IDIOMS & PHRASES

We often read the phrase language is a living thing, but most of us do

not stop to think what it really means. Living things grow and change,
so does language. Since the general tendencies of present day English
are towards more idiomatic usage; it is important that the lesson on
idioms should show the learner how the language is developing. Idioms
are not a separate part of the language, which one can choose either
to use or to omit, but they form an essential part of the vocabulary of
English. A description of how the vocabulary of the language is growing
and changing will help to place idioms in perspective.
An idiom is a form of expression (or of grammatical usage) peculiar to
a particular language and often having a meaning other than the one
that it appears to have. All Languages have their own idioms. For
example, in English we say that someone is as deaf as a post, and to
blow ones top (to get angry)
Mastery of any language demands a fluent use of idioms. That is why
literal translation from one language into another often results in
gibberish. We have to find equivalent idioms when translating.
There are hundreds of idioms in the English language. Here is a
selection of the idiomatic expressions that include the word head
head and shoulders (better than other people)
heads I win, tails you lose; (Deception practiced by the shrewd); to
have a head on ones shoulders; ( to be a sensible person); to lose
ones head; (to get angry); to have one's head turned; to make neither
head not tail of it; (unable to understand) ; to be off ones head; over
head and ears; ( completely); to come to a head (bring a situation to a
head); to head off; (laugh loudly); to hit the nail on the head; (to
explain the truths to do the right); to keep ones head( keep calm).
Obviously, nobody can sit down to learn all the idioms in the language
by heart. You pick up the idioms as you learn to use the language.
Idioms have arisen from a multitude of human activities and
occupations. From the accumulated experience of generation after
generation, until this very moment and they continue to multiply.
The Vocabulary of a language grows continually with new development
in knowledge. New ideas need new labels to name them without new
labels, communication of these new ideas would be impossible. Many
new words come form the English of special subjects such as computer
sciences, sociology, advertising, politics and economics.
Computer technology has given birth to software, diskette, high-tech,
on-line, printout, modem, computer-literate, to format, to interface, to
logon, to mention only a few. The technology of nuclear power has
given us interesting noun compounds such as meltdown or reactor

spentfuel reprocessing plant. From economics we have wage-freeze,

price-freeze, stagflation. The field of advertising has given us soft sell
and hard sell (subtle and aggressive sales techniques), hype
(intensive, exaggerated sales promotion/ publicity/ marketing) and the
corresponding verb to hype.
Words which already exists can take on an additional meaning in a
special context. For example, the field of industrial relations has given
new meaning to the verbs to walkout, to lock out, to sit in, to go slow.
The noun forms walkout, lock-out, sit-in and go-slow are used almost
exclusively in this context. The words leak; spill and waste are typically
used in the context of the technology of nuclear power, as well as in
everyday contexts. In computer jargon, the verb to hack and the nouns
memory, drive and hardware have taken on new meanings. The word
hard as used for example in hard copy has taken on the specialized
meaning readable by the eye i.e. not only machine- readable output
as on magnetic tape.
American English is particularly flexible and creates new words by
changing a new words grammatical function, e.g. verb to noun, as in a
set-up, a buy-out, a trade-off, a work-out, a phone-in, a shoot-out.
Nouns are made into verbs, as in to access, to window (computer
jargon) to microwave, to rubber-stamp, to scapegoat, to colour- match,
to air-freight, to headline. Adjectives are made into verbs, as in to
soundproof, to streamline; to skid proof, to net (i.e., to bring in a net
profit), British English quickly adsorbs such American forms. All these
changes are short cuts in language, as they make the form of words
shorter and more direct, and for that reasons are becoming
increasingly popular.
Another popular shortcut joins words together to form one adjectives
instead of a long phrases. Here are a few typical ones: a round- theclock service, instead of a service which is offered around the clock
(i.e., for 24 hours a day), a some day service, on-the-job training, lowincome group, a non-profit-making organization. New words are made
by adding endings such as-ize-ization to adjectives or nouns. This
indicates a process: to decimalize, to containerize, to computerize, to
departmentalize, computerization etc.
Prefixes such as mini maxi, super- micro, mega- hyper- indicate the
quantity or quality of something in the shortest possible way. Here are
some well established examples: mini- diskette, super chip, microteaching, micro-surgery, megastar, mega chip, hypermarket,
hypersonic.
New words are made by combining parts of two existing words; smog
(smoke+ fog), newscast (news+ broadcast); flextime (flexible + time)
stagflation (stagnant + inflation). Here are some typical combinations
from American English which uses more than British English:

Brunch (breakfast lunch), Motel (Motorist + hotel) Laundromat (laundry

+automat), Medicare (medical+ care), cablegram (cable + telegram),
workaholic (work + alcoholic), gasohol (gasoline + alcohol) English
language is so peculiar that it cannot use words with similar meanings
in the same context. Let us take an example of a synonym. Synonym
word which has the same meaning or nearly the same meaning as
another work in the same language. The meanings may not be
identical but there will be certain common features. Take for instances
home and house. These two are alike in that they refer to where people
live. But a house is not a home. There are thousands of houses in a
city. But the one you choose to live in with your family becomes your
home. The word home has a certain warmth that the word house
doesnt have. You pay house rent and not home rent. Make yourself at
home, says the host at parties. A home is more than a house.
Synonyms dont have identical meanings. If you dont use them with
care, you will be in trouble. John Donovan wrote a witty verse on this in
1946 in the Saturday evening post. This will tell you effectively and
humorously what a synonym is:
Call a woman a kitten, but never a cat: you can call her a mouse,
cannot call her a rat: call a woman a chicken, but never a hen! Or you
severely will not be her caller again. You can call her a duck, cannot
call her a goose, you can call her a deer, but never a moose; you can
call her a lamb, but never a sheep; economic she likes, but you cant
call her cheep. You can say she is a vision, cant say shes sight. And no
woman is skinny, shes slender and slight. If she should burn you up,
say she sets you a fire; and youll always be welcome, you tricky old
liar. If one has to be careful using a synonym then imagine how careful
you should be using an idiom in this language. If someone says he
kicked the bucket it doesnt literally mean that he kicked the bucket; it
only means he died.
It is important to realize that idioms are not only colloquial expressions,
as many people believe. They appear in formal style and in slang, in
poetry, in the language of Shakespeare and the Bible.
What is an idiom? An Idiom can be defined as a number of words
which, when taken together, have a different meaning from the
individual meaning of each word.
Kinds of idioms:
Idioms take many different forms or structures. An idiom can have a
regular structure, an irregular or even a grammatically incorrect
structure. The clarity of meaning is not dependent on the grammatical
correctness. A few examples will illustrate this:
1. Form irregular, meaning clear, as in give someone to understand,
do someone proud, do the dirty on someone.
2. Form regular, meaning unclear, as in have a bee in ones
bonnet, (to think and talk about something all the time), cut no

ice (have no influence), bring the house down (to make every
one laugh or cheer)
3. Form irregular, meaning unclear, as in be at large, (as a whole, in
general) ( go great guns, ( to be doing something. Quickly &
successfully), be at daggers drawn ( be angry with each other).
We find, in fact, that most idioms belong to the second group, where
the form is regular but the meaning unclear. However, even in this
group some idioms are clearer than others. For example, the meaning
of to give someone the green light can be guessed as to give someone
permission to start others are too difficult to guess because they have
no association with the original meaning of the individual words. Such
examples are: to tell someone where to get off, to carry the can, to
drop a brick, to call the shots.
Several fixed idioms cannot be changed in any part (except the tense
of the verb). For example: to paint the town red, to fight shy of
something, to get down to business. Others allow a different number of
variants. For example, to know ones onions/ stuff, a hard/ tough not to
crack, to come to a bad/ untimely/ nasty end.
Changing attitudes to language:
Educated usage has become much more flexible and tolerant about
what is considered to be correct or acceptable. Such changes of
attitudes can be observed in several parts of grammar, including case,
number and tense.
The attitude of users towards style has also become more flexible.
Several words which were considered to be slang in the past have
gradually been up-graded in status and are now often considered
informal or colloquial. Much of what was labeled informal in the past is
now considered neutral in style. This is partly due to the spread in the
use of taboo words by educated speakers. Several such words give
much less offence than in the past and are widely used in both
American and British television productions.
One of the main difficulties for learners is knowing in which situation it
is correct to use an idiom, i.e, the level of style. It is better to avoid
using, slang and taboo expressions until then mastery of the language
is complete. It is difficult to know whether an idiom is natural or
appropriate in a certain situation. Another difficulty is that of fixed
idioms and idioms with variants. It is most important to be exact in
ones use of fixed idioms, as an in accurate idiom may mean nothing to
a native speaker. Above all, remember that it is extremely unwise to
translate idioms into or from ones native language. One may be lucky
that the two languages have the same form and vocabulary, but in
most cases the result will be utterly be wildering to the English native
speaker and possibly highly amusing.

The English language belongs to the Indo-European family of

languages. English is essentially a Germanic Languages, which has
been enriched in its growth by the addition of very considerable
Romance or Latin element, and by a small proportion of words from
miscellaneous sources. The intermingling of Germanis and Romance
elements has given to English a greater power of expressing delicate
shade of meaning than could be found in a language altogether
Romance or altogether Teutonic. The extent to which English has
spread is truly marvelous. No other languages, ancient or modern, has
ever been so widely spoken. There is, then, nothing strange in the fact
that so many foreign students should wish to learn English; for most
books found to be generally useful are written in English, and if any
valuable book is written in another language, and English translation of
it is sure to be speedily published. The English speaking people want
no monopoly of knowledge; and anyone who masters the English
tongue acquires a key which will open to him whatever is valuable in
the literature of the world.
English has, as we have seen, drawn elements from many sources;
hence its copiousness of vocabulary and its great power of expressing
distinctions of meaning. It is particularly rich in idiomatic expressions.
Under idioms we include peculiar uses of particular words, and also
particular phrases or turns of expression which, from long usage, have
become stereo typed in English.
When we say of a woman that she was a tongue, we seem to say
something that does not give much information. But its common usage
in English means that the woman spoken of has a scolding tongue. The
sentence, she has a tongue, is commonly equivalent to, she is a scold.
Again, on and upon are commonly equivalents and are often
interchangeable. Thus we correctly say, either he acted on my advice,
or he acted upon my advice; either Madras is on the sea coast, or
Madras is upon the sea coast. But though we can idiomatically say,
carry on business, we cannot say, carry upon business this last
expression is meaningless.
Further, many English verbs derived from Latin are compounded of a
Latin prefix and a Latin verb. Some of these verbs in English take a
preposition after them in composition, while others do not. For example
the word abstain has to be used along with from. Abstain from all
appearance of evil. But you say, this book contains much valuable
information contain takes no preposition after it. English idiom
established by usage requires that some of these verbs from Latin
should be followed by a preposition and others not, but no rule can be
given showing which usage should be followed in regard to any
particular verb.
Again it is not easy to explain why we can say make a journey, and not
make a walk, but must say, take a walk, or why we can say of one

statue that it is a dead letter, but cannot say of another statute that is
a living letter; or why we speak of a bird flying as a bird on the wing,
and yet must speak of a man walking as on foot and not on the foot; or
why we say take in hand, and not take in hands or take into hands or
why we must say live from hand to mouth and not live from the hand
to the mouth. But long usage has fixed the idiomatic expression in
each case, and from the idiom we may not swerve.
Let us look at some idioms & phrases.
1. Act with dispatch to act with dispatch means to act swiftly. The
order was carried out with greet dispatch.
2. Attend, attend to you attend a meeting. You attend a wedding.
You attend a conference. When you attend any of these, you are
present there. Attend to means, to look after, deal with, pay
attention to please dont worry about your sons admission. I
will attend to it.
3. Bank on or to bank upon means to relay on, to depend on. I am
banking on you to help me in this.
4. Blow ones own trumpet: He blows his own trumpet. This means
that he is boastful. He talks about himself and his achievements
all the time.
5. It is board and lodging and not boarding and lodging. I pay
Rs.500 for board and lodging
6. Call on, Call in
Call on means to make a short visit to. He called on me Yesterday.
Call in has several meanings. One is to order or request the
return of something. The librarian called in all books for stocktaking. When you all in someone, you ask them to come and see
you or to take action of some kind. Often because you need help:
the police were called in to deal with the strikers. Call in is also
used to mean to make a telephone call to your office to report
where you are and what you are doing she called in the this
afternoon to say that she was ill.
7. Carry on Carry out
Carry on has several meanings. One of the meanings is to
continue ones work or duty please do not get up, carry on with
your work. Despite all the difficulties, he is carrying on
Carry out means to perform, to put into practice, to give effect to.
Whether I like it or not, I have to carry out his instructions.
8. Cope with: I cant cope with my work but it is incorrect to say I
cant cope up with my work.
9. Deal in and deal with
You deal in goods. He deals in electrical goods. Deal in means to
trade in

Deal with means to manage to treat I dont know how to deal

with him. This book deals with Indian politics.
10.
Despite, inspite of: Both these words mean the same. But
despite is not followed by of. Despite his hard work, he was not
promoted. Inspite of is used in all contexts, formal and informal.
Inspite of my warning, he attended the meeting.
11.
Differ from, differ with: When two things are not the same,
you say they are different from each other. Chalk is different from
cheese. When it is used in the sense of disagree, you can use
either from or with. Both are correct. I differ with him on this
question.
12.
Drop a brick: when you are in company and say something
or do something that causes embarrassment to others it would
be said that you dropped a brick.
She dropped a brick when she talked about her divorce at his
wedding reception.
13.
Enough, enough of- Ive had enough coffee means Ive had
sufficient quantity of coffee. When you say enough of, there is a
suggestion that you dont want any more of it and you are fed up
with it, you are sick of it. Ive had enough of him.
14.
Face, Face upto- to face means to oppose firmly and not try
to avoid. He faced the situation with great courage .
To face upto means to confront. You face up to the emergency.
15.
Figure on, Figure out: Figure on means to count on, to
expect, I figured on his attending the meeting today. Figure out
means to estimate, to understand. I am not able to figure out
why he is so silent these days.
16.
Get on like a house on fire: This means vigorously, fast,
excellently. She is getting on with her work like a house on fire.
You dont have to worry about him at all. Hes getting on with his
boss like a house a fire.
17.
High time: The sentence: it is high time that I go, is not
correct. High time means time beyond the proper time but before
it is too late.
It should be: it is high time that I went. The verb should be in the
past tense.
18.
Look for, means to search for. I am looking for my glasses.
Look after means to take care of: who will look after the children
during youf absence?

19.
To make a clean breast of you tell the truth about
something bad you have done, you dont hide anything.
20.
To make ends meet the idiom is to make ends meet or to
make both ends meet and not to make both my ends meet. The
ends are income or expenditure.
21.
To nip in the bud: is an idiom. To nip means to squeeze
sharply. When a bud is nipped, it will not develop into a flower
when something is nipped in the bud; it is destroyed in its early
stages. Bad habits must be nipped in the bud.
22.
On the sly: means in secret. It is used when something is
done unlawfully or dishonestly. He says he has given up drinking.
But I know he drinks on the sly.
23.
To stick to ones guns- when you hold on to you opinion or
belief despite what others say or do, people would say that you
stick to your guns.
24.
Up and about when a person falls ill, he is down in bed.
He is not able to move about in the usual way. When he is all
right, he gets up and moves about. This is what is meant by: He
is up and about.
25.
Wet behind the cars: means immature, inexperienced nave
and innocent. You cant expect him to do this; he is wet behind
the ears.
26.
Cannot make head or tail of cannot understand. I cannot
make head or trail of your letter.
27.
Heads I win, tails you lose this means deception practiced
by the shrewd.
You are bound to do as I say heads I win tails you lose. I stand
to gain both ways.
28.
Over head and ears: completely. I am over head and ears in
debt
29.
To keep ones head- to keep calm keep your head, do not
get annoyed.
30.
To lose ones head to become angry he lost his head with
his brother.
31.

Fair and square honest let your actions be fair and square.

32.
To turn a deaf ear to to refuse to listen to she turned a
deaf ear to my advice.
33.
Walls have ears there may be listeners. Be cautious even
the walls have ears.
34.
To chew the cud to reflect- Thinkers always chew the cud.
35.
From hand to mouth in poverty- She lives from hand to
mouth, in abject poverty.
36.
Hard nut to crack difficult problem to solve solving the
population problem is a hard nut to crack.
37.
To turn over a new leaf to mend ones ways Vishnu has
turned over a new leaf in his life.
38.
In lieu of instead of
Give me a pencil in lieu of the pen I am giving you.
39.
To wash ones dirty linen in public- not to keep ones
personal problems private. Politicians wash their dirty line in
public.
40.
To leave in the lurch to desert.
Do not leave your friends in the lurch
41.
To hit the mail on the head to give true explanation, to
savor do just the right thing
42.

As deaf as a post: very deaf , completely deaf.

43.

Head and shoulder: Better than other people.

44.
To have a head on ones shoulders to be a sensible
person.
45.

To come to a head bring a situation to a head.

46.

To head off- Laugh loudly.

47.
To have a bee in ones bonnet: - to think and talk about
something all the time and think it is very important.
48.

Cut no ice: have no influence.

49.

Bring the house down: to make everyone laugh or cheer

50.

Be at large: as a whole, in general

51.
Go great guns: to be doing something quickly and
successfully
52.
Be at dagger drawn: Be angry with each other.
An idiom is a form of expression (or of grammatical usage) peculiar to
particular language and often having a meaning other than the one
that it appears to have.
Idioms are special words or Phrases that have meaning of their own.
Key words with idiomatic uses
Bad:
1. Bad language: Swear words or taboo words. No bad language in
the classroom! If you must swear, save it until youre outside!.
2. A Bad lot: a person with bad personal qualities, someone who is
dishonest. I am so glad that Jerry has stopped going about with
Mike. I heard that he had been in prison for steeling. In my
opinion, he is a bad lot.
3. Be in Someones bad books: be out of favour with someone. If
you dont get the essay finished by tomorrow, youll be in your
teachers bad books again.
Big:
1. Bid Deal!: terrific! Great! (ironical). Said when one is not
impressed/ pleased etc. by something. I got the job! I got the
job ! Bog deal! You were the only applicant, werent you
2. A big hit: Something/ someone very popular with others. By the
way, your new flat is a big hit with your parents. They think its
perfect for you.
3. Give someone a big hand: applaud someone with enthusiasm. He
acted very well in a drama. He was given a big hand.
Dead:
1. Come to a dead halt: come to a complete stop. The lorry come to
a dead halt just in front of the fallen man.
2. Dead drunk: extremely drunk. Ive never seen him in such a
state. He was dead drunk.
3. Dead Wood: someone/ something that is no longer needed or
useful or is out of date. Its time we brought these files up to
date. Well start by throwing out all the dead wood.
Work out this Exercise
Rewrite the following sentences without using idiom. Do not change
the sense.
I had not planned to take a holiday just then but the offer was so good
that I decided to make hay while the sun shone (take advantage of the
opportunity)

After a game lasting nearly three hours, Jones lowered his sail
(Admitted defeat)
A man on the make ( looking after his won advantage) is not to be
trusted.
You cannot have respect for a leader who passes the buck (evades
responsibility by passing it to someone else)
They were not enthusiastic about the scheme, but his forceful
personality and eloquence roped them in eventually (persuaded them
to take part in the scheme)
Find the meanings of the following idiomatic pairs.
1. Alive and kicking well & active
2. Born and bread born & brought up having spent ones early
years.
3. Bright and Breezy in a cheerful, bright mood, doing things
quickly.
4. Cut and dried Settled, decided, final.
5. Fair and square in a fair way, honestly, exactly, directly
6. Free and easy casual, relaxed, unconcerned about social
convention.
7. Hale and hearty physically strong & fit.
8. Home and dry sure and success
9. Meek and mild Quiet , not self assertive or bold.
10.
Rough and ready only approximate, not exact.
11.
Safe and sound unharmed
12.
Short and sweet brisk, without unnecessary detail
13.
Sick and tired thoroughly bored or annoyed with
someone.
14.
Slow but sure slow but good.
15.
Spick and span clean & tidy, in very good order.

ESSAY WRITING
Important points to remember for writing a good essay.
Choose the title of your essay very carefully. Never choose a title
about which you have no clear ideas.
Before you start writing Essay, you must jot down your points or
ideas.
Always remember that the beginning and the ending of an essay
are very important, so give them special attention.
You should not give one sided conclusion. Conclusion should
always be a balanced one.
The points should be developed in a systematic order.
Generally you should not go against the title of the essay.
Do not fill your essay wholly with quotation or facts and figures. It
will only show lack of expression
Put each main idea in a separate paragraph.
You should not give number to the paragraph
The introduction should be direct and to the point. The conclusion
should be quite convincing and natural.
Avoid the use of difficult words. You should not use a word the
meaning of which is not clear to you.
There is no hard and fast rule regarding the length. But if the
limit of words is given, you should adhere to it.
Avoid the use of slang in your Essay.
Write in a beautiful and legible handwriting.
You must revise your essay after completion to correct the
grammatical mistakes, if any.
Essay, the word comes from the French essay first applied in 1580 by
Montaigne to his short writings.
The literary genre allows a great variety of styles: from Bacons Pithy
erudition, to Lambs Chatty and personal ramblings, to the impersonal,
formal analysis of Lockes Essay Concerning the Human
understanding. Today the essay is no longer a loose sally of the mind,
an irregular, indigestible piece, as averred by Dr. Johnson.
An Essay is a piece of prose composition generally short, on any
chosen subject. The word essay literally means an attempt. The
essay is, properly speaking, an a attempt at expressing your thoughts,
personal experience, opinions or ides on a given topic.
Essay writing is an art. The students should master this art from the
very beginning of their educational career. The important of the essay
writing can hardly be exaggerated. Infact essay is one of the most
effective and surest test of the personality and mental development of

the students. If the students master the technique of essay writing at

an early stage, they can become good essayists later on.
Accordingly to the Random House Dictionary of English language an
Essay is a short literacy composition in a particulate subject, usually in
price. The oxford advanced learners dictionary says an essay is a short
piece of writings by a student as part of a course of study: also a short
piece of writings on a particular subject written in order to be
published. According to Ben Johnson an Essay is a thing, someone
does himself and the point of the essay is not the subject but the
charm of personality.
An essay is thus a means of literary self-expression on the subject
having a vast range from kings to kites. In the examinations the
students can be asked to write an essay on a variety of subjects like
current affairs, topics of general interest, topics from science,
education, films, radio, festivals, excursions, accidents so on. The
students generally have a wide choice to choose from. A student
should choose only that topic about which he has some clears ideas or
with he has already prepared. He should not choose a subject about
which he has no knowledge or possesses only vague ideas. You must
know your essay subject. You must learn to write essays from an
excess of knowledge. Go to lectures, read up on the subject in the
library, look up the latest academic papers and thoroughly immerse
yourself in the essay subject before writing. Without this work to find
out the information, you cannot write an essay with authority and
command of your essay subject matter.
Practice makes a man perfect. The students must practice Essay
writing. They can master this art by writing Essay on different topics
and remembering them properly. While writing an essay the students
must not beat about the bush. They should keep quite close to the
subject. The essay should be written in a systematic and logical
manner.
You must collect more information than you will use: Although your
research will give you a mass of information, you must use only the
information that answers the questions set. You will probably collect a
hundred facts, read a dozen opinions and review three or four of the
most recent academic discussions of the subject. However, to answer
the question set, you must cut this information down to the key facts,
most pertinent opinions and perhaps refer to only the most relevant
discussion papers.
The best and effective style of writing a good essay is the use of simple
words. There is no need of using very difficult words. The language
used should be simple and idiomatic. The students should write small
sentences. In these small sentences there will be less possibility of
committing any grammatical mistakes. There is no need of filling and

essay with a large number of unnecessary quotations. It shows only

the lack of expression on the part of students. It is better if the
students can say something original in their own language.
If you were writing an essay on Shakespeares Romeo and Juliet, you
could not write a good one without first reading the play. Too often,
students ignore the primary source of material. If you are writing an
essay on Rousseaus Philosophy, theres no excuse for not reading the
original source social contract rather than a critique of Rousseaus
writings. Studying the primary sources of information let you assess
other information written on the subject.
Use a systematic way of taking notes.
Therefore you need to have a method of note taking. No matter how
you record the information, cards, notebook or in a computer database,
bear the following in mind.
1. use a one- word or two word key to each note. This lets you sort
them later and group treated information together.
2. Distinguish between primary and secondary sources: An example
of a primary source would be Karl Marxs Das Kapital. A
secondary source would be a Critique of Das Kapital by another
author.
3. Distinguish between facts and opinions: you must base your
essay around facts. Without key facts you cannot present your
arguments or assess other peoples opinions.
4. Look out for the ten key facts that are the backbone to your
essay: What information documents the subject and develops the
ideas and arguments you are going to use?
5. Look for Quotable Quotes: Too after, lazy students quote chunks
of text from documents, rather than selecting the most important
thought or view in fewer words.
6. Dont write out extracts word for word: Your notes are notes not
a copy of the words in the reference books.
7. Keep a record of all information sources. A record of each
information source.
1. Lets you find your source research material quickly
2. Khelps you write up foot notes and reference lists.
Essay writing no doubt is an art and there are no hard and fast rules
that be laid down for essay writing. However, we can divide an essay
into three main arts. Normally, the essay should have a beginning, a
middle and an end- an introduction, the main body of the essay and a
conclusion. Every essay needs an introduction. Sometimes the
introduction is dispensed with and the writer plunges right into the
subject. In any case the essay should have an organic unity. The main
theme should be kept in view throughout and nothing that is not
relevant to it should be allowed to creep in. the introduction should be
direct and to the pint. You should introduce your view or the main
theme in the introductory part of the essay.

If an candidate writes a lengthy introduction them then he may deviate

too much from the main topics.
In the body of the essay each main idea should be written in a well
balanced and logical manner. There should be an orderly development
of thought from paragraph to paragraph; a logical sequence of idea,
one point leading naturally to another.
The style and treatment should be adapted to the subject. A serious or
philosophical theme should be treated in a dignified manner. A subject
like a picnic or a village fair may be dealt with in a familiar, lighthearted manner. Simple, direct expression should be preferred to
pompous or verbose writing. Anecdotes and illustrations may be used
to make the essay interesting. The personal approach is what makes
an essay distinctive. The essay should reflect not only the opinions and
thoughts of the writer but his very personality.
Like the introduction the conclusion in an essay should also b logical,
convincing and natural. Without writing a good conclusion the student
cannot expect to secure good marks in the examination. The
conclusion should be natural and not abrupt; it must be forceful &
effective. Thus the students must pay special attention to the
instruction as well as the concluding part of an essay. Generally they
should not go against the title of the Essay.
To respect the points all over ageing in another way study the subject
carefully. Do not start writing the essay straight away but analyze the
subject so as the to get a clear and accurate idea of the scope. The
wording of the subject is very important.
If the subject is Travel as a Means of Education dont write on
traveling in general, the different modes on travel by land and so on
but focus your attention on the knowledge of other countries and
people, their customs culture and civilization that can be acquired
through traveling. If the subject is \The limitations of Democracy
dont expatiate on the history of Democracy, the advantages of
democracy over other forms of Government and so on but only on the
weaknesses of Democracy as it exists today and how these can be
remedied. Keep to the point and avoid all that is not relevant.
As you think over the subject several thoughts will pass through your
mind. Jot them down on a piece of paper. Perhaps some examples,
illustrations and apt quotations will also occur to you. Write them down
immediately lest you should forget them.
Having set down all your idea, try to arrange them under various
heads. Order and arrangement of thought is very important. Each main
point should be developed in a separate paragraph, and one paragraph

should logically lead to another. Thus there should be organic unity and
continuity of thought in the essay. You should also see that no aspect
of the subject is unduly stressed or elaborated at the expense of
another. There should thus be a certain balance and proportion in the
development of ideas.
As I said earlier the introduction should e brief and striking. It should at
once catch the interest of the reader. Perhaps the most common
opening in essays is with a definition of the subject. But there are more
striking ways of beginning an essay: with an anecdote or reminiscence
with a quotation, with a question, with a proverb or a striking
statement, with a piece of vivid description as so on.
And how to conclude the essay. You can briefly seem up the main
arguments or ideas that you have developed in the course of the essay
in the last paragraph. You can draw your conclusion on the basis of the
arguments. Let it be only one paragraph. You can conclude the essay
with a prediction a quotation, witticism or Anecdote, a question or with
an abrupt remark.
A good hand writing like a pleasing personality is always an asset.
Therefore, the students should try to improve their handwriting before
hand. The essay should be written in a legible handwriting. A good
handwriting always fetches more marks in the examinations. The
students should also revise their essay after writing. In this way they
can correct any mistakes which they may have committed regarding
spelling, punctuation, construction of sentences etc.
Regarding the length of an Essay, there is no hard and fast rule. Some
writes like Bacon used to write very short Essay. On the other hand
William Hazlitt another famous Essayist, wrote very lengthy essays.
The examiner is not much impressed by the length by the your essay.
He is more influenced by the substance of your essay and the manner
in which you have presented or expressed it. The real thing which
matter is that the Essay should be systematic and convincing of
course, when you are asked to write an essay within a fixed limit of
words, you must adhere to it. Essay writing should be a personal
attempt made in a pleasant manner to make it a delightful reading.
However, whatever you known on a subject is expected to be
dexterously organized and presented. The pit the thesis of the essay
should be clear to the reader. An essay is not a Shapeless mass of
ideas and feeling, facts and figures, incidents and events, but a welldesigned piece of pen-manship. To meet these expectations, you will
need to develop the skills associated with the different stages of essay
writing.
Think about what you need or want to write before you start . this
advice may seem obvious, but it is all too easy to rush into a piece of

writing without having a clear idea of what you are going to say. There
are several considerations to bear in mind your subject; your purpose
your readers; the form of writing that you are using (essay, story,
report so on)
Obviously, these circumstances vary from one writing situation to
another. To be effective, the contents must be relevant and appropriate
to the particular situation.
A vital feature of success in structuring ideas effectively concerns the
generation of ides. The subjects that comforts you has to be thought
about and ideas created in your main before they can be translated
into words on paper. Harnessing the power of your brain and applying
its energy to the topic in question is something called brain-storming.
Here are some approaches to help you.
Take a single sheet of paper. Make a box in each of the four corners
and let them act as sign ports bearing the headings:
Subject purpose, form; Readers.
Under each of the headings write notes along the following lines to
indicate the direction that you wish to take.
1. Subject: identify the main topic and, perhaps, major points of
your intended piece of work
2. purpose: to explain , explore or entertain? Indicate which
category.
3. Form: letter, Essay, report, story etc?
4. Readers: extent and age of intended audience whether the
readers known to you or anonymous.
Write the main theme of your essay in the middle of a fresh sheet of
paper. Then jot down any and every idea that occurs to you in the next
few minutes. Do not worry where they are placed in the paper. Some
ideas will follow in sequences. Some will be random and some will start
a new train of thought. Where ideas seem irrelevant, do not worry for
they may be of use later on.
Where there is an obvious link between a run of ides, fn them out
across the page on a series of lines drawn to resemble the branching
the several twigs. It is important to keep going and not to allow ideas
to dry up. If you stop will create a blockage in the flow of ideas feeding
out from your brain. Use various devices to keep ideas flowing. For
example:
1. Reverse thinking 0 new for old; fast for slow; negative for
positive;
2. Imagine that your are in a time machine retreating and
advancing,
3. Picture yourself as a part of the scene;
4. take imaginary slow- motion shots as though a camera;
5. Look at the problem from other points of view;

6. See the subjects in terms of Chaos, failure . Or even solution.

7. Play the part of a god, devil, a practical joker or a saint.
After you have collected s many ideas as possible, you may want start
to organic them. There are three steps in order to do this.
1. Highlight the Titles: see if you have any words that would
summarise a group of ideas. Underline them, highlight them with
a marker or box them around so that they stand out visually on
the page.
2. Count the concepts: Give a priority to your various titled
concepts. Number them in an order that appeals to you.
3. Encase the ideas: use a coloured marker to gather together all
the various ideas that fit under the various titles you have
selected and ring them into a series of balloons
While brain -storming it is important to establish an order in which
you are going to present materials. This ability to set out the content in
a clear and sensible sequence is one of the basic skills on which all
effective writing depends.
It is important to take an overall view of all material that you are
intending to use. Try to place the information in the relevant sections:
Introduction (beginning): body (middle): Conclusion (end).
Look at the flowing sex sentences that have been placed in random
order but which can be sorted out to from a full paragraph with a
definite beginning, middle and end. Build the paragraph to show that
you appreciate its construction.
a) in the days when some horizons, especially in mountains
areas, had not been reached by humans, the map-makers
had difficulties.
b) The great travelers of the past and present have been
explorers, sometimes in the geographical sense, yet always
in the expansion of their mental horizons.
c) These may have indicated ignorance, but often they
promoted curiosity and resolve.
d) Travel supposedly broadens the mind.
e) Far from repelling would- be travelers from the unknown,
they actually attracted the explorer who wanted
to
broaden his view and extend mans knowledge.
f) They had to leave blank spaces on their maps.
In a wary you have devised a mental journey for your readers and
encouraged them to take a definite route through what could have
been a maze or jungle of ideas. Consider the writers to be a guide
.. and therefore your achievement will be to help your reader to
reach a satisfactory and informed conclusion.

Coherence:
The frame work just described helps you to present your materials
coherently. You should have sorted out the contents so that the items
cohere or Stick together. Do not allow your reader to be misled by
allowing material to appear out-of-place.
Sequences and conditions:
It is the logical sequence that matters. Connections should be made
within a considered structure. In this way there are no loose ends.
Careful planning means that the attention of readers should be
directed without fuss. Sometimes it may be useful to give a signal that
a turning pint in the argument or a vital new addition to a description
is about to be made. Linking expression such as however, even so,
on the other hand, yet, or in addition, can indicate the beginning of
a new stage in the development of your materials while, at the same
time, emphasizing its continuity.
One topic at a time.
Your first aim should be to generate sufficient ideas to make the
content of your writing worth while. Your second should be to present it
in an orderly way. The three part structure already mentioned earlierintroduction- body- conclusion will help you to do that.
In any of these three parts- and especially when you are dealing with
the main structure (the body) of your subject matter you may need to
include more than one topic. Each separate topic should be dealt with
in a separate paragraph.
A paragraph is a distinct section of a passage of writing. It is
concerned with one topic and only one. Help your readers to
understand quickly and clearly what each paragraph is about. So
not confuse them by including any material that is not strictly
relevant to the topic with which the paragraph is concerned.
The topic sentences and paragraph unity
Build each paragraph on a topic sentences so called because it
announces the topic being dealt with in that paragraph.
The topic sentences tells your readers what the paragraph is
about. All the other sentences in that paragraph should be seen
to have a direct bearing on the subject matter indicated by the
topic sentences. That is what is meant by paragraph unity .
Think of the topic sentence as a signpost. It tells your readers
where the paragraph is going. Then having indicated the route
you are taking. Stick to it. Do not wander off into by ways. Each
paragraph corresponds to one particular stage of the journey.
When you have completed it, start on the next stage, in a new
paragraph.
The position of the topic sentences.

As it acts as a signposts, it is best to place the topic sentence at

the beginning of the paragraph. All the other sentences in the
paragraph should then follow on in a sensible sequence.
This method of working will produce a well-made paragraph.
1. Think hard about the particular point you intend to make in the
paragraph. This will be your subject for the complete paragraph.
You may have to apply a little brain storming here and write a
few notes to ensure that your ideas are in place before you start
2. Work out a topic sentence in which you express the essence of
that point.
3. Check that everything you include in the rest of the paragraph is
closely related to the point made in the topic sentence. You will
need to expand and develop that point- but do not get away from
it.
4. Use all your material signpost by the topic sentence. Complete it
before you move on to the next topic- in the next paragraph.
Two well-made paragraph to study
These two paragraph, A & B are examples of thoughtful and
disciplined expression. The particular aspect of subject matter being
dealt with is clearly stated in a topic sentence at the beginning. All
the other sentences are clearly seen to bear on that point,
explaining and developing it. Ni irrelevant matters are included.
A. This is a bleak time to eke a living out of the North
sea, whether you areca fish or a fisherman. British
fishermens incomes have fallen by 6 percent in real
term since 1980, which would not seem too bad if
fish were not getting scarcer. The stocks of adult
North sea cod have halved since 1982 and those of
haddock have fallen by two-thirds. Pollution may be
partly to balance; so may the mysterious and
spontaneous variations common among fish
populations. But most scientists think that the fish
shortage has a single cause over fishing. Another
shortage will result of fishermens income
( Adapted from the Economist)
Put paragraph A to the topic test. Take the points
made in the opening sentence bleak time for 1)
fish 2) fishermen. List under the two groups that are
suffering the problems that are affecting then as
outlined in the rest of the paragraph.
B. The difficulties of watching an animal of nocturnal
and secretive habits re great. Even now much of the
badgers life remain a mystery. How can we tell what
happens in the labyrinth of dark tunnels that
constitute is home, known to us as the badgers set?
We known that he makes only rare appearances by
day; that be retires to his set at dawn, and emerges

at dusk. Since badgers are very much awake by

night, we presume that most of their time
underground is spent in sleep. We know that they
have large retiring chambers into which they take
cartloads of bedding comprised of the most handy
materials, dry grass, bracken, leaves, herbage of
different kinds; anything that is within convenient
distance of the set and will make a comfortable bed.
(Eilen A. Soper, When Badgers wake)
The main types topics of paragraph B are to be
found in the first sentence. They are: difficulties;
nocturnal habits; secretive habits. List beneath each
of these topics the points made by the writer in the
rest of the paragraph.
Keep the paragraph tight and keep moving ahead.
In a well-made paragraph each sentence adds something to the
point being dealt with in that paragraph and announced in the topic
sentence. It may provide further information. It may expand and
explanation or develop and argument. Whatever its particular
contribution, it keeps the paragraph moving ahead to complete one
stage of the piece of writing of which it is a distinct part.
If you lose sight of the paragraph topic you will stray off course
wandering into by-ways or dead-ends.
A well constructed topic paragraph has been likened to the creation
of a bonfire. Think of the ways in which a bonfire is prepared and lit
and then develops a fiery life of its own.
See whether you can appreciate the connection with a paragraph.
First, the materials is gathered together from various sources. It is
carefully piled to ensure that everything will eventually burn. This is
the equivalent of the brain- storming technique of bringing ideas
together. The intention is that they should ignite a response in the
observer or reader. The striking of the match and the initial flare of
the flame should attract attention with their sound light. This is the
function of the topic sentence- to cause readers to hear something
arresting and to have initial light cast upon the subject. Then as the
fire burns there are sequences of clouds of smoke and waves of
flame. These are the equivalent of individual sentences, with their
visible signs of material being displayed coupled with the
enlightenment that the reader should receive. As the bonfire
smoulders it gives off a glow, a series of crackles and an occasional
shower of sparks. Here is the paragraphs last sentence, which
should have a particularly abrasive or penetrating quality.
If the writing has to be effective, first it has to make sense. As ideas
flow through our minds we have to control them. As we capreses
ourselves in writing, we have to order these ideas in such a way
that our reader can understand us without difficulty. Clarity of

expression is our major aim. Effective speed in response to others is

vital for good communications. So, while writing an essay you
should pay attention to:
Correctness of grammar, punctuation and spelling.
Well made and varied sentences.
A piece of writing that shows management of structure and tidiness.
Lively and imaginative work will always be given extra marks, but it
is the candidates ability to write well-organised, clear and accurate
English that is the examiners first concern.
Therefore, let me remind you
Plan your essay carefully, so that it has unity.
Paragraph clearly, so that your material is presented in a logical
sequences;
Write in a style appropriate to your subject;
Be accurate in punctuation, spelling and grammar.
Remember that marks are given for quality, not quantity- provided
that you write a composition of the minimum length as stipulated.
There are different types of essays.
1. Narrative essays: A narrative essay consists mainly in the
narration of some event or series of events just like as story
writing or historical events. For example a visit to a place of
interest. Any journey; a story; historical stories or legends; an
accident or natural disaster; incidents like a street fight, a
marriage pasty etc.
2. Descriptive Essays: A descriptive essay is perhaps the simplest
type of essay consisting of a description of some place, person or
things: Eg: A game sanctuary, a water fall, a village fear, the Taj
Mahal etc
3. Deflective essays: A reflective essay consists of reflections or
thoughts some topic, which is generally of an abstract nature
like; social, political and domestic topics, as family planning,
riches and poverty, democracy etc., philosophical subject
religious and theological topics and so on.
4. Imaginative Essays: Essay on such subjects such as feelings and
experiences of the imaginations are called Imaginative essays
like. If I were a Millionaire; the autobiography of a coin. The
writer has to place himself in a situation in which he has never
been before and describe what he would do in such
circumstances.
5. Expository Essays: These essays consists of an exposition or
explanation of some subject, i.e, scientific topics, literary topics
an institutions, industries etc., The art of the short story,
Literature and life on Evolution, nature cure, Karma & Rebirth
etc., these expound a theory or destructive.

Expository essays are generally objective and impersonal. The

personal element appears in varying degrees in the other types
of essays. It is better if students adhere to the definite types
indicated here.