Constitutional architecture and working mechanism of

axial flow compressors, ducted fans and turbines

Me13b1016-sairam
Question 1:

AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSORS

Description:
An axial compressor is a machine that can continuously pressurize gases. It is a
rotating, airfoil-based compressor in which the gas or working fluid principally
flows parallel to the axis of rotation and also exits from the gas turbine in the axial
direction. The energy level of the fluid increases as it flows through the
compressor due to the action of the rotor blades which exert a torque on the
fluid. The stationary blades slow the fluid, converting the circumferential
component of flow into pressure. Compressors are typically driven by an electric
motor or a steam or a gas turbine. Axial compressors consist of rotating and
stationary components. A shaft drives a central drum, retained by bearings, which
has a number of annular airfoil rows attached usually in pairs, one rotating and
one stationary attached to a stationary tubular casing. A pair of rotating and
stationary airfoils is called a stage. The rotating airfoils, also known as blades or
rotors, accelerate the fluid. The stationary airfoils, also known as stators or vanes,
convert the increased rotational kinetic energy into static pressure through
diffusion and redirect the flow direction of the fluid, preparing it for the rotor
blades of the next stage

Constructional Architecture
Axial-flow compressors have two main elements: a rotor (drum or disc type) and a
stator. These compressors are constructed of several different materials
depending on the load and operating temperature. The drum-type rotor consists
of rings that are flanged to fit one against the other so that the entire assembly
can be held together by through bolts. This type of construction is satisfactory for
low-speed compressors where centrifugal stresses are low. The rotor (disc-type)
assembly consists of stub shafts, discs blades, ducts, air vortex spoilers, spacers,
tie bolts and torque cones.

Rotor blades are generally machined from stainless steel forgings, although some
may be made of titanium in the forward (colder) section of the compressor. The
blades are attached in the disc rim by different methods using either the fir-treetype, dovetail-type, or bulb-type root designs. The blades are then locked into
place with screws, peening, locking wires, pins, keys, or plates.

Working Mechanism
As the fluid enters and leaves in the axial direction, the centrifugal component in
the energy equation does not come into play. Here the compression is fully based
on diffusing action of the passages. The diffusing action in stator converts
absolute kinetic head of the fluid into rise in pressure. The relative kinetic head in
the energy equation is a term that exists only because of the rotation of the rotor.
The rotor reduces the relative kinetic head of the fluid and adds it to the absolute
kinetic head of the fluid i.e., the impact of the rotor on the fluid particles
increases its velocity (absolute) and thereby reduces the relative velocity between
the fluid and the rotor. In short, the rotor increases the absolute velocity of the

fluid and the stator converts this into pressure rise. Designing the rotor
passage with a diffusing capability can produce a pressure rise in
addition to its normal functioning. This produces greater pressure rise
per stage which constitutes a stator and a rotor together.

DUCTED FANS

Constructional architecture:
A ducted fan is a propulsion arrangement whereby a mechanical fan, which is a
type of propeller, is mounted within a cylindrical shroud or duct. Ducted fan
propulsion is used in aircraft, airships, airboats, hovercraft and fan packs.
Propellers are similar in aerofoil section to a low-drag wing and as such are poor
in operation when at other than their optimum angle of attack. Therefore, some
propellers use variable pitch mechanism to alter the blades' pitch angle as engine
speed and aircraft velocity are changed. Ducted fans also contain stators inside
the housing which straightens the air as the flow passes. Without the stators, the
air will begin to vortex and it causes turbulence. Duct or housing is also present
which contains and directs the airflow. The efficiency of the fan depends on the
shape of the duct.
Working mechanism:

The duct reduces losses in thrust from the tips of the props, and varying the crosssection of the duct allows the designer to advantageously affect the velocity and
pressure of the airflow according to Bernoulli's Principle. According to this
simplified approach, for a ducted fan system operating statically, net pressures on
the duct inner surface will contribute to thrust if the inlet area is larger than the
outlet area (called positive camber). For a given propeller there is an ideal duct
shape (bell mouth) which will optimize the ducts contribution to static thrust.
The magnitude of this contribution from the duct can be significant; a theoretical
result. A further important factor is "diffuser ratio", being the ratio of exit area
divided by disk area. Theoretically, static thrust increases with diffuser ratio as the
induced airflow is slowed by the expanding duct aft of the propeller disk,
pressures increase on the inner duct wall, thus contributing to thrust. In practice,
diffuser ratio is strictly limited by the requirement to avoid separation. Since the
total thrust of a ducted fan/shrouded propeller is the sum of pressures on the
propeller and pressures on the duct, to increase thrust one increases the net
propulsive pressures on the duct and/or on the propeller.

AXIAL FLOW TURBINES

Description: If the water flows parallel to the axis of the rotation of the shaft, the turbine is known as
axial flow turbine. If the head at the inlet of the turbine is the sum of pressure energy and kinetic energy
and during the flow of water through runner a part of pressure energy is converted into kinetic energy,
the turbine is known as reaction turbine. For the axial flow reaction turbines, the shaft of the turbine is
vertical. The lower end of the shaft is made larger which is known as hub. The vanes are fixed on the hub
and hence hub acts as runner for axial flow reaction turbine.
The following are the important type of axial flow turbines:

1. Propeller turbine
2. Kaplan turbine
-When the vanes are fixed to the hub and they are not adjustable, the turbine is known as propeller
turbine.
-If vanes on hub are adjustable the turbine is known as a Kaplan turbine. This turbine is suitable where a
large quantity of water at low heads is available.
A turbine is a type of engine that can extract energy from a fluid, such as water, steam, air, or
combustion gases. It has a series of blades, typically made of steel but sometimes ceramic, that can
withstand higher temperatures. The fluid goes in one end, pushing the blades and causing them to spin,
then gets ejected out the other end. The fluid leaves the engine with less energy than it had going in a
portion of the difference is captured by the turbine. A turbine is a turbomachine with at least one
moving part called a rotor assembly, which is a shaft or drum with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on
the blade so that they move and impart rotational energy to the rotor.

Basic components of a turbine:

Constructional Architecture of turbine: The key parts of a turbine are a set of blades that catch the
moving fluid, a shaft or axle that rotates as the blades move, and some sort of machine that's driven by
the axle. In a modern wind turbine, there are typically three propeller-like blades attached to an axle
that powers an electricity generator. In an ancient waterwheel, there are wooden slats that turn as the
water flows under or over them, turning the axle to which the wheel is attached and usually powering
some kind of milling machine.

Working mechanism of a turbine:

According to the energy at inlet turbines work in two different ways described as impulse and reaction.
A working fluid contains potential energy and kinetic energy. The turbines are designed to extract this
energy and accordingly -

Impulse Turbines: The steam jets are directed at the turbine's bucket shaped rotor blades
where the pressure exerted by the jets causes the rotor to rotate and the velocity of the steam
to reduce as it imparts its kinetic energy to the blades. The blades in turn change the direction of
flow of the steam however its pressure remains constant as it passes through the rotor blades
since the cross section of the chamber between the blades is constant. Impulse turbines are
therefore also known as constant pressure turbines. The next series of fixed blades reverses the
direction of the steam before it passes to the second row of moving blades.

Reaction Turbines: A type of turbine that develop torque by reacting to the pressure or weight
of a fluid; the operation of reaction turbines is described by Newtons third law of motion
(action and reaction are equal and opposite).
In a reaction turbine, unlike in an impulse turbine, the nozzles that discharge the working fluid
are attached to the rotor. The acceleration of the fluid leaving the nozzles produces a reaction
force on the pipes, causing the rotor to move in the opposite direction to that of the fluid. The
pressure of the fluid changes as it passes through the rotor blades. In most cases, a pressure
casement is needed to contain the working fluid as it acts on the turbine; in the case of water
turbines, the casing also maintains the suction imparted by the draft tube. Alternatively, where
a casing is absent, the turbine must be fully immersed in the fluid flow as in the case of wind
turbines. Francis turbines and most steam turbines use the reaction turbine concept.

Wind turbines are perhaps the most familiar examples of reaction turbines.