Journal of Ship Production, Vol. 13, No. 2, May 1997, pp.

83-92

Control of Distortion in Thin Ship Panels

Chris C o n r a r d y 1 and R a n d y Dull 1

ABSTRACT
The increased use of thin section (i.e., less than lO-mm (3/8-m.) thick) steel m ship panel
construction has aggravated distortion problems, adding to the costs for fitting and flame
straightening. This paper describes the results of a study to evaluate techniques for control of
distortion in thin panels used in ship construction. The objective of this project is to identify cost
effective techniques for controlling distortion.
Buckling is usually the dominant mode of distortion in thin panels, followed by angular
distortion. Means of reducing both forms of distortion are discussed. During the design phase
relatively small adjustments to the design, such as changing plate thickness or stiffener spacing,
can significantly reduce distortion. Improving manufacturing techniques, including reducing
weld size, implementing intermittent welding, and restraining the panel during welding, can also
make a major impact on reducing distortion. New techniques such as egg-crate construction,
laser welding, thermal tensioning, back-side line heating, back-bending, and weld quenching also
show promise.

I. INTRODUCTION
Distortion is a familiar problem to all fabricators
employing arc welding processes, and shipbuilders are
no exception. Over the years, shipbuilders have come
to expect some degree of distortion and have learned to
live with its consequences. Evidence of this can be
seen in the panel fabrication and block erection
practices of flame straightening to remove distortion,
leaving stiffener ends unwelded to aid in fitting, and
over-sizing panels for later trimming.
In recent years ship panel distortion has become a
major problem. The greater use of thin (i.e., under
10-mm (3/8-in.) thick) plate in panel fabrication has
resulted in significantly increased distortion. The net
result has been increased man-hours for fitting, flame
straightening,
and
rework
following
flame
straightening.
Shipbuilders are generally concerned with two
forms of thin panel welding distortion: in-plane
distortion, and out-of-plane distortion.
In-plane
distortion is the shrinkage in the overall panel
dimensions, which makes the implementation of "neatcut" fabrication techniques difficult.
Out-of-plane
distortion is the oil-canning or edge waviness which
necessitates flame straightening and exacerbates fitting
1 Senior research engineer and research engineer, respectively,
Edison Welding Institute, Columbus, Ohio.

MAY 1997

problems. While this paper deals exclusively with

techniques to prevent out-of-plane distortion, the two
forms of distortion are inexorably linked. Some of the
in-plane shrinkage observed in ship panels is a
consequence of out-of-plane distortion, simply because
a deformed plate is shorter than a flat plate. Also,
flame straightening to correct out-of-plane distortion, if
done prior to panel installation, will impart additional
in-plane shrinkage.
So, control of out-of-plane
distortion is a good first step in controlling in-plane
shrinkage for thin panels.
This paper reports the results of a Navy Joining
Center (NJC) funded program to develop techniques to
reduce out-of-plane welding distortion in thin steel
panels. In the sections which follow, the predominant
types of thin-panel distortion are first discussed, then
techniques for controlling these types of distortion are
reviewed. Although an exhaustive review of potential
distortion mitigation techniques was performed as part
of the NJC project, only the techniques which show the
greatest promise are presented here.
2. TYPES OF DISTORTION
A wide variety of techniques can be selected for
control of welding distortion. In many cases, selection
Presented at the Ship Production Symposium, San Diego,
California, February 14-16, 1996.

8756-1417/97/1302o0083500.45/0

JOURNAL OF SHIP PRODUCTION

83

of the appropriate techniques depends on the type of

distortion which is occurring. Figure 1 shows the basic
types of welding distortion. Unfortunately, thin panel
distortion is complex and shows signs of all of these
forms of distortion.

1~4"

4"

x 5# S t l F ? e n e r s

rs

//////////////////~

Transverse shrinkage

Angular change
Figure 2 Small-Scale Mock-Up. The Letters Designate
LVDT Locations

,fjjjfjjjj~jjf~l

Longitudinal shrinkage

Rotational distortion

Longitudinal bending
distortion

4"x8"xlO# Transverses
, - 4 " x 4 " x 5 # Longl~cudln=tts
/ - Bu'l;'t Vetd

Buckling distortion
Figure 3 Large-Scale Mock-Up

Figure 1 Basic Types of Distortion

To identify the dominant form of thin panel welding
distortion, a numerical modeling effort was undertaken
in concert with empirical testing. The development of
the numerical distortion prediction tools is the subject
of another paper (Michaleris, 1995), and will not be
discussed here. The empirical testing took the form of
welding mock-ups of thin ship panels under a variety of
conditions and then measuring the resultant distortion.
Two types of mock-ups were employed: the small-scale
1.2 m (4 ft) square mock-up illustrated in Figure 2, and
the large-scale 2.4 m (8 ft) by 6.1 m (20 ft) mock-up of
Figure 3. Both types were fabricated from 4.8-mm
(3/16-in.) thick AH-36 and DH-36 shipyard steels. The
small-scale mock-up provided a convenient, low-cost
means to perform highly controllable testing. The
large-scale mock-up testing allowed verification of the
assumption that the results of the small-scale mock-up
tests could be scaled to predict the behavior of actual
shipyard panels.

84

MAY lgg7

Figure 4 shows the experimental set-up for the

small-scale mock-up testing. Shipyard longitudinal
stiffener welding procedures were reproduced using a
mechanized dual torch set-up carried on a welding
tractor. After each welding operation, out-of-plane
distortion was measured at 169 locations on a 13 13
grid using a digital indicator. Pseudo three-dimensi0nal
maps of the mock-up shape were then produced by
plotting the displacements at these 169 locations. This
allowed the contribution of each welding operation to
the overall distortion to be determined. Additionally,
linear voltage displacement transducers (LVDT's) were
positioned at three locations along one edge of the
mock-up (see Figure 2) so that the real-time
displacement of the edge could be recorded.
The major finding of this effort is that buckling is
the primary contributor to thin panel distortion. This
buckling results from longitudinal shrinkage forces
generated during the welding of the longitudinal
stiffeners.
Figures 5a-d illustrate the progressive
development of the distortion as each longitudinal

JOURNAL OF SHIP PRODUCTION

stiffener is welded on a small-scale mock-up. Figure

5b shows that the plate is slightly un-flat prior to
welding. The characteristic sinusoidal shape along the
plate edge after the first and second stiffeners are
welded (Figures 5c and 5d) is indicative of buckling
distortion. LVDT traces recorded during the welding
of the first longitudinal stiffener (Figure 6) offer
additional evidence that significant buckling is
occurring. The sudden change in displacement of the
two LVDT's near the corners of the mock-up indicate
that the mock-up edge suddenly changed shape, from
relatively straight to sinusoidal. Such sudden changes
are characteristic of buckling, and were observed in
both the small-scale and the large-scale mock-ups.

45
3

:hes

45

Figure 5b Displacement of Plate Before Welding

0.8

--

060,40.2OA].2-

45
I

hes

inches

a~

45

Figure 5c Displacement of Plate After First

Longitudinal Stiffener Was Welded

__=
lOS

Inches

at~

,45

Figure 5d Displacement of Plate After Both

Longitudinal Stiffeners were Welded
2.5

Figure 4 Experimental Setup for Small-Scale MockUps

2.4
2,3
2,2
c

2.1

~
o

1.9

(B)

1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
0

50

1O0

150

.time ( s e c o n d s )

Figure 5a Stiffener Orientation

MAY 1997

Figure 6 LVDT Traces Recorded During Welding of

First Longitudinals Stiffener (see Figure 2 for LVDT
locations).

JOURNAL OF SHIP PRODUCTION

85

Current evidence suggests that the contribution of

the transverse stiffeners is primarily to change the mode
of this buckling (e.g., to change the sinusoidal plate
waviness into oil-canning) and to add some additional
angular distortion.
Figure 7 shows the change in
distortion of a small-scale mock-up due to the welding
of a transverse stiffener.
In Figure 7a the two
transverse stiffeners are tack-welded into place, which
changes the mode of distortion from the sinusoidal
edge distortion (Figure 5d) to more of an oil-canning
effect. Welding one transverse stiffener (Figure 7b)
increases the magnitude of the oil-canning by
contributing additional distortion.
The upward
deflection near the transverse stiffener is indicative of
angular distortion.
The magnitude of the angular
distortion caused by welding the transverse stiffener is
relatively small compared with the buckling distortion
from the longitudinal stiffener welds.

45
8

:hes

depends on a number of factors, including the thickness

of the plate, the length of the plate, the initial condition
of the plate, the stiffener spacing, and the welding heat
input. In some cases, even if buckling were completely
eliminated, angular distortion alone may produce an
unacceptable degree of out-of-plane distortion. Thus,
once buckling distortion is controlled, additional steps
may be necessary to control the angular component of
the distortion.
3. D I S T O R T I O N C O N T R O L S T R A T E G I E S
Figure 8 illustrates the recommended distortion
control strategy for thin panels. First, eliminate the
buckling distortion caused by welding the longitudinal
stiffeners. Then, reduce the angular component due to
the welding of the longitudinal stiffeners. Finally,
mitigate the effects of the angular distortion caused by
the welding of the transverse stiffeners. The following
sections describe possible approaches for achieving
each of these goals.

Mitigate buckling distortion

due to longitdinal stiffeners

Mitigate angular distortion

due to longitudinal stiffeners

45

Figure 7a Both Transverses Tacked

Mitigate angular distortion

due to transverse stiffeners
45

:hes
inches

3~

45

Figure 7b One Transverse Welded

Because the contribution of angular distortion is
normally smaller than that of buckling distortion, the
primary focus of distortion control strategies for thin
panels should be to eliminate the buckling caused by
the welding of the longitudinal stiffeners. However,
this does not mean that angular distortion can be
completely ignored.
The relative significance of
angular and buckling distortion for a particular panel

86

MAY 1997

Figure 8 Recommended Distortion Control Strategy

for Thin Panels
Control of Buckling Distortion
Buckling results when a compressive load exceeds
the critical buckling load for the component and the
system becomes unstable. For panels, the compressive
load in the plate is a result of reaction to the residual
tensile stress in the weld region. Figure 9 shows the
tensile and compressive regions measured in a typical
panel. The critical load for a panel depends on the
stiffness of the plate blanket, and thus is a function of
the plate thickness, the panel length, and the stiffener
spacing.

JOURNAL OF SHIP PRODUCTION

Egg-Crate Construction
45O
400

350
300

no 25O
Tension \ ~

~; 200
~5o

.~ I00
0

Compression

5O

_ ,;

-50
-I00
I
I
I
;
I
-350-300-250-200-150-100 -50

50 100 150 200 250 300

Distance From Centerline of Stiffener (rnm)

Figure 9 Residual Stress

A number of techniques are available to reduce or
eliminate buckling distortion in thin panels. All of
these techniques work by either reducing the residual
tensile stress in the weld, and hence the compressive
stress in the plate, or by increasing the inherent stiffness
of the panel, and hence the critical load for buckling.
The following is a summary of the various techniques
which are available to reduce or eliminate buckling.

Modify Panel Design

Buckling distortion can be suppressed through
modification of panel design. Two possible approaches
include increasing the plate thickness and decreasing
the spacing between longitudinal stiffeners. Previous
work has demonstrated (Masubuchi, 1980; Baxter,
1988; Univ. of Tokyo, 1980) that increasing the plate
thickness and reducing the spacing of longitudinal
stiffeners will increase the resistance of a panel to
buckling. For simple panels, a critical thickness and
stiffener spacing can be calculated, below which
buckling will not occur for a given welding heat input.
Thus, it is relatively easy to avoid buckling distortion
for such simple panels by selecting the proper
combination of plate thickness and stiffener spacing.
Unfortunately, it is difficult to determine this critical
spacing and plate thickness for actual production
panels, which are complicated by cut-outs, butt welds,
and attachments. The numerical models developed on
this project have provided a means to allow the effect
of stiffener spacing and thickness on buckling to be
evaluated (Michaleris, 1995). It is hoped that such
tools will eventually become available to designers, so
that they can become cognizant of the impact of design
decisions on manufacturing.

MAY 1997

The so-called "egg-crate" construction technique

has been successfully applied in several shipyards
(Kamata, 1976; Ohta, 1975). The technique involves
using a fabrication sequence which is fundamentally
different from that employed in most U.S. shipyards for
welding panels. Normally, longitudinal stiffeners are
fillet welded to the plate blanket, then the transverse
stiffeners are welded. In the egg-crate technique, the
longitudinal stiffeners are welded to the transverse
stiffeners, then the stiffener assembly is welded to the
plate blanket. The technique is useful as a distortion
control technique because the stiffener assembly is
rigid and partitions the plate into small areas which
have a higher resistance to buckling. To prevent oil
canning of the plate in the regions between the
longitudinal and transverse stiffeners when the
assembly is welded to the plate blanket, the Japanese
have employed local heating of the plate and bi-axial
tensioning of the plate (Masubuchi, 1980). This was
said to virtually eliminate panel distortion.
The egg-crate construction technique was
evaluated on a small-scale mock-up. In the test, the
center section of the plate was heated prior to welding
of the grid structure. Out-of-plane distortion was found
to be reduced by about 50%.
While egg-crate
construction shows merit, the technique will not
become practical until such time as automation can be
implemented to allow efficient execution of the
welding operations. On-going efforts to develop such
an automated system (Rongo, 1995) may make
automated egg-crate construction viable in the near
future.

Intermittent Welding
Numerous reports (Gains, 1986; Vinokurov, 1977;
Hebert, 1994) have indicated that significant reductions
in panel distortion can be achieved by replacing
continuous welds with intermittent welds having the
same total strength. In many cases intermittent welds
are allowed by Navy standards (MIL-STD-1689-SH),
but are not widely used.
The reluctance to use
intermittent welds is apparently out of concern for
fatigue or corrosion potential and the feeling by some
shipbuilders that the technique is not amenable to
welding mechanization.
Testing was performed to quantify the
improvement which can be obtained through use of
intermittent welding. Figure 10 shows the result.
Buckling distortion was completely eliminated when a
small-scale mock-up was welded with intermittent
welds, even though a high heat input was employed.

JOURNAL OF SHIP PRODUCTION

87

Full-scale shipyard testing is underway to verify these

findings.

indicates that over-welding has a pronounced effect on

overall distortion.

45

:hes

;hes
Inclles

45
Figure 10a 3/16-in. Continuous Welds

:~

Figure 1 la 3/16-in. Welds

45

hes

hes
........

O0

45

45

Figure lOb 1/4-in. Intermittent Welds

Figure l lb 1/8-in. Welds

Reduce Heat Input

The implementation of a very low heat input

welding process could totally eliminate buckling
distortion. A number of low heat input techniques have
been proposed for ship construction (,Bethlehem Steel,
1979: Ratcliffe, 1984: Winkle, 1990: Sayegh, 1975).
Of these, laser welding technology has advanced
closest to the point where implementation might be
practical. Tests were performed to determine whether
laser welding could produce low enough heat input to
prevent buckling. Small T-joints were laser welded and
the welding thermal cycles were measured. Numerical
analysis is currently being applied to determine whether
laser welding can produce welds at low enough heat
input to prevent buckling in ship panels.

The effect of welding heat input on distortion was

evaluated and was found to be dramatic. Reducing
welding heat input will not only reduce the magnitude
of buckling distortion, but also angular distortion as
well. Figure 11 shows the effect of reducing heat input
from 7 KJ/cm (18 KJ/in.) to 3.2 KJ/cm (8 KJ/in.) on
distortion of small-scale mock specimens.
The
reduction in heat input totally eliminated the buckling
distortion for the small-scale mock-up. Thus, the 3.2
KJ/cm (8 K J/in.) heat input produces a compressive
load which is below the critical value for the smallscale mock-up.
Unfortunately, the critical buckling load is reduced
as the panel size is increased, so lower heat inputs are
required to avoid buckling in actual ship panels.
Numerical analysis has found that the critical heat input
to completely eliminate buckling for the large-scale
panel is below what is practically producible with the
GMA or FCA welding processes. While the heat input
cannot be reduced enough to completely eliminate
buckling distortion, the magnitude of the buckling can
be reduced by controlling heat input. This finding
agrees with common shipbuilding experience which

88

MAY 1997

Thermal Tensioning
The application of mechanical tensioning of butt
joints in sheet metal has been shown to be an effective
means of eliminating buckling distortion. Holt, et al
(Holt, 1974) evaluated the effect of tensile force on
distortion, and found that specimens which were
mechanically tensioned had a much lower distortion
level than did un-tensioned specimens. Unfortunately,
the force levels necessary to eliminate buckling

J O U R N A L OF SHIP P R O D U C T I O N

distortion in full-scale ship panels makes application of

this technique impractical.
An alternative to
mechanical tensioning is to thermally tension the panel
(Burak; Guann, 1988). Thermal tensioning is a more
convenient means of achieving the force levels
necessary to prevent buckling.
The concept is
illustrated in Figure 12. Parallel lines on both sides of
the weld joint are heated, while the weld joint is cooled.
If a temperature difference of about 170 C is generated,
then the difference in expansion and contraction of the
plate will create a tensile stress in the weld joint which
is sufficient to prevent buckling.

hes

Figure 13b 3/16-in. Welds with Thermal Tensioning

Weld Quenching

]l
[ HEAT I I coo, I I HEAT I
Figure 12 Thermal Tensioning Concept
This technique was tested on a small-scale mockup. Resistance heaters were used to produce the heated
bands while a water spray cooled the back-side of the
weld. Figure 13 illustrates the results. Buckling was
completely eliminated even though a relatively high
welding heat input was used.
Significant angular
distortion is still produced so additional steps would
need to be taken to eliminate this form of distortion.
Because this technique shows great promise, further
development and refinement of equipment and methods
is planned to allow testing on actual ship structures.

The literature is somewhat contradictory on the

effect of weld cooling. Some of the research suggests
that quenching of the weld will reduce the
accumulation of residual stress and distortion. The
technique has been shown to be effective for distortion
control in aluminum alloys (Masubuchi, 1980), but the
impact of quenching is less clear for steel. Still, many
references (Stewart, 1992; Vinokurov, 1977; The
Welding Institute, 1982) recommend removal of the
heat of welding via water sprays or other means when
accurate dimensional control is required.
To settle this question, the effect of fillet weld
quenching on distortion was tested on a small-scale
mock-up. Quenching was achieved by a water spray
applied to the back-side of the plate at the stiffener
location. A significant reduction in buckling distortion
was achieved. While this approach shows promise, the
user must be cognizant of the effect of quenching on
the weld microstructure and properties. Under certain
conditions cracking can occur if the weld experiences
excessive cooling rates.

Techniques to Control Angular Distortion

45

:hes
mcnes

J~

45

Figure 13a 3/16-in. Welds Without Thermal

Tensioning

MAY 1997

Angular distortion results from the moment

produced from transverse shrinkage forces applied on
one side of neutral axis of the part. For panels the
angular distortion is a result of fillet welds deposited on
one side of the plate blanket. The moment produced by
the fillet weld shrinkage causes the adjacent plate to
deflect upwards.
A number of techniques are available to reduce or
eliminate angular distortion in thin panels.
The
following is a summary of the various techniques which
are available to reduce or eliminate angular distortion
from the welding of longitudinal and transverse
stiffeners.

JOURNAL OF SHIP PRODUCTION

89

Restraint
There is difference in opinion within the
shipbuilding industry as to the desired degree of
restraint for panel welding.
Some say the more
restraint the better to resist the movement of the panel
(Sizemore, 1994), while others believe restraint causes
the accumulation of stresses which make distortion
worse when the restraining fixtures are released
(Hebert, 1994). In fact, imposing a high degree of
restraint does reduce distortion without significantly
increasing the residual stress (Doersksen,1992). Figure
14 shows the difference in angular distortion between a
restrained and an unrestrained weld. The part distorts
less when restrained because the rigidity of the
restraining fixtures forces the weld to yield during
cooling (Holt, 1977; Masubuchi, 1980). One potential
drawback of this technique is the increase in cycle time
which may result from the need to apply the restraint
and to allow the part to cool in a fixture.

optimum amount. Figure 16 shows the results of

experimentation to apply back-bending along with
thermal tensioning. As the figure shows, when thermal
tensioning alone is applied, a significant amount of
angular distortion results.
However, when backbending is also applied, the angular distortion is greatly
reduced.

......

without
restraint

with
backbend

0,7

with restraint

......

0.7

without
backbend

"~0.6

o.s

0.6
c

0.8

0.8

jl

Figure 15 Elastic Back-Bending

0.9-

0.9

ShIM

IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII~IIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIII

Flle'kWeldTs

0.5

~; 0.4

0.3

0.3

",

0.2

0.2
0.1

;-

0
-12

-9

-6

-3

t
3

12

Dlstance From Stiffener Centedlne (Inches)

90

0
-12

-9

-6
-3
0
3
6
Distance flom Stiffener Centerl]ne (Inches)

12

Figure 14 Effect of Restraint on Angular Distortion

Figure 16 Results of Applying Back-Bending With

Thermal Tensioning

Back-Bending

Back-Side Line Heating

Back-bending involves forcing a component in the

opposite direction from which it is expected to distort
(The Welding Institute, 1982; Holt, 1977; Masubuchi,
1980). Figure 15 illustrates elastic back-bending of the
plate to correct for expected angular distortion caused
by fillet welds. Prior to welding, a shim is placed below
the plate and the plate is deflected downwards over the
shim. The technique is suitable for use on only the
longitudinal stiffener welds, since the geometry of the
panel prevents back-bending of the transverse
stiffeners. The main difficulty with this technique is
that it is difficult to predict the necessary degree of prebending
to
eliminate
distortion,
so
some
experimentation is usually necessary to determine the

Back-side line heating of the stiffeners (Ratcliffe,

1984), is a method of removing angular distortion after
it has occurred. Line heating is performed at the
stiffener locations on the opposite side of the plate from
the fillet welds. The angular distortion is removed by
balancing the heat about the neutral axis of the plate.
While this technique is presently in use in several
American and Japanese shipyards, it is not widely
applied for thin panels. The technique has particular
merit for reducing angular distortion which results from
the welding of transverse stiffeners, where other
distortion control techniques are difficult to apply.
Back-side line heating is not recommended for use
during welding of longitudinal stiffeners on thin panels.

M A Y 1997

JOURNAL OF SHIP PRODUCTION

The additional heat input from the line heating can

actually promote buckling distortion.

disclosed in this report. Reference to commercial

products, processes, or services does not constitute or
imply endorsement or recommendation.

CONCLUSIONS
REFERENCES

Techniques are being evaluated for controlling

welding distortion in thin ship panels. The results to
date indicate that distortion control strategies should
first focus on eliminating buckling distortion which
results from the welding of the longitudinal stiffeners.
Once this has been achieved, the angular distortion
which results from welding of both longitudinal and
transverse stiffeners should be controlled. A number of
techniques are available for reducing buckling
distortion, including the following:
modifying the panel design,
reducing welding heat input,
using intermittent welding,
implementing egg-crate construction,
weld quenching, and
thermal tensioning.
Of these, intermittent welding and thermal
tensioning show the greatest promise for near-term
implementation.
The techniques available for
controlling angular distortion include the following:
increasing restraint,
back-bending, and
back-side line heating.
The first two of these are most appropriate for
controlling angular distortion during welding of the
longitudinal stiffeners, whereas back-side line heating
is more appropriate for reducing angular distortion
from transverse stiffener welds.
Work continues to refine and demonstrate selected
techniques on production panels.
Future work is
recommended to extend the developed techniques for
application in control of distortion in butt welds.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was funded by the U.S. Navy through
the Navy Joining Center. The authors would like to
acknowledge the many valuable contributions from
those individuals involved in this program from the
U.S. Navy, the Navy Joining Center, Bath Iron Works,
Ingalls Shipbuilding, Newport News Shipbuilding, and
Edison Welding Institute.
LEGAL NOTICE
The United States Government, Navy Joining
Center, and Edison Welding Institute make no legal
liability or responsibility
for the
accuracy,
completeness, or usefulness of the information

MAY 1997

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Maritime
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BURAK, Y. and ROMANCHUK, Y. Selection of
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E.O.Patton Welding Institute,
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DOERSKSEN, R. Weld Shrinkage Study. National
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GAINS, E. Reduced Fillet Weld Sizes for Naval Ships.
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GUANN, Q., LEGGATT, R., BROWN, K. Low Stress
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HEBERT, P. Control of Residual Stress and Distortion
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HOLT, R. and ANDERSON, J. Prestressing for
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OHTA, M. The Construction and Welding of Sections
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JOURNAL OF SHIP PRODUCTION

91

RATCLIFFE, A. The Basics and Essentials of Thermal

Residual Distortion in Steel Structures Department of
Naval Architecture and Shipbuilding, University of
Newcastle Upon Tyne, 1984.
RONGO, R., CONRARDY, C. and YAPP, D. Robotic
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SAYEGH, G. An Electron Beam Suction Cup for
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