Research Article

Exhaust emission characteristics of

various types of biofuels

Advances in Mechanical Engineering

2015, Vol. 7(7) 17
2015 The Author(s)
DOI: 10.1177/1687814015593036
aime.sagepub.com

De-Xing Peng

Abstract
Meeting the growing demand for sustainable energy is one of the major challenges of the 21st century. In the Kyoto conference on global climate change, numerous nations committed to large reductions in greenhouse gas emissions.
Reduced greenhouse gas emissions are a major advantage of using biodiesel on diesel engines. The test uses three biodiesels (soybean oil, palm oil, and waste edible oil) in the engine, comparing engine performance and exhaust emissions
with the baseline (pure petrodiesel) case. The results indicated that the use of biodiesel produces decreased smoke opacity but increased fuel consumption up to 7.38% compared with petrodiesel. Exhaust emissions, such as CO and HC,
were reduced using biodiesel in fuels, primarily because of the effect of complete combustion of the oxygen contained in
biodiesel.
Keywords
Biodiesel, biodiesel engine, engine testing

Date received: 21 February 2015; accepted: 20 April 2015

Academic Editor: Ruey-Jen Yang

Introduction
Rapid urbanization and economic growth of developing countries have produced air pollution, particularly
in the road transport sector. The increasing demand for
petroleum-based fuels and their combustion in internal
combustion engines have had adverse effects on air
quality, human health, and global warming. This has
triggered awareness to find alternative sources of sustainable energy. Similar to petroleum diesel, biodiesel
can be used in compression ignition engines with little
or no modification. The primary advantages of using
biodiesel are its renewability and superior quality of
exhaust gas emissions. Biofuels are renewable, can supplement HC fuels, assist in their conservation, and mitigate their adverse effects on the environment. To fulfill
emission regulations and contribute to the reduction of
CO2 from transportation, one strategy is the use of
cleaner fuels. Bioderived biodiesel fuels are viable candidates as a renewable alternative and for meeting bioenergy consumption targets in the transport sector.13

Many countries are seeking alternative fuels for diesel engines. So far, biodiesel is one of the alternative
fuels being promoted. The search for alternative fuels is
motivated by the goals of sustainable development,
energy conservation, efficiency, and environmental preservation. Nearly all (97%) of the fossil fuel energy
consumption in the transportation sector is from oil.
However, the use of various fossil fuels, such as petroleum products and coal, leads to several environmental
problems such as reduction in underground-based carbon energy sources and subsidence of the ground surface after the extraction of fuels and minerals. Among
them, biodiesel seems a very promising resource.47
Department of Vehicle Engineering, Army Academy, Taiwan, ROC
Corresponding author:
De-Xing Peng, Department of Vehicle Engineering, Army Academy,
No.750, 3rd Neighborhood, Longdong Rd., Zhongli City, Taoyuan County
32093, Taiwan, ROC.
Email: sugarest.tw@yahoo.com.tw

Creative Commons CC-BY: This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License
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Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Monoalkyl esters can be used in modern diesel

engines in their pure biodiesel forms or can be blended
with petroleum diesel. In addition to being renewable,
biodiesel is biodegradable, nontoxic, has a higher flash
point, causes reduced exhaust emissions, and is more
eco-friendly than petroleum diesel fuel.5 The physical
and chemical properties of biodiesel fuel have been
shown to be similar and compatible with those of petrodiesel fuels. Vegetable oilbased diesel fuel substitutes
have proven to be clean and effective, and they apparently increase overall lubricity when added to diesel fuel
at nominally low levels. Biodiesel can be produced from
vegetable oils, as well as edible and nonedible and animal fats. Edible oil resources, such as soybeans, palm
oil, sunflower, safflower, rapeseed, coconut, and peanut, are considered the first generation of biodiesel
feedstock because they were the first crops to be used
for biodiesel production.7,8
Waste cooking oil is a promising alternative to vegetable oil because of its reduced raw material cost.
Restaurant waste oils and rendered animal fats are less
expensive than food grade soybean oil. Waste edible oil
(WEO) cannot be discharged into drains or sewers
because it causes blockages, odors, and vermin problems and may also pollute watercourses, causing problems for wildlife. Although WEO was once used as an
ingredient in animal feed, it was banned by the
European Union because of animal health hazards.9,10
The disposal of large amounts of WEO is problematic
in numerous countries. Production of biodiesel from
waste cooking oil is one of the less problematic methods of using it efficiently and economically. Looking at
the requirement for diesel fuel and the availability of
waste cooking oil, the biodiesel obtained from waste
cooking oil could partially replace diesel fuel.11,12
Biodiesel fuels can be used in high-pressure combustion engines, such as common rail injection engines in
which high injection pressures allow rapid atomization
and combustion resulting in higher efficiencies and
lower emissions. When burned, biodiesel produces
pollutants with few detrimental human health effects.
In addition, its lubricity is superior to that of diesel
fuel.1315 Biodiesel can be blended in any proportion
with mineral diesel to create a biodiesel blend or can be
used in its pure form.
Demirbas16 reported that oxygen improves the efficiency of combustion, but it takes up space in the blend
and thus slightly increases the apparent fuel consumption rate observed while operating an engine with biodiesel. Altiparmak et al.17 tested various blends of
biodiesel and pure petrodiesel in a single-cylinder direct
injection diesel engine at full-load capacity. They
observed that the engine torque and power output with
biodiesel and petrodiesel fuel blends increased by up to
6.1% and 5.9%, respectively. Agarwal18 evaluated the
performance characteristics of biodiesel and various

blends in a direct injection diesel engine. It was found

that heating the biodiesel was adequate to reduce the
viscosity and close range to diesel. Based on brakespecific fuel consumption (BSFC), thermal efficiency,
and smoke opacity, 200 bar is the optimal fuel injection
pressure for biodiesel oil and diesel. Suryawanshi and
Deshpande19 reported that at partial and full loads,
HC emissions were significantly lower in biodiesel
blends than in pure petrodiesel. The HC emissions of a
fuel blend can be reduced further by increasing the biodiesel content. Unburned HC can be reduced by 53%
in engines operated with biodiesel. Charles and Todd20
concluded that complete combustion converts HC fuels
to CO2 and water. Diesel fuel, represented by C16H34,
releases 3.11 kg of CO2 per kilogram of fuel used in
combustion. Biodiesel, represented by C22H43O2,
releases 2.86 kg of CO2 per kilogram of fuel used in
combustion. According to Pal et al.,21 a 30% biodiesel
blend of petrodiesel showed a higher brake power,
brake thermal efficiency, reduced BSFC, and smoke
opacity compared with pure petrodiesel.
Karaosmanoglu et al.22 studied the effects of biodiesel on engine behavior over a 50-h period and observed
no remarkable changes. The results were considered
promising for this fuel, although diesel engines are
expected to last much longer than 50 h. In
Karaosmanoglu et al.,22 an engine running on sunflower oil showed no significant decrease in power, fuel
consumption, and balancing force. In Charles and
Todd,20 rapeseed methyl ester emission tests showed a
reduction in unburned hydrocarbon (55.6%), carbon
monoxide (50.6%), and nitrogen oxides (11.8%) and
an increase in carbon dioxide (1.1%) and particulate
matter (PM; 0.3%). The PM results did not significantly differ from those for diesel.7 Helwani et al.23
reported that combustion of neat biodiesel decreases
carbon monoxide (CO) emissions by 46.7%, PM emissions by 66.7%, and unburned hydrocarbons by
45.2%. Pramanik24 reported the performance of using
biodiesel and diesel fuel blends in diesel engine. There
are significant improvements in engine performance
when compared to biodiesel. The specific fuel consumption was reduced due to decrease in the viscosity
of the biodiesel.
Many studies of the effects of biodiesel on engine
performance consistently show slightly decreased torque and power with increased specific fuel consumption.814 Although reported emission results for biofuels
vary, most studies report lower CO, HC, and smoke
emissions and higher NOx emissions. These reductions
in exhaust emissions have caused changes in engine
design for biofuel use and control of the fuel injector
system. Therefore, in making an attempt to promote
the use of biodiesel, it is important to evaluate the performance and engine exhaust emission characteristics
of biofuel used in a diesel engine. The studies have

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3
Table 1. Test engine specifications.
Item

Specifications

Engine
Engine category
Engine type
Bore 3 stroke
Displacement
Cylinders
Compression ratio
Fuel system
Injection pressure
Nozzle
Air intake system
Emission control system

shown that biodiesel produces substantially lower CO,

CO2, PM, polyaromatic HC, nitrated polyaromatic
HC, sulfur oxides (SOx), and HC emissions than pure
petrodiesel. Although many studies have confirmed
acceptable performance results for engines operating
with biodiesel, very few have performed a long-term
analysis of engine exhaust emissions. There is a need to
study possible usage of other biodiesel at large scale
and their impact on human health and environment.
Other biodiesels need to be examined for engine performance and emission characteristics.

DOC: diesel oxidation catalyst; PCV: positive crankcase ventilation;

EGR: exhaust gas recirculation.

0.16
0.14
0.12

CO (%)

Figure 1. Experimental setup of the diesel engine testing

system.

Diesel engine
Four strokes, water cooled
HYUNDAI, TRAJET 2.0, TCI
83 3 92 mm
1991 cc
In-line four cylinders
17.7:1
Common rail (direct injection)
1500 bar maximum
Hole
Turbocharged with inter cooler
DOC, PCV, EGR

0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02

Experimental procedure

0.00

This study was a comparison of biodiesel and pure petrodiesel in terms of engine exhaust emitted by a diesel
engine. The water-cooled diesel engine used in the
engine test had a four-cylinder four-stroke engine with
direct injection (Figure 1). The engine was operated at
3000 r/min at a constant 70% throttle position. The
engine operation showed good stability at 70% rather
than 100% throttle position. Hence, for safety reasons,
the 70% throttle was chosen. The engine specifications
are shown in Table 1. The essential fuel properties are
given in Table 2. To examine the emission characteristics, a portable SINCRO exhaust gas analyzer (model
EGA2001C) was used to measure the concentration of
exhaust gases of the test engine such as HC and NOx
(ppm); CO, CO2, O2, and smoke (%vol) and exhaust
gas temperature (C).

Results and discussion

Various types of diesel fuel were used for the same testing procedures, which included pure petrodiesel, soybean oil, palm oil, and WEO. The type of testing
engine used was a four-stroke diesel engine. Pollutants
from diesel engines included CO, HC, CO2, NOx, and

Petro-diesel Soybean oil

Palm oil Waste edible oil

Various diesel
Figure 2. CO emissions for various types of fuel.

smoke. Most of the diesel engines run on exclusively

lean mixtures, such as 14:1 times of stoichiometric air
fuel ratio. Therefore, the CO emission is typically lower
than that of gasoline engines.25 The CO emissions for
various types of fuel at 3000 r/min are shown in
Figure 2. The CO emission at 3000 r/min was 0.103%,
0.068%, 0.070%, and 0.077% for pure petrodiesel, soybean oil, palm oil, and WEO, respectively. Soybean oil
has the lowest CO emission, followed by palm oil, and
WEO. On average, soybean oil, palm oil, and WEO
reduced CO emission by 33.9%, 32.0%, and 25.2%,
respectively.
HC emissions were the result of incomplete fuel
combustion from flame quenching in crevice regions in
the cylinder wall. A comparison of the unburned HC
emissions of various fuels at 3000 r/min is shown in
Figure 3. The HC emission at 3000 r/min was 28.0,
22.8, 26.2, and 25.1 ppm for pure petrodiesel, soybean
oil, palm oil, and WEO, respectively. It can be seen that

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Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Table 2. Base fuel properties.

Property

Petrodiesel

Soybean oil

Palm oil

WEO

Viscosity (40C, Cst)

Flash point (C)
Sulfur content (%)
Water content (ppm)
Cetane number

2.62
88
0.01
50.2
52.3

4.45
149
\0.01
247
53.1

4.54
162
\0.01
250.4
52.6

4.56
158
\0.01
258
54

WEO: waste edible oil.

40
35

CO2 (%)

HC (ppm)

30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Petro-diesel Soybean oil

Palm oil Waste edible oil

3.6
3.4
3.2
3.0
2.8
2.6
2.4
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0

Petro-diesel Soybean oil

Palm oil Waste edible oil

Various diesel

Various diesel
Figure 3. Hydrocarbon emissions for various types of fuel.

Figure 4. CO2 emissions for various types of fuel.

the lowest level of HC was produced from soybean oil

fuel, followed by WEO and palm oil. The soybean oil
contained 82% fatty acid and produced complete combustion compared with palm oil and WEO fuels. The
oxygenated compounds available in the biodiesels
improve the fuel oxidation reducing HC emissions.18
When the oxygen content of fuel is increased, it requires
less oxygen for combustion. However, oxygen content
of fuel is the main reason for more complete combustion and HC emission reduction. Another, higher
cetane number of biodiesels reduces the combustion
delay, and such a reduction has also been related to
decreases in HC emissions.2628
The CO2 is the key parameter that indicates the combustion performance of fuel. Increasing CO2 emission
indicates increased combustion. A comparison of the
CO2 emissions of various fuels at 3000 r/min is shown
in Figure 4. The maximum CO2 emission was observed
for biodiesel, resulting from increased combustion at
the current throttle-speed engine operating condition.
The CO2 emission for all types of fuel was found at
3000 r/min: 2.51%, 2.64%, 2.72%, and 2.87% for pure
petrodiesel, soybean oil, palm oil, and WEO, respectively. WEO oil produced higher amounts of CO2 than
palm oil and soybean oil fuels. This is mainly due to the
effect of high unsaturated fatty acid in WEO. The

WEO contains 81% fatty acid and produces complete

combustion compared with palm oil and soybean oil
fuels.
Compared with pure petrodiesel, soybean oil
increases NOx emissions by 10.34%, palm oil reduces
them by 22.4%, and WEO increases them by 31.0%
(Figure 5). The difference was primarily due to the
increase in combustion temperature caused by the biodiesel fuels, which can be attributed to biodiesel fuels
producing a higher heat release rate at the premix combustion phase, which higher the peak combustion temperature and increase NOx emissions. Pradeep and
Sharma29 suggested that using hot exhaust gas recirculation to control NOx in diesel engine fueled with biodiesel can effectively reduce NOx emission, which
lowers peak combustion temperature and thus reduces
NOx emissions. In addition, the NOx emission is
strongly related to lean fuel with high cylinder temperature or high peak combustion temperature. A fuel with
high heat release rate at premix or rapid combustion
phase and lower heat release rate at mixing controlled
combustion phase will increase NOx.11,25
Smoke is strongly related to the fuel cooling effect,
as well as the airfuel mixing problem that increases
combustion delay. WEO oil showed the lowest smoke
emission level compared with palm oil and soybean oil

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100
90
70

O2 (%)

NOx (ppm)

80
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Petro-diesel Soybean oil

Palm oil Waste edible oil

24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

Petro-diesel Soybean oil

Various diesel

Various diesel

Figure 5. Nitrogen oxide emissions for various types of fuel.

Figure 7. Oxygen emissions for various types of fuel.

30

500

Exhaust gas temperature(C)

27

Smoke (%)

24
21
18
15
12
9
6
3
0

Palm oil Waste edible oil

Petro-diesel Soybean oil

Palm oil Waste edible oil

450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0

Petro-diesel Soybean oil

Various diesel

Palm oil Waste edible oil

Various diesel

Figure 6. Smoke emissions for various types of fuel.

Figure 8. Exhaust gas temperature for various types of fuel.

(Figure 6). The ignition delay of WEO oil was shorter

than that for pure petrodiesel, which affected smoke
reduction. The lowest smoke emission was observed for
WEO oil, followed by soybean oil and palm oils. This
implied that WEO oil produced a more complete combustion than palm oil and soybean oil. On average, the
WEO oil and soybean oil fuels showed 18.5% and
20.3% less smoke opacity than pure petrodiesel fuel
did. Because biodiesel is free from sulfur, less sulfate
emissions and particulate reduction were reported in
the exhaust.
The O2 emission of various fuels from the diesel
engine is shown in Figure 7. At 3000 r/min, the O2 concentration recorded was 16.62%, 17.85%, 17.47%, and
18.97% for pure petrodiesel, soybean oil, palm oil, and
WEO, respectively. Soybean oil, palm oil, and WEO
showed higher O2 concentrations because soybean oil,
palm oil, and WEO contain higher amounts of O2 than
pure petrodiesel.

The variation in exhaust gas temperature for all

tested fuels is shown in Figure 8. The lowest level of
exhaust gas temperature was found in pure petrodiesel
followed by WEO, palm oil, and soybean oil. Exhaust
temperature for biodiesel fuels varied between 321C
and 344C, as compared with 321C for petrodiesel,
indicating limited variation in exhaust temperature; this
could be due to the same quantity of fuel being consumed per hour for diesel and biodiesel fuels. Both the
WEO and palm oil contain fuel-inbound oxygen molecules, but the fatty acid in WEO is highly saturated
(80%) compared with palm oil (50%). The highly saturated fatty acid (in WEO) does not increase combustion
products compared with palm oil. The saturated fatty
acid is sufficient to produce complete combustion, and
it could represent a good diesel fuel to reduce exhaust
emissions.
The variation in fuel consumption for all tested fuels
is shown in Figure 9. The lowest level of fuel

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Advances in Mechanical Engineering

Fuel consumption(cc)

0.60
0.55
0.50
0.45
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10
0.05
0.00

molecular structure of the biodiesel. Biodiesel is

increasingly used instead of pure petrodiesel because it
is a renewable and sustainable alternative fuel for compression ignition engines.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.

Funding
Petro-diesel

Soybean oil

Palm oil

Waste edible oil

This work was supported by the National Science Council of

the ROC with grant no. NSC 101-2221-E-539-003.

Various diesel
Figure 9. Fuel consumption for various types of fuel.

consumption was found in petrodiesel, followed by

soybean oil, WEO, and palm oil. The high fuel consumption obtained by soybean oil, palm oil, and WEO
in comparison with petrodiesel is mainly owed to their
respective lower heating values. However, higher oxygen content also led to lower calorific values, which
may result in substantial power losses and the increase
in specific types of fuel consumption.
Compared with pure petrodiesel fuel, biodiesel has
several superior combustion characteristics. For example, when biodiesel is used as an engine fuel, its approximately 10 wt% oxygen content may promote a more
complete combustion and effectively reduce the production of unburned HC, CO, as well as suspended
aerosol carbon granules (smoke); however, NOx emissions slightly increase. These increased fuel consumptions for biodiesels are because they contain oxygen
content in the fuels, which result in the lower heating
value. The lower heating values and higher densities of
those biodiesels require larger mass fuel flows for the
same energy output from the engine, leading to the
increase in the fuel consumption to compensate the
reduced chemical energy in the fuel.28

Conclusion
The tests apply four diesel fuels on the engine performance, and exhaust emission results are compared to
the baseline (pure petrodiesel) case. Results show that
the fuel consumption is increased by 7.38% for the biodiesel case, the engine combustion temperature can be
increased by 7.17% for the biodiesel case, the O2 emission can be increased by 14.14%, CO emissions can be
reduced up to 25.24%, HC emissions can be reduced
up to 18.57%, and smoke emissions can be reduced up
to 19.6%. Thus, the biodiesel can be applied in the diesel fuel to upgrade the engine performance. The exhaust
emissions of biodiesel are also lower than those of pure
petrodiesel because of the presence of O2 in the

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