaged had to spend some time in pre-schools.
Perennialists were not keen on allowing students to take electives (except second languages) such as vocational and life-adjustment subjects.
They argued that these subjects denied students the opportunity to fully develop their rational powers.
The perennialists criticised the vast amount of disjointed factual information that educators have required students to absorb. They urge that
teachers should spend more time teaching concepts and explaining how these concepts are meaningful to students.
Since, enormous amount of scientific knowledge has been produced, teaching should focus on the processes by which scientific truths have
been discovered. However, the perennialists advise that students should not be taught information that may soon be obsolete or found to be
incorrect because of future scientific and technological findings.
At the secondary and university level, perennialists were against reliance on textbooks and lectures in communicating ideas. Emphasis should
be on teacher-guided seminars, where students and teachers engage in dialogue; and mutual inquiry sessions to enhance understanding of the
great ideas and concepts that have stood the test to time. Student should learns to learn, and not to be evaluated
Universities should not only prepare students for specific careers but to pursue knowledge for its own sake. University students may learn a
few trees, perennialists claim, but many will be quite ignorant about the forests: the timeless philosophical questions (Hutchins, 1936)
Teaching reasoning using the Great Books of Western writers is advocated using the Socratic method to discipline the minds of students.
Emphasis should be on scientific reasoning rather than mere acquisition of facts. Teach science but not technology, great ideas rather than
vocational topics.
Perennialists argue that the topics of the great books describe any society, at any time, and thus the books are appropriate for American society.
Students must learn to recognise controversy and disagreement in these books because they reflect real disagreements between persons.
Students must think about the disagreements and reach a reasoned, defensible conclusion.
School should teach religious values or ethics. The difference between right and wrong should be emphasized so that students will have definite
rules that they must follow.
The Great Books
The Great Books refer to a curriculum and a book list that came about as the result of a discussion among American academics and
educators, starting in the 1920s and 1930s. It was initiated by John Erskine on how to improve higher education by returning to the western liberal
arts tradition of broad cross-disciplinary learning. Notable among the academics and educators was Robert Hutchins and Mortimer Adler.
They felt that the emphasis on narrow specialisation in American universities and colleges had harmed the quality of higher education by
failing to expose students to the important products of Western civilization and thought.
The Great Books started out as a list of 100 essential texts which were selected based on the criteria that it had relevance to present
problems and issues and it is relevant to a large number of the great ideas and great issues that have occupied the minds of thinking individuals.
The Great Books covered topics including fiction, history, poetry, natural science, mathematics, philosophy, drama, politics, religion,
economics and ethics. Examples of the books are:
The Great Books was criticised as being elitist and giving importance to dead white males, while ignoring the contributions of females and
minorities (such as Afro-Americans). Another harmful criticism was that the books were more to create the illusion of being cultured without any
real substance behind it.
2.5 Essentialism
2.5.1 What is Essentialism?
Essentialism comes from the word essential which means the main things or the basics. As an educational philosophy, it advocates instilling
in students with the "essentials" or basics of academic knowledge and character development. The term essentialism as an educational philosophy
was originally popularised in the 1930s by William Bagley and later in the 1950s by Arthur Bestor and Admiral Rickover. When it was first introduced
as an educational philosophy in American schools, it was criticised as being too rigid. In 1957, the Russians launched Sputnik which caused a panic in
educational circles as Americans felt they had fallen behind the Soviet Union technologically. A rethinking of education followed that led to interest
in essentialism.
Essentialism was grounded in a conservative philosophy that argues that schools should not try to radically reshape society. Rather, they
should transmit traditional moral values and intellectual knowledge that students need to become model citizens. Essentialists believe that teachers
should instill traditional virtues such as respect for authority, fidelity to duty, consideration for others and practicality. Essentialism placed importance
on science and understanding the world through scientific experimentation. To convey important knowledge about the world, essentialist educators
emphasised instruction in natural science rather than non-scientific disciplines such as philosophy or comparative religion.
2.5.2 The Essentialist Curriculum
Based on the beliefs of essentialism, the curriculum proposed has the following characteristics:
The basics of the essentialist curriculum are mathematics, natural science, history, foreign language, and literature. Essentialists disapprove of
vocational, life-adjustment, or other courses with "watered down" academic content.
Elementary students receive instruction in skills such as writing, reading, and measurement. Even while learning art and music (subjects most
often associated with the development of creativity) students are required to master a body of information and basic techniques, gradually
moving from less to more complex skills and detailed knowledge. Only by mastering the required material for their grade level are students
promoted to the next higher grade.
Essentialist programs are academically rigorous, for both slow and fast learners. Common subjects for all students regardless of abilities and
interests. But, how much is to be learned is adjusted according to student ability.
It advocates a longer school day, a longer academic year, and more challenging textbooks. Essentialists maintain that classrooms should be
oriented around the teacher, who serves as the intellectual and moral role model for students.
Teaching is teacher-centred and teachers decide what is most important for students to learn with little emphasis on student interests because
it will divert time and attention from learning the academic subjects. Essentialist teachers focus heavily on achievement test scores as a means
of evaluating progress.
In an essentialist classroom, students are taught to be "culturally literate," that is, to possess a working knowledge about the people, events,
ideas, and institutions that have shaped society. Essentialists hope that when students leave school, they will possess not only basic skills and
extensive knowledge, but also disciplined and practical minds, capable of applying their knowledge in real world settings.
Discipline is necessary for systematic learning in a school situation. Students learn to respect authority in both school and society.
Teachers need to be mature and well educated, who know their subjects well and can transmit their knowledge to students.
2.6 Progressivism
2.6.1 What is Progressivism?
Progressivism is a philosophical belief that argues that education must be based on the fact that humans are by nature social and learn
best in real-life activities with other people. The person most responsible for progressivism was John Dewey (1859-1952). The progressive movement
stimulated American schools to broaden their curriculum, making education more relevant to the needs and interests of students. Dewey wrote
extensively on psychology, epistemology (the origin of knowledge), ethics and democracy. But, his philosophy of education laid the foundation for
progressivism. In 1896, while a professor at the University of Chicago, Dewey founded the famous Laboratory School to test his educational ideas.
His writings and work with the Laboratory School set the stage for the progressive education movement.
According to Dewey, the role of education is to transmit societys identity by preparing young people for adult life. He was a keen advocate
of democracy and for it to flourish, he felt that education should allow learners to realise their interests and potential. Learners should learn to work
with others because learning in isolation separates the mind from action. According to him certain abilities and skills can only be learned in a group.
Social and intellectual interaction dissolves the artificial barriers of race and class by encouraging communication between various social groups
(Dewey, 1920). He described education as a process of growth and experimentation in which thought and reason are applied to the solution of
problems. Children should learn as if they were scientists using the scientific method proposed by Dewey (1920):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Students should be constantly experimenting and solving problems; reconstructing their experiences and creating new knowledge using
the proposed five steps. Teachers should not only emphasise drill and practice, but should expose learners to activities that relate to he real life
situations of students, emphasising Learning by doing.
2.6.2 The Progressive Curriculum
Progressivists emphasise the study of the natural and social sciences. Teacher should introduce students to new scientific, technological, and
social developments. To expand the personal experience of learners, learning should be related to present community life. Believing that people
learn best from what they consider most relevant to their lives, the curriculum should centre on the experiences, interests, and abilities of
students.
Teachers should plan lessons that arouse curiosity and push students towards higher order thinking and knowledge construction. For example,
in addition to reading textbooks, students must learn by doing such as fieldtrips where they can interact with nature and society.
Students are encouraged to interact with one another and develop social virtues such as cooperation and tolerance for different points of view.
Teachers should not be confined to focusing on one discrete discipline at a time but should introduce lessons that combine several different
subjects.
Students are to be exposed to a more democratic curriculum that recognises accomplishments of all citizens regardless of race, cultural
background or gender. addition,
By including instruction in industrial arts and home economics, progressivists strive to make schooling both interesting and useful. Ideally, the
home, workplace, and schoolhouse blend together to generate a continuous, fulfilling learning experience in life. It is the progressivist dream
that the dreary, seemingly irrelevant classroom exercises that so many adults recall from childhood will someday become a thing of the past.
Students solve problems in the classroom similar to those they will encounter outside school.
2.7 Reconstructionism
2.7.1 What is Reconstructionism?
Reconstructionism was a philosophy uniquely popular in the U.S. during the 1930's through the 1960's. It was largely the brain child of
Theodore Brameld from Columbia Teachers College. He began as a communist, but shifted to reconstructionism. Reconstructionists favor reform and
argue that students must be taught how to bring about change. Reconstructionism is a philosophy that believes in the rebuilding of social and cultural
infrastructures. Students are to study social problems and think of ways to improve society. Another proponent of reconstructionism was George
Counts (1932) who in a speech titled Dare the School Build a New Social Order suggested that schools become the agent of social change and social
reform. Students cannot afford to be neutral but must take a position.
Most advocates of reconstructionism are sensitive to race, gender, ethnicity and differences in socioeconomic status. Related to
reconstructionism is another belief called critical pedagogy. It is primarily a teaching and curriculum theory, designed by Henry Giroux and Peter
McLaren, which focuses upon the use of revolutionary literature in classrooms that is aimed at "liberation." Radical in its conception, critical pedagogy
was based on Marxist ideology which advocates equality in the distribution of wealth and strongly against capitalism. More recent reconstructionists
such as Paulo Freire in his book Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1968) advocated a revolutionary pedagogy for poor students in which people can move
through different stages to ultimately be able to take action and overcome oppression. He argued that people must become active participants in
changing their own status through social action to change bring about social justice.
2.7.2 The Reconstructionist Curriculum
In the reconstructionist curriculum, it was not enough for students to just analyse interpret and evaluate social problems. They had to be
committed to the issues discussed and encouraged to take action to bring about constructive change.
The curriculum is to be based on social and economic issues as well as social service. The curriculum should engage students in critical
analysis of the local, national and international community. Examples of issues are poverty, environment degradation, unemployment,
crime, war, political oppression, hunger, etc.
There are many injustices in society and inequalities in terms of race, gender, and socioeconomic status. Schools are obliged to educate
children towards resolution of these injustices and students should not be afraid to examine controversial issues. Students should learn to
come to a consensus on issues and so group work was encouraged.
The curriculum should be constantly changing to meet the changes in society. Students be aware of global issues and the interdependence
between nations. Enhancing mutual understanding and global cooperation should be the focus of the curriculum.
Teachers are considered the prime agents of social change, cultural renewal and internationalism. They are encouraged to challenge
outdated structures and entrusted with the task of bringing about a new social order which may be utopian in nature.
In general, the curriculum emphasised the social sciences (such as history, political science, economics, sociology, religion, ethics, poetry,
and philosophy), rather than the sciences.
According to him the whole activity of education is the acquisition of values, knowledge and practical skills leading to perfection and the
attainment of happiness. The perfect human being (al insan al kamil) is one who has acquired
o theoretical virtue (intellectual knowledge) and
o practical moral virtues (moral behaviour).
Virtue is the state of mind in which the human being carries out good and kind deeds such as wisdom, common sense, inventiveness, cleverness,
temperance, courage, generosity and justice (Al-Farabi, Talkhis, cited in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993).
Theoretical and practical virtue can only be obtained within society, for it is society that nurtures the individual and prepares him or her to be
free. Thus, one of the goals of education is the creation of the ideal community, the one whose cities all work together in order to attain
happiness (Al-Farabi, Mabadi ahl al-madina al-fadila, cited in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993).
Another aim of education is to educate political leaders, because ignorance among them is more harmful than it is in the common person.
He considered the method of dialogue or debate as important in instruction. The method of argument and the method of discourse which can
be used orally or in writing. For the common people, the methods used must be closely related to what they can grasp and understand.
He also emphasised on the need for scientific discourse; that by which the knowledge of something is obtained either through asking questions
about the thing, or from the replies obtained, or by resolving a scientific problem (Al-Farabi, Kitab al-huraf, cited in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993).
In this book Al-Alfaz, Farabi argues that there are two types of learning: learning through speech and learning by imitation (observing other
peoples actions with the intention of imitating or applying them).
The method of instruction must be appropriate to the level of learners. For example, the method of imagination is encouraged for teaching the
hard to grasp concepts to common people. The educator resorts to metaphors and illustrations in teaching especially for people who are
reluctant to learn (Al-Farabi, Tahsil, cited in Ammar al-Talbi, 1993).
According to Al-Farabi, understanding is better than memorization because the former deals mainly with details which could go on forever and
hardly useful. But the action of understanding concerns meanings, universals and laws which are valid for all.
2.8.2 Al-Farabi on Curriculum
Al-Farabi classified the sciences and learning not just for the sake of listing them, but with an educational objective in mind.
Content to be taught as suggested by Al-Farabi
o Language and its structure (to express oneself and understand others)
o Logic (mantiq) which includes verbal expression and intellectual procedures
o Mathematics (he divided into 7 parts)
arithmetic (begin with numbers and proceeding to measures)
geometry (use of geometric shapes to stimulate imagination)
the science of optics
astronomy (study of instruments and observation skills)
music (making and listening to musical instruments)
dynamics (eg. momentum)
science of machines
o Natural sciences
o Religion and scholastic theology (kalam)
o Political science/civics
o Jurisprudence (fiqh) and law (qanun)
Mathematics called the teachings (taalim) was given importance because it trains students toward the path of precision and clarity. The
student is to begin with studying arithmetic (numbers) followed by geometry, optics, astronomy, music, dynamics and last of all mechanics. The
student moves in stages from the immaterial and the immeasurable to what needs some matter. (Al-Farabi, Ihsa al-ulum, cited in Ammar alTalbi, 1993).
On evaluation, Al-Farabi emphasised that the aim of an examination is to find out a learners level in the field being studied. He believed that
the questions students ask could have either an educational or an experimental character. Educational is when students demonstrate that they
have mastered something. Experimental is when students test themselves using instruments (such as compass, abacus, ruler, tables) to
determine whether they know the rules.
Al-Farabi drew attention to the purpose of educational games and the role of play in human activity. He recommended games that stimulate
creativity. Play should be used appropriately to restore the learners strength to undertake more serious activity.
2.9 Confucius
Confucius (551-479 BC), born in Quyi in the principality of Lu, is one of Chinas most famous philosophers. He spent a lifetime learning as well as
teaching. He stated that education plays a fundamental role in the development of society and of individuals alike. Education should seek to produce
virtuous individuals which will alter human nature. By raising individual moral standard, society will become more virtuous and the country will be
well-governed and its citizens law-abiding. He rejected feudalism in which the status of an individual was passed from one generation to the next
based on birth which was prevalent during his time. His recommendations are in the Analects (Lun Yu) which is a record of his speeches and his
disciples, as well as the discussions they had. It literally means discussions over words. Confucian thought was not confined to China. It spread to
Japan, Vietnam, North and South Korea, and parts of Southeast Asia.
2.9.1 Confucius and Education
According to Confucius, education is to produce capable individuals (ziancai) whom he called shi (gentlemen) or junzi (men of quality) who
combined competence with virtue. They would serve the government and bring about an ideal managed by men of virtue. The cultivation of
virtue was to be through observation, study and reflective thought.
Among the virtues given priority are: filial piety (xiao), respect for the elderly (ti), loyalty (zhong), respectfulness (gong), magnanimity (kuan);
fidelity (xin), diligence (min), altruism (hui), kindness (liang), frugality (jian), tolerance (rang), wisdom (zhi) and courage (yong).
Education was to be made available to all, regardless of socioeconomic status or social standing. He denounced favouritism and the passing of
office from one generation of nobles to the next (Yang Huanyin, 1993).
According to Confucius, Study without thought is labour lost; thought without study is dangerous. He saw learning as a process of observation
of some type of subject matter, whether it be books, objects or people, followed by reflection.
He saw learning as a highly personal and individual activity but when awakened by real learning would be repeated by the student. Teachers
should be committed to their work and have good mastery of the knowledge to be imparted.
A good teacher must love his students, know them well, understand their psychological uniqueness, give thought to ways and means of
facilitating their access to knowledge (Yang Huanyin, 1993).
A mistake is acting on premature knowledge based on insufficient observation and insufficient processing. A lie is having full knowledge and
deliberately misrepresenting that knowledge.
Confucius stipulated that the main emphasis of the curriculum should be moral instruction and the imparting of knowledge. Moral education
was thus for Confucius the means whereby his ideas concerning virtue might be realised.
o
o
to welcome criticism
to curb evil and exalt the good.
Education should aim for the all-round development of the individual personality through interaction and union with the environment. Education
should provide the individual with a satisfactory means of livelihood followed by fulfillment and completeness. Schools should be made more
lively and enjoyable. They should be more attractive and productive.
The ideal school should be established away from the turmoil of human habitation under an open sky and surrounded by the fields, trees and
plants. Classes were held outdoor (whenever the weather permitted) so that students gained from being in a natural setting while learning
(Tagore, Siksha cited in Narmadeshwar Jha, 1994)
He was against bookish learning because it deprieves one of learning from the real-world. Students should gather knowledge and materials from
different sources of nature through their own efforts.
On university education he suggested that it should be based on knowledge of economics, agriculture, health, medicine and other subjects that
reflects life in the surrounding villages. Universities should attempt to push for the growth of rural areas (Narmadeshwar Jha, 1994)
Emphasis should be more on self-motivation rather than on discipline, and on fostering intellectual curiosity rather than competitive excellence.
He insisted on open debate on every issue and distrusted conclusions based on a mechanical formula, no matter how attractive that formula
might seem in isolation.
2.10.2 Tagore and Curriculum
He put great emphasis on the use of the national language as the medium of instruction at all stages of education. The younger generation
should be aware of their
cultural heritage but at the same time they should be exposed to the cultures of other countries and learn from them.
He wanted women and men to be offered similar theoretical courses with separate practical courses for women, since their roles in life differed
from those of men.
In his view, education was not intellectual development alone. It should also develop a students aesthetic nature and creativity. The quest for
knowledge and physical activity in an agreeable environment were integral parts of the process.
Nature walks and excursions were part of the curriculum and students were encouraged to follow the life cycle of insects, birds and plants.
Aesthetic development was important as intellectual development; if not more so. This would include music, art, literature, drama and dance
which should be given prominence in the daily life of the school (OConnell, 2003).l
He advocated a teaching system that analysed history and culture for the progress that had been made in breaking down social and religious
barriers. Such an approach will integrate individuals of diverse backgrounds and narrow the gap between rich and poor (Narmadeshwar Jha,
1994).
The curriculum was flexible. Class discussion would move from Indian traditional literature to contemporary as well as classical Western thought,
and then to the culture of China or Japan or elsewhere.
New England- The first schools were linked to the Puritan church
For students to be able to read notices relate to civil affairs, laws, doctrines,
Massachusetts
To make sure there was never an uneducated lower class like there was in Europe
Education was more difficult here because there were so many different languages
They ended up with many parochial Schools and independent schools related to the different ethnic groups
Southern Schools
Later these same people were required to provide a basic education for poor children, orphans and illegitimate children
But this system maintained the great inequity in the classes and remained that way long after the civil war
Believed that:
Town Schools
Parochial Schools
Private schools
Academies
Colleges
Town Schools
Attendance was irregular depending if the children were needed to support the family
In the south poorer children attended charity schools- less demanding and taught vocational skills
In the early 1600's Puritan families were concerned with the thoughts that someday their trained and learned leaders would be no more.
In a further attempt to ease their fears of not having an educated ministry the Puritans founded Harvard College.
In order to enter this college one has to pass an entrance exam which demanded that they knew how to read and speak Latin and Greek.
The Latin Grammar school focused initially on English then on Latin and Greek
Colleges
Initially most colleges were for the preparation of ministers, Harvard, Yale, Cornell Based on the puritan view that ministers had to
demonstrate a mastery in Latin, Greek and the classics
Other course included , logic, astronomy and math, natural sciences and metaphysics
Academies
Courses included- English, grammar, public speaking, classics, writing, Practical math, history as a study of ethics
and many practical skills, including engraving, printing, painting, cabinet making, farming and bookkeeping
Textbook
One of the first was The Hornbook Primer, included Westminster Catechism and old testament
The book was made from flattened cattle horns, hence the horn book
1176-1850
At this time we saw the first laws to mandate the existences of schools in certain communities
Saw the beginning of removing religion from the schools a big push for secularism
Benjamin Rush
Was one of the first to begin a push to remove the classics from education.
He equated learning the classics, two dead languages, ( Greek and Latin) To amusing ourselves catching Butterflies
Was one of the first to outline a plan for PA to have a elementary school in every township of 100 or more families
He wanted free academies at the county level and free colleges at the university level
His elementary curriculum emphasized reading, math and writing, his secondary curriculum had English, German, the arts, science
Thomas Jefferson
Was a farmer at heart and had faith in the agrarian society and distrusted the urban proletariats
He proposed a plan for VA that would educate the common man and the gentry at the expense of all- public taxes
Although both concepts helped to shape the schools that would come
Webster
Creating schools in the new country and agreeing on a curriculum was more of a problem because we had so many diverse cultures
Noah Webster felt we needed our own language as well as our own government- we needed our own cultural independence as well
The American Dictionary- helped create a sense of a US language, identity and nationality
McGuffey Readers
McGuffey was also a patriot and felt that although the young country owed a lot of its culture to other parts of the world, That the United
States had also made some contribution to humankind
Extolled the patriotism heroism, hard work, diligence and virtuous living
European Influences
Although there was a push from people like Webster and McGuffey to develop a nationalistic American way, education was highly
influenced by people like
Pestalozzi
Froebel
Herbart
Spencer
Pestalozzi
General method- educators provided emotional security and affection for students
Special method- dealt with dealing with senses like auditory and visual
Froebel
Believed that learning should be organized around play and the students interests- use manipulative
Herbart
Ethical knowledge
Wanted history, English, science and math integrated into all levels of education
Believed learning was a psychological process that teachers needed students needs and interest through:
Application-the new ideas are tested and applied to pertinent activities ( authentic assessment)
Spencer
Believed that traditional schools were impractical and a luxury of the upper class
Advocated for a scientific, practical curriculum that would support an industrial society
believed that students should be taught how to think, not what to think
Was a believer in Darwin and felt that a school curriculum should advanced a societies ability to survive and progress
Believed in a form of discovery learning and was an influence on the followers of john Dewey
What forces do you think was the greatest influence in changing the schools?
Universal schools
The urban east, schools were always there for the upper class, but now available for the lower class as well and seen as an important
opportunity
Monitorial Schools
The teacher taught the bright students and then they taught the other students
Common Schools
Mann was a salesman- Sold each faction of society on how the common school would help everyone
Elementary Schools
Secondary Schools
Although many children attended elementary schools, the secondary schools were established were not well attended till the 1930s to
1970 range
Academies
Prepared students for not just college ( but mostly), but also for vocational careers as well
They eventually became High schools, what remained were mostly all girl schools
Secondary Schools
Unlike the European models, it served all classes of students under one roof
Algebra
Higher Arithmetic
English Grammar
Us History
Latin
Geometry
Physiology
natural philosophy
Physical geography
German
General History
Rhetoric
Bookkeeping
French
Zoology
As school evolved there were many unsettled questions- European philosophies versus new psychology
In 1983- The NEA formed Three committees to develop a philosophy that would guide schools
Thought that students needed strict discipline and strict teacher authority
Elementary School
1. Classical
2. Latin Scientific
3. Modern Languages
4. English
The Committee was somewhat political, eight of the ten members were college representatives and stated what they wanted
The credits the students accumulated were measured in Carnegie Units, still used today
Focused on
Focused on
Harris focused so much on the classic, it discouraged working class students from attending school
Eliot
Eventually educators could not ignore all of the information from Educational Psychologist and educators like Pestalozzi, Montessori,
Froebel, Piaget, Dewey and Gestalt psychologist
The end of the classical curriculum- they argued that there was no research that showed studying the classics hade greater benefit for
developing mental capacity than other curriculums. Around 1917
Science
Civics
Industry- Trades
Aesthetics
Dewey
Democracy in Education
Was the first to used statistical research to make decision about what was right to do in schools
Looked at what was the best methods to use to teach children to solve problems
Judd
Slower students
College prep
Vocational tract
1920 to 1950
Concerned with
Objectives
Efficiency
Kilpatrick
Try to merge the behaviorist approach with the progressive approach the new approach was the project approach or the purposeful
activity
He advocated giving children input into the curriculum ( selecting the project)
Got together all of the power brokers in schools of the time ( 1930) from Bobbitt to Kilpatrick and they wrote two volumes on the
direction schools should take
A statement of objectives
Sequence of experiences-
The subject matter that is best means for engaging the students
Statement of outcomes
It compared different types of curriculum and measured how students did using these different approaches
Knowledge acquisition
Intellectual Skills
Goolad
Although much had been written and research a study in 1969 found little had changed in schools, things like
Good looking students and athletes were most popular kids in the schools
Behavior is "conditioned"
Altering the environment can elicit desired responses from the learner
Thorndike
Skinner
Bandura
Gagne
Classical Conditioning: Ring bell with food, remove bell= dog will drool
Believed theory worked best if a child was conditioned from a very young age.
Watson believed environmental influences were more important than genetic influences
Operant Conditioning
Emitted= Behavior was operant, meaning there is less of an explainable reason for the response
Looking at the picture, an elicit response might comment on his hair; an emmitted response might have nothing to do with it.
Hierarchial Learning
8 Steps: Signal Learning, Stimulus-Response, Motor Chains, Verbal Association, Multiple Discrimination, Concepts, Rules, Problem Solving
Montessori
Piaget
Vygotsky
Bruner
Gardner
Guilford
Structured Play
Cognitive Psychology-Piaget
1.
Sensorimotor (0-2)
2.
Preoperational (2-7)
3.
4.
Child development is shaped by interactions, not just time, like Piaget thought
Language, counting systems, art, mechanical drawings, & mnemonic techniques are all "tools" used by humans to organize
What is learned must be related to what was learned previously-- Spiral learning
Discovery Learning
"Structure of Intellect"
6 products, 5 Operations & 4 Contents that comprised 120 distinct mental abilities.
Critical Thinking
"Teaching someone to think is like teaching someone to swing a golf club; it involves a holistic approach, not a piecemeal effort"
(Ornstein & Hunkins, 2009)
Maslow
Rogers
Human Needs
Teacher is a non-directive facilitator who has close professional relations with students as they guide student growth