AncientJapan

Note:Numbersinbrackets[]referencetonotesinthePrehistoricSynchrony.
ItisnotknownwhenhumansfirstsettledontheJapanesearchipelago.Itwaslongbelievedthattherewasno
PaleolithicoccupationinJapan,butsinceWorldWarIIthousandsofsiteshavebeenunearthedthroughoutthecountry,
yieldingawidevarietyofPaleolithictools.Theseincludebothcoretools,madebychippingawaythesurfaceofastone,
andflaketools,madebyworkingwithastoneflakebrokenofffromalargerpieceofstone.Thereislittledoubtthatthe
peoplewhousedtheseimplementsmovedtoJapanfromtheAsiancontinent.Atonestage,landconnectionsviawhatare
nowtheKoreaandTsushimastraitsmadeimmigrationfromtheKoreanpeninsulapossible,whileanotherconnection,via
whatarenowtheSoyaandTsugarustraits,allowedpeopletocomeinfromnortheasternAsia.
ThePaleolithicPeriodinJapanisvariouslydatedfrom30,000to10,000yearsago,althoughtheargumenthasbeen
madeforaLowerPaleolithicculturepriorto35,000BC.Nothingcertainisknownofthecultureoftheperiod,thoughit
seemslikelythatpeoplelivedbyhuntingandgathering,usedfire,andmadetheirhomeseitherinpittypedwellingsorin
caves.Noboneorhornartifactsofthekindassociatedwiththisperiodinotherareasoftheworldhaveyetbeenfoundin
Japan.Sincetherewasnoknowledgewhatsoeverofpottery,theperiodisreferredtoasthePreCeramicera.
#ClimaticchangeshelptoaccountfortheexistenceofaMesolithicstageinearlyJapaneseculture,atimewhenmuchofthe
abundantfaunaofearliertimesbecamedepletedbytheexpandinghumanpopulationofthearchipelago.Theintroductionof
thebowandarrowisregardedasalocalresponsetoadecreaseingameavailableforfood.
JomonCulture(7500BCEtoC300BCE)
ThePreCeramicerawasfollowedbytwobetterrecordedcultures,theJomonandtheYayoi.Theformertakesits
namefromatypeofpotteryfoundthroughoutthearchipelago;itsdiscoverer,the19thcenturyAmericanzoologistEdward
S.Morse,calledthepotteryjomon("cordmarks")todescribethepatternspressedintotheclay.Aconvincingtheorydates
theperiodduringwhichJomonpotterywasusedfromabout10,000yearsagountilthe2ndor3rdcenturyBC.Ofthe
featurescommontoNeolithicculturesthroughouttheworldprogressfromchippedtoolstopolishedtools,themanufacture
ofpottery,thebeginningsofagricultureandpasturage,thedevelopmentofweaving,andtheerectionofmonumentsusing
massivestonesthefirsttwoareprominentfeaturesoftheJomonperiod,buttheremainingthreedidnotappearuntilthe
succeedingYayoiperiod.Pottery,forexample,firstappearedinnorthernKyushu(thesouthernmostofthefourmain
Japaneseislands)about10,000BC,inanerathatissometimescalledthe"incipient"Jomonperiod.Whilecontinental
influenceissuspected,thefactthatKyushupotteryremainspredateanyChinesefindingsstronglysuggeststhattheimpetus
todeveloppotterywaslocal.JomonisthusbestdescribedasaMesolithicculture,whileYayoiisfullyNeolithic.
Themanufactureofpottery,however,washighlydeveloped,andtheworkofJomonpeopleshasadiversityand
complexityofformandanexuberanceofartisticdecoration.Itiscustomarytoregardchangesinpotterytypesasabasisfor
subdividingtheageintosixperiods:incipient,veryearly(about8000BCE),early(about3500BCE),middle(about3000
BCE),late(about2000BCE)[237],andverylate(orFinal,about1000BCE)[316].SinceJomonculturespreadoverthe
entirearchipelago,italsodevelopedregionaldifferences,andthiscombinationofbothchronologicalandregional
variationsgivestheevolutionofJomonpotteryahighdegreeofcomplexity.
Thepotteryoftheveryearlyperiod[114]includesmanydeep,urnlikevesselswithtapered,bulletshapedbases.
Intheearlyperiod[167]thevesselsofeasternJapanbecomeroughlycylindricalinshape,withflatbases,andthewalls
containanadmixtureofvegetablefiber.Inthemiddleperiod[191]therewererapidstridesinpotterytechniques;thepots
producedduringthistimeinthecentralmountainareasaregenerallyconsideredtobethefinestofthewholeJomonera.
Thesurfaceofthesenormallycylindricalvesselsiscoveredwithcomplexpatternsofraisedlines,andpowerfully
decorativeprojectionsrisefromtherimtoformhandles.Fromthemiddleperiodonwardthereisincreasingvarietyinthe
typesofvessels,andacleardistinctiondevelopedbetweenhighqualitywareusingelaboratetechniquesandsimplerpots
madeforpurelypracticaluse.Theamountofthelatterincreasessteadily,preparingthewayforthetransitiontoYayoi
pottery.
Jomondwellingsiteshavebeenfoundinvariouspartsofthecountry.Theycanbeclassifiedintotwotypes:one,
thepittypedwelling,consistedofashallowpitwithaflooroftroddenearthandaroof;theotherwasmadebylayinga
circularorovalfloorofclayorstonesonthesurfaceofthegroundandcoveringitwitharoof.Remainsofsuchdwellings
havebeenfoundingroupsrangingfromfiveorsixtoseveraldozen,apparentlyrepresentingthesizeofhumansettlements
atthetime.Mostofthesesettlementsformahorseshoeshape,withaspaceinthecentrethatseemstohavebeenusedfor
communalpurposes.Nothingcertainisknown,however,concerningsocialorpoliticalorganizationatthisperiod.Itcanbe
deducedthateachhouseholdwasmadeupofseveralfamilymembersandthatthesettlementmadeupofsuchhouseholds
wasledbyaheadmanorshaman.
ThepeopleoftheJomonperiodlivedmainlybyhuntingandfishingandbygatheringediblenutsandroots.The

appearanceoflargesettlementsfromthemiddleperiodonwardhasbeeninterpretedbysomescholarsasimplyingthe
cultivationofcertaintypesofcropahypothesisseeminglysupportedbythefactthatthechippedstoneaxesofthisperiod
arenotsharpbutseemtohavebeenusedfordiggingsoil.Doubtlesstherewassomeformofcultivation:starchyyamsand
taro,probablyoriginatingfromthecontinent,wereraised,thestarchfromthemformedintoatypeofbread.Thisincipient
agricultureseemsrelatedtoaculturalflorescenceinmidJomontimesthatlastedabout1,000years.Itwasntuntillatein
thefinalJomon,about500BCE,thatriceagriculturearrived[347].
Weavingwasstillunknown,andarchaeologicalfindingsindicatethatclotheswerelargelymadeofbark.Body
ornamentationincludedbraceletsmadeofseashells,earringsofstoneorclay,andnecklacesandhairornamentsofstoneor
boneandhorn.Fromthelatterpartoftheperiod,thecustomalsospreadthroughoutthearchipelagoofextractingor
pointingcertainteeth,probablyperformedasaritemarkingtheattainmentofadulthood.
Noespeciallyelaborateritesofburialevolved,andthedeadwereburiedinasmallpitdugnearthedwelling.
Sometimesthebodywasburiedwithitskneesdrawnuporwithastoneclaspedtoitschest,aprocedurethatprobablyhad
somereligiousormagicalsignificance.Alargenumberofclayfigurineshavebeenfound,manyrepresentingfemaleforms
thatwereprobablymagicalobjectsassociatedwithprimitivefertilitycults.
ForyearscertainscholarshaveclaimedthatthebearersoftheJomonculturewerenotofJapaneseethnicitybut
wereancestorsoftheAinu,anaboriginalpeopleoftenregardedashavingEuropean(Caucasian)racialconnectionswho
nowarefoundinnorthernJapan.ScientificinvestigationofthebonesofJomonpeoplecarriedoutsincethebeginningof
the20thcentury,however,hasdisprovedthistheory.TheJomonpeoplemightbecalledprotoJapanese,andtheywere
spreadthroughoutthearchipelago.Despitecertainvariationsincharacterarisingfromdifferencesinperiodorplace,they
seemtohaveconstitutedasingleethnicstockwithmoreorlessconsistentcharacteristics.
ThepresentJapanesepeoplewereproducedbyanadmixtureofcertainstrainsfromtheAsiancontinentandfrom
theSouthPacific,togetherwithadaptationsmadeinaccordancewithenvironmentalchanges.Linguisticevidencesuggests
thatapeoplespeakingalanguagebelongingtotheUralAltaicfamilymovedeastwardacrossSiberiaandenteredJapanvia
SakhalinIslandandHokkaido.NothingcanyetbeprovedconcerningtheirrelationshipwiththepeopleofthePreCeramic
period,butitcannotbeassertedthattheywereentirelyunrelated.
TheYayoiPeriod(C300BCEC250CE)
ThenewYayoiculturethataroseinKyushu,whiletheJomonculturewasstillundergoingdevelopmentelsewhere,
spreadgraduallyeastward,overwhelmingtheJomoncultureasitwent,untilitreachedthenortherndistrictsofHonshu(the
largestislandofJapan).ThenameYayoiderivesfromthenameofthedistrictinTokyowhere,in1884,theunearthingof
potteryofthistypefirstdrewtheattentionofscholars.YayoipotterywasfiredathighertemperaturesthanJomonpottery
butwasnotturnedonwheels.Itisdistinguishedpartlybyitsexcellenceintechniquethatmakesitlookwheelthrownand
partlybyanabsenceoftheproliferatingdecorationthatcharacterizedJomonpottery.Itdeveloped,inshort,aspotteryfor
practicaluse.Itisaccompaniedbymetalobjectsandisassociatedwiththewet(i.e.,irrigated)cultivationofrice.Culturally,
theYayoirepresentsanotableadvanceovertheJomonperiodandisbelievedtohavelastedforsomefiveorsixcenturies,
fromthe3rdor2ndcenturyBCEtothe2ndor3rdcenturyCE.
TheYayoiperiodisdividedintothreeparts,mainlybychangesinthepotteryproduced.TheEarlyYayoi(C300
BCE)[370]potterywasmuchlikethatoftheJomon;unglazedwithknifeinciseddecorations.IntheMiddleYayoi(C100
BCE)combmarkeddecorationsareused.Itiswarm,russetcoloredware;tallfootedvessels,largeandsmalljars,bowls
andspoutedvessels.Itappearstobewheelthrownbutismadebythecoilingmethod,smoothedwithpaddlesoredging
tools,paintedredandpolishedtoahighfinish.Alongwiththis,duringthisperiod,therearebronzemirrorsandcoins,
similartothoseoftheHanbronzes.Thereareceremonialbronzeweapons,swords,spearsandhalberds,bronzebellswith
incisedgeometricdesignsandmatchstickdrawings.IntheLateYayoi(C150CE)potteryisoftenundecorated.
#InChinathe3rdand2ndcenturiesBCEcorrespondwiththeperiodoftheunifiedempireundertheCh'in(221206BCE)
andHan(206BCE220CE)dynasties,whichalreadyhadenteredtheIronAge.In108BCEthearmiesoftheemperorWu
TioccupiedManchuriaandthenorthernpartoftheKoreanpeninsula,wheretheyestablishedLolangandthreeother
colonies.ThesecoloniesservedasabaseforastronginfluxofChinesecultureintoKorea,whence,inturn,itspreadto
Japan.ThefactthatYayoiculturehadironimplementsfromtheoutset,andbronzeimplementssomewhatlater,probably
indicatesborrowingsfromHanculture.ItisestimatedthatbothironandbronzemanufacturearrivedinJapanabout200
BCE[372].Sinceironrustseasily,comparativelyfewobjectshavebeenfound,buttheyseemtohavebeenwidespreadat
thetime.Theseincludeaxes,knives,sicklesandhoes,arrowheads,andswords.Thebronzeobjectsarealsovaried,
includinghalberds,swords,spears,taku(bellshapeddevotionalobjectsfromChina),andmirrors.Thehalberds,swords,
andspearsseemnottohavebeenusedinJapanforthepracticalpurposesforwhichtheywereevolvedinChinabutrather
tohavebeenprizedaspreciousobjects.
Thecultivationofrice,probablyintroducedfromtheYangtzeRiverdeltaareaofsouthernChina(seeabove),was
oneofthemostimportantfeaturesofYayoiculture.TheearliestYayoipotteryandsites,discoveredinnorthernKyushu,

haveyieldedmarksofricehusksaswellascarbonizedgrainsofrice;thissuggeststhatricegrowingwascarriedoninJapan
fromtheearliestdaysoftheculture.Tracesofpaddyfields,theirdivisionsmarkedwithwoodenpiles,havebeenfound
closetositesofsettlementsinvariousdistricts,alongwithirrigationchannelsequippedwithdamsandunderdrains,
showingthattechniquesofmakingandmaintainingpaddyfieldswerequiteadvanced.Ricewasfirstgrownindry(i.e.,
nonirrigated)fieldsandmarshyareas,however,beforepaddycultivationinvolvingconsiderableinvestmentoftime,labor,
andcapitalcametopredominate.
Generallyspeaking,thesettlementsofthisperiodwerebuiltonlowlyingalluviallandtofacilitatetheirrigationof
thepaddies,butatonestagetheywerebuiltinsteadinthehillsoronhighground.Itisnotclearwhetherthiswasdictated
bytheneedsofdefenseorwhetherdrycultivationwasbeingpracticed.MuchasintheJomonperiod,thereweretwotypes
ofdwellingthepittypeandthetypebuiltonthesurfacebutinadditiontothese,raisedfloorstructuresappearedandwere
usedforstoringgrainoutofthereachofrodents.
Withtheacquisitionofaknowledgeoftextiles,clothingmadegreatstridescomparedwiththeJomonperiod.Theclothwas
wovenonprimitiveloomsusingvegetablefibers.
Thedeadwereburiedineitherlargeclayurnsorheavystonecoffins.BothwerecommoninnorthernKyushuand
neighboringareas;similarurnsandcoffinsalsoarefoundontheKoreanpeninsula,wheretheyprobablyoriginated.The
graveswereusuallymarkedbymoundsofearthorcirclesofstones,butaspecialtypeemployedadolmen(alargeslabof
stonesupportedoverthegravebyanumberofsmallerstones).Sincetheerectionofdolmenswaswidelypracticedin
ManchuriaandKorea,these,too,arebelievedtobeasignofaninfluxofcontinentalculture.Normally,gravesoccurin
clusters,butoccasionallyoneisfoundapart,surroundedbyaditchandwithswords,beads,andmirrorsburiedalongwith
thedead.Suchspecialgravessuggestthatsocietywasalreadydividedintoclasses.
#WhilethesenewculturalelementsrepresentamigrationtoJapanfromtheKoreanpeninsulaorChina,themigrationwas
notofamagnitudetochangethecharacterofthepeoplewhohadinhabitedtheislandsfromJomontimes.Yayoiculture
undoubtedlyrepresentsanadmixtureofnewsanguineouselements,butitseemslikelythatthechiefstrainofproto
JapanesefoundthroughoutthecountryduringtheJomonperiodwasnotdisruptedbutwascarriedoverintolaterages.
DifferencesinJomonandYayoiskeletalremainscanbetterbeexplainedbynutritionalthangeneticreasons.Thispointof
viewissupportedbytheaccountsofthe"peopleofWo,"foundintheChinesehistoryWeichih.
ChineseChronicles
JapanfirstappearsinChinesechroniclesunderthenameofWo(inJapanese,Wa).TheHanhistoriesrelatethat"in
theseasoffLolangliethepeopleofWo,whoaredividedintomorethan100states,andwhobringtributeatfixed
intervals."LolangwasoneoftheHancoloniesestablishedintheKoreanpeninsula.AhistoryoftheLater(Eastern)Han
(25220CE)recordsthatin57CEthe"stateofNuinWo"sentemissariestotheLaterHancourtandthattheemperorgave
themagoldseal.The"stateofNu,"locatedaroundwhatisnowHakataBay,inKyushu,wasoneofmorethan100states
thatconstitutedWo.Thisaccountwasconfirmedbyagoldseal,apparentlytheidenticalsealawardedbytheChinese
emperor,unearthedontheislandofShikano,atthemouthofHakataBay,in1748.
Inthelatterhalfofthe2ndcentury,therewascivilwarinthestateofWo;QueenHimikohadpacifiedtheland
and,relyingonherreligiouspowers,ruledoveraconfederationofmorethan30statesthatmaintainedcommunications
withtheWeidynasty(220264)inChina.Wei,too,sentemissariestoWo,andfriendlyrelationsbetweenthetwosides
continuedduringthefirsthalfofthe3rdcentury.TheWeichihcontainsadetailedaccountoftheroutefromLolangtothe
courtoftheWoqueenin"Yamatai."
ScholarsaredividedastowhetherYamataiwaslocatedinnorthernKyushuorintheKinaidistrict(central
Honshu).IfitwasinnorthernKyushu,thentheunionofstateswasapurelylocalgovernment,unrelatedtotheYamato
courtoflatertimes;butifitwasintheKinaidistrict,thenitwouldbenaturaltoseeitastheancestorofthatcourt.This
wouldsuggest,inturn,thatJapanhadalreadyachievedaconsiderabledegreeofpoliticalunification.Japanesehistorians
longsoughttoemphasizetheantiquityanddegreeofunityofYamataiinordertoaggrandizeJapan'srelationswithother
EastAsiannations.Itseemsmostlikely,however,thatYamataiwasalocalcentreofpowerinKyushu,andthatfurther
unificationdidnottakeplaceuntilatleastacenturylater.
AccordingtotheWeichih,thepeopleofWoalreadyhadreachedafairlyhighdegreeofcivilization.Societyhad
clearcutdivisionsofrank,andthepeoplepaidtaxes.Therewereimpressiveraisedfloorbuildings.Thevariousprovinces
heldfairswheregoodswerebartered.SincetherewereexchangesofletterswithWo,itseems,too,thattherewerealready
somewhocouldreadandwrite.
TheTumulus(Tomb)[Kofun]period(C250552)Theunificationofthenation
ThequestionsofhowtheunificationofJapanwasfirstachievedandofhowtheYamatocourt,withthetenno
("emperorofheaven")atitscentre,cameintobeingincentralHonshuhaveinspiredmanyhypotheses,noneofwhichhasso
farprovedentirelyconvincing.WiththehelpofChineseandKoreanrecords,however,itispossibletogetatleastan

approximateideaofthedatebywhichsubstantialunificationhadoccurred.TherelationsthatYamataihadbegunwithWei
werecontinuedwiththesuccessorChindynasty(265317);but,followingthedispatchofamissionin266,allrecordsof
exchangescease,anditisnotuntil147yearslater,in413duringtheEasternChindynasty(317419),thatthenameofWo
againappearsinChinesedocuments.ItismostlikelythattheblankperiodresultedfromconditionswithinJapanthatmade
exchangeswithothercountriesimpossible.ThecollapseofYamataiandthebirthpangsoftheYamatokingdomthattook
itsplaceprobablyoccurredduringthisperiod.
Itispossibletopushthedateofunificationofthenationbackafewdecadesearlierthan413:amemorialerected
in414commemoratingtheachievementsofKingKwanggaet'oofKoguryo(aKoreanstate;37BCE668CE),describing
thefightingbetweenWoandKoguryoontheKoreanpeninsulafromtheendofthe4thcenturyintothebeginningofthe5th
century,makesspecialmentionofagreatarmysenttothepeninsulain391byWo.Suchmilitarysuccesspresupposesa
longperiodofpreparation.The8thcenturyNihonshoki("ChroniclesofJapan"),oneofJapan'stwooldesthistories,
mentionsthedispatchoftroopsbyJapanin369.SuchdisplaysofstrengthwouldhardlyhavebeenpossibleunlessJapan
werealreadysignificantlyunified,andthedateoftheunificationofthecountrymaythereforebeaboutthemid4thcentury
atthelatest.
TheYamatoCourt
PostWorldWarIIhistorianshavegreatlyrevisedtheviewoftheplaceofYamatoinAsianaffairs,downplaying
thedegreeofcontroltheJapaneseformerlyassertedthatYamatoheldovertheKoreanpeninsulainancienttimes.Most
dividethisperiodintothreestages:atimeofgrowthandexpansionfromabout250totheendofthe4thcentury,aperiodof
florescencethatcoversthe5thcentury,andthenaperiodofdeclinefromtheearly6thcentury.
RiseandexpansionofYamato
TheperiodiscommonlycalledtheTumulus,orTomb,periodfromthepresenceoflargeburialmounds(kofun),itsmost
commonarchaeologicalfeature.WhereasJomonandYayoiburialpracticeswereratherprimitive,fromthe3rdcentury
largetombs,bothcircularanduniquelykeystoneshaped,begantoproliferatethroughoutJapan,markedmostespeciallyby
theenormoustumuliinandaroundtheOsakaarea.Itisfromtheveryconstructionofthetombsthemselves,froman
examinationofthegravegoods,aswellasfromincreasinglyreliablewrittensourcesbothdomesticandforeignthata
pictureoftheYamatokingdomhasemerged.
InthefirststageofYamatodevelopment,tombsclusteredaroundtheShikiareaofYamatoprovince(modernNara
prefecture),inthesouthwesterncorneroftheNara(Yamato)Basin.Rulersthereheldswayoveranexpandingportionofthe
archipelago.TheYamatokings(calledkimiandwrittenwiththeappropriatedChinesecharactersfor"greatruler")were
centeredaroundMountMiwa,theobjectofworship.Althoughthekimiexercisedbothsecularandsacredfunctions,it
seemsthattheirprimaryfocuswasapriestlyone,basedonasacredconnectionwithMountMiwa.Archaeologicalfindings
suggest,however,thatimprovedagriculturaltechniquessuchastheuseofirontoolsforcultivationandimproved
techniquesforlevelingandfloodingpaddyfieldsallowedtheYamatorulerstoexercisecontroloversignificantmanpower
resources,bothtoconstructlargetombsandtoexpandtheareaundertheircontroloutwardfromtheNaraplain.
Fromabout350,powershiftednorthtotheSakiarea,nearthepresentcityofNara.Thenatureoftheburialgoods
inthetombsconstructedthere,thelegendaryaccountsinKojikiandNihonshoki,aswellasrecordsfromthecontinentall
indicatethatthiswasaperiodofYamatoexpansionthroughoutthearchipelagoandevenintotheKoreanpeninsula,where,
asmentionedabove,itsarmieswereengagedinthewarfareamongthethreeKoreankingdomsonthepeninsula.Although
therulerscontinuedtoworshipMountMiwa,thereligiousfocusofthecourtseemstohavebeenconcentrateduponthe
IsonokamiShrineatTenri,southofNara.Therulersthereseemtohavebeensomewhatmoremilitaryinnaturethantheir
Miwapredecessors,andarchaeologicalfindingssuggestthatthemosttreasureditemsoftheIsonokamiShrinewereinfact
weaponsespeciallythesocalled"sevenprongedsword"(shichishito),whichnowisdesignatedaNationalTreasure.
Thus,bytheendofthe4thcentury,YamatowasakingdomwellsettledontheNaraplainwithconsiderable
controloverthepeoplesofthearchipelago.ItwasincontactwithChineserulers,exchangeddiplomaticenvoyswithseveral
ofthekingdomsontheKoreanpeninsula,andwasevenstrongenoughtohavesentanarmyagainstthepowerfulstateof
Koguryo,whichthendominatedthepeninsula.Yamatowasmostcloselyassociatedwiththesoutheasternkingdomof
Paekche,whencecamethe"sevenprongedsword."Contactwiththemainland,althoughinvolvingconflict,alsoencouraged
amarkedriseinstandardsoflivinginthearchipelago,asmanyofthefruitsofadvancedChinesecivilizationreachedJapan
viapeoplefromthepeninsula.Weavers,smiths,andirrigationexpertsmigratedtoJapan,andtheChineseideographicscript
alsowasintroducedatthattime,togetherwithConfucianworkswritteninthisscript.ClaimsbyhistorianspriortoWorld
WarIIthatPaekchepaid"tribute"toJapan,andthatJapanconqueredthesoutherntipofthepeninsulawhereitestablisheda
"colony"calledMimanahavesincebeenlargelydiscountedbyhistoriansinbothJapanandKorea.
TheYamatocourtreacheditspeakintheearly5thcentury,duringthesecondstageofitsexistence.Onceagain,
therewasashiftinthecentreofpower,thistimedirectlywestwardtotheprovincesofKawachiandIzumi(modernOsaka
urbanprefecture).The5thcenturywasoneofspectaculardevelopmentforYamato,asevidencedbytheenormouskeyhole

shapedtombsinthesuburbsofthemodernOsakaregion.Themoveintothisregionisthoughttohaveresultedinapower
shifteitheramongorwithinclanfederations.Itisnowcustomarytoregardthe5thcenturyrulersasanewline,distinct
fromthoseoftheShikiandSakiareas.
Whatdistinguishesthe5thcenturytombsfromearlieronesisboththeirenormoussizethetombattributedtothe
semilegendaryemperorOjinissome1,380feet(420metres)inlengthaswellastheircharacter.Theserulershadaccessto
greatpowerinordertoconstructtheirtombs.IthasbeenestimatedthattheconstructionofOjin'stombwouldhavetaken
1,000laborers,workingfrommorningtonight,fouryearstocomplete.Thegoodsassociatedwiththesetombsarefarmore
militaryinnaturethanthosefoundintheearliertombs:ironswords,arrowheads,andtools;armour;andallthetrappingsof
amountedwarriorculture.Allthissuggeststhatthe5thcenturyrulersrepresentamoremilitary,secularlineofleadersin
comparisonwiththepriestlykingsoftheearlierYamatoarea.
Whilemosthistoriansregardthe5thcenturyrulersasrepresentinganewline,thereisdisagreementovertheir
origin.Somehavepostulatedaninvasionofcontinental"horseriders"whoseizedcontrolinthearchipelagoandestablished
anewlineofrulers.MythsrelatedtoOjin'sbirthontheKoreanpeninsulawhilehismotherwassupposedlyleadingYamato
armiesthere,thelocationofthecentreofpowerattheportofNaniwa(modernOsaka),Ojin'sarrivaltherebyboat,andthe
awesomesizeofthetombs(whichsuggestexcessslavelaboravailablefortheirconstruction)allthesehinttantalizinglyat
aconquesttheory.Theconsensus,however,stillsupportsanindigenousshiftinleadersrelyingoncontrolofincreased
agriculturaloutputandmonopolizingsuperiormilitarytechnology.FromthecourtatYamato,itsrulersextendedcontrol
alongtheInlandSeaandbeyond,developingmoresophisticatedofficesandunitstocontrolthepeoplesofthearchipelago.
TheYamatopolity
Thepatternofadministrativecontrolestablishediscalledtheujikabanesystem.Ujiisusuallytranslatedas"clan"
inEnglish.Theujiarethoughttobeextensionsoforiginalagriculturalcommunities,perhapswhatearlyChineserecords
referredtoas"states."Essentially,farmingcommunitieswereassociatedintolinealgroups,unitedbythebeliefthat
harvestswouldbebountifulifproperrespectwaspaidtothegroup'sancestraldeity(kami).Headsofthecommunity
functionedprimarilyaspriests,mediatingtherelationshipbetweenthegroupanditsdeity.Asclansjoinedtogether
probablylargelybyconquestverticalrelationshipsbegantodevelopbetweenheadsofthecommunitiesandthequeenor
kingatemergentcourts.Bythe5thcentury,thesegroups,possiblyalreadycalleduji,weredrawntogetherintoeconomic,
military,religiousandfamilialtieswiththeYamatokings.Somescholarshaveevenarguedthatujiwerepurelypolitical
units,sodesignatedbytheYamatoruler.UjiappearedfirstintheNaraBasin,incloseassociationwiththecourt;asthe
Yamatokingdomdevelopedgreaterpower,ujiappearedinotherareasaswell.
Bythe5thcentury,theYamatorulerwasdesignatingtheheadsofthemostpowerfuluji,whodevelopedcloseties
withtherulerovertime.TheYamatocourtwasthusheadedbyahereditaryruler,whileitsmembersweredrawnfromthe
groupofpowerfulclanleadersawardedkabane(titles).Thetwomajortitlesappeartohavebeenmurajiandomi,heldonly
byclanleadersofpowerfulcommunitiesservingintheareaoftheYamatocourt.Lowerrankingtitleswereawardedto
leadersofsmaller,distantclanswhononethelesssworeallegiance.Thehighestofficersoftheemergingstateweretheo
murajiandtheoomi,theheadsandrepresentativesofthosetwogroups.
Anotherfactorthataidedtheexpansionoftheemergentstatewastheeconomicandmilitarysupportof
occupationalgroups,calledbeortomo,attachedtothecourtanditssupportinguji.Structurallysomewhatsimilartoclans,
theseoccupationalgroupsweredistinguishedbyprovidingaspecialservicetothecourtortoasuperiorclan.Earlierbe
weremorelikelytoprovidepersonalservicesorspecializeinreligiousfunctions;butasthepoweroftheYamatocourt
spreadthroughoutthearchipelagointhe5thcentury,newerbecametobeinvolvedwiththeproductionofweapons,
armour,andmirrorsorwiththeconstructionofirrigationsystems.Manyofthemwerecomposedofrecentmigrantsfrom
Paekchewhospecializedinraisinghorsesorironworking;infact,thetermbeitselfisofKoreanorigin.Somebewere
directlycontrolledbythecourt,includingspecialonescallednashiroandkoshirosetupforthesupportofcertainroyal
relatives.Otherswerecontrolledbypowerfulclansdirectlyintheserviceofthecourt,suchastheyugei,thequiverbearers,
whowereattachedtotheOtomoclan,amajormilitarysupportgroupfortheYamatorulinghouse.