An Introduction To The VinA

An Introduction to the Vina
Author(s): Karaikudi S. Subramanian

Source: Asian Music, Vol. 16, No. 2 (Spring - Summer, 1985), pp. 7-82
Published by: University of Texas Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/833772 .
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TOTHEVINA
AN INTRODUCTION
by
Karaikudi S. Subramanian
Editor's Note
The following article represents excerpts from a larger work on the
vina, a major instrument of South Indian classical music about which
little has hitherto been available by way of a survey of history,
schools.
performance, practice, and stylistic
BACKGROUND
HISTORICAL
Bharata (500 B.C./200 A.D.?) classified instruments based on
the way in which sound is produced. It is similar to the system
Erich Von Hornbostel and Curt Sachs established and published in
1914, which now is accepted by musicologists all over the world.
The basic categories are: tata (chordophones), sushira (aerophones),
avanaddha (membranophones)and ghana (idiophones).TThe vina belongs
to the first category.
Tracing our way backwards through the maze of historical names
it is obvious that the vina has steered through complex stages
Our inquiry into the process
before reaching its present status.
of evolution from the generic vina to the specific one is also
equally complex and often has to end with conjectures and inferences.
As a "denizen" of this technitronic age, its position is different
now. One might even classify vina into acoustic and electronic
Whatever its future may be, its past has been certainly
categories!
colorful.
In the Mohenjodaroand Harappa excavations a seven-holed flute,
a stringed instrument of harp-vina tye and some percussion instruments were found. [Prajnanananda 1973] The bow-shaped stringed
instruments might prompt one to think that the hunter's bow was
probably its first parent. Sachs [1940: 56] would not agree I
though some Indian authors on musical instruments theorize that the
first stringed instrument invented by man could have been the hunter's
bow. [Sambamurthy1960: 212] Sachs is of the view that the musical
bows cannot have anything to do with hunter's bow; their size, construction, etc., do not fit such a theory. Based on the view that
the Dravidian civilization
was derived from outside sources, Egypt
and Mesopotamia, linked up with sea commercein the third millenium
B.C. or 'perhaps later,' [Slater quoted in Sachs 1940: 153] Sachs
points out a striking evidence of an Egyptian influence in the word,
vina in the South and bin in the North. "As this term, according
to its spelling ('n' without a preceding 'r') must be a foreign word:
7

there is little doubt of its identity with the Egyptian name of the
harp." [Sachs 1940: 153]
Harps and lyres existed about 5000 years ago in ancient Egypt
and Sumeria. While the lyre was confined exclusively to Africa,
harps survived in many parts of the world. Of the three basic
types of harps, frame harps, angle-harps and bow-harps, the last
mentioned was the type frequently represented in ancient Indian
Based on the consistent representations
sculptures and paintings.
of the harp vina during the Mauryadynasty, (Bhaja, Amaravati, Pawaya
and Bharhut reliefs) about three centuries older than suggested by
Sachs and long before the Sanskrit, Pali and the early Prakrit
literature, and also considering the probability of a cultural con[1937: 101-103] conjectures that this harp vina
tinuity Coomarswamy
must have been referred to in the still earlier vedic literature and
can be considered as the old Indian vina.
Early References in V6das and Epics
In the Hindu pantheon of Gods, there are manywho are associated
with the vina, giving it a place of prestige.
One of the earliest
of stringed instruments was called pinika and had one string plucked
by the fingers; its invention is ascribed to_the God Siva. Pfrvati,
Saraswati, Lakshmi, Dakshinimurti, Ganisha, Ancaneya, Tumburu,Ndrada,
Gindharvas--all these divine personages are depicted with vina in
one of its forms in the paintings and sculptures.
In the Rg V6da there is mention of four instruments: aghati,
bakura, gargara and vana. But "vna was probably a flute since it
was playe
y the Maruts who were spirits of storm. A simple
vertical flute, venu or 'cane' is still used by aboriginal tribes
of India." [Sachs 1940: 152] On the other hand, Sambanurthy[1960:
203] says: "In some of the Vedas and Samhitas, the Satatantri is
called the Vana." Prajnanananda [1973J also says that Rg Veda mentions a vina, vana, with 100 strings (Satatantri)."
Referring to
Sapta-dhitu (seven dhatus) mentioned in the Rk verse 10.32.4,
occurring after the word vana, he says, "it is probable that
sapta-dh~thu signifies the seven tones that were produced in the
hundred strings of the vina, v-ina." [Ibid.]
The Vedic vina had the parts: "siras (head or neck), udara
(bowl), ambhana(sounding board of th-ebelly), tantra (string)_iand
vadana (plectrum)." [Sambamurthy1960: 202] There are also
practice of playing vinas like
references to the ritualistic
audambari (made of audambarawood) and picchola by the wife of the
chief performer. Reference to Jya ghasha or the sound of the bow
string is found in Atharva Veda.[TIbid.: 212] Ydgnyavalkya reached
salvation, in the companyof his wife G~rgi. Maitr'yi, another
wife of the sage, attained salvation by herself because she was
1954: 8] "One well versed
adept on the vina. [Ananthapadmanabhan
8

in vina play, expert in Sruti, and jiti and knowledged in tala easily
goes along the path of M5ksha."--Yagnyavalkya Smriti. [Ibid.]
In the R~miyanathere is a reference to Niradd singing the
praises of Vishnu, to the accompanimentof the mahati vina. (The
belief is that Narada brought music to Earth from Heaven.) Sachs
[1940: 156] refers to a vina mentioned in the Mah1bhdrata. The girls
playing the vina had their thighs skinned by the lower part of the
"This was
instrument as if they were scratches of finger nails.
perfectly possible with an arched harp, which rested on the lap but
not with the vina in the later sense, which rested on the ground and
on the shoulder." [Ibid.]
In the Virata Parva of Mahabhirata:
"Faultless PanchNli addressed Bhimas-na i? voice sweet as the sound
of the vina, emitting the Gindhara note." [Sambamurthy1960: 216]
A vina kept in Buddha's chamber, struck accidentally by the breeze,
produced sweet music which created the mood for him to renounce
the world! [Ananthapadmanabhan
1954: 8]
Early Treatises
Narada, the author of the Ndrada Siksha (100 A.D.?) notes that
the vina represented Samanmusic, whereas the flute represented
Ggndharvamusic. Bharata (200 A.D.?) experimented with two vinas
both having twenty-two strings.
Sachs argues that this number is
Several
consistent with the harp, not with the stick zither.
Sanskrit works since Bharata's time, mention different types of
vinas based on the size, numberof strings, and the specific purpose
for which they were used.
The ancient Tamil literature (Cilappadikaram, Manimekalai,
Tolkjppiyam, Atrupadais, Pattuppjttu, Kaliththogai, Paripadal, etc.)
vil
mentions the several gutted yazh such as the sa
0afig.
),
(fig.
2),
siri
(fig.
3),
4) and
ig.
The
prTr
name yAzh has a suffix also
meant a scale; makarafig.5).
for example, kurinjivzh,
and
zh
marudamyazh,neidaly
p-laiy~zh, were the primary scales named
after the different types of land--hilly, plain, shore and desert.
The technique of ydzh described in these works refers to the "veena
with Danda, with guts tied round it to present the scale in the
different octaves-Melivu, S-~Ai and Valivu" [Iyengar, R.R. 1972: 38]
and not to the harp-like yazh.
It is interesting to note that while
most of the literature about the yazh is panegyric, a work of Tamil
Sangamliterature, Tirukkural (500 A.D.), refers to the ylzh not in
praise:
"kuzhal inidu yazh inidu enbadammakkal

mazhalai col kllidavar"
(Only those who have not heard a child's babble would
say: "Yazh music is sweet (inidu) or the flute music
is sweet.")
9

There is a story about Tirugnyhna Sambandar(700 A.D.) who once

asked the p
(a player) Tirunilakanta, who accompanied him on his
yazh, to play.a a song in a pa which As equivalent to the current
raga Atana. [Iyengar, R.R. 1972: 54] The pina unable to play it,
in a mood of frustration and despondency, was going to break his
instrument. Tirugnyana Sambandarpointed to him that it was not his
fault, but that of the instrument. Fromthat incident the pan was
called
(the rdga which caused the yazh to be
bro-en). y?zh
It is possible to conjecture from this anecdote that the fretless
ydzhmurippax.
was beginning
to be considered of less value in keeping up with the
development taking place in the sphere of j tis (the equivalent of
ragas) particularly as an accompanying instrument to vocal music.
These fretless, harp-type yazhs were called nissari vinas in the
Sanskritic tradition.
Iconography
We find representations of these nissari vinas in sculptures,
paintings,terracotta
figures,and coins in various parts of India.
Variations of the harp vina (fig. 6) are found in sculptures in
Sanchi, Bhaja, Bharut (2nd-lst century B.C.), Amardvati (up to 100
A.D.), Nagarjunakonda (100-300 A.D.), Modhara(1000 A.D.) and also
in Samudragupta's coins (330-370 A.D.) and terrcotta figures.
The
zither-type vina, (the forerunner of the later mattakokila or
swaramandalaof the medieval period with 21 strings), is found in
the Sanchi museum(1st century B.C.) (fig. 7). The lute type vina
(fig. 8) is represented in Amaravati, Nagarjunakonda, Pawaya
(Gupta period), Ajanta paintings (300-500 A.D.). A slight variation
of this type (fig. 9) is found in Pattaldakkal temple (700 A.D.).
These varieties are plucked by the right hand and played by the left
hand. Sculptures of this type (fig. 10) with a half or full gourd,
are found in Ajanta, Badimi (600 A.D.) and Ell5ra (700-1000 A.D.).
This is represented with or without a kina (plectrum). In Delwara
temple (1000 A.D.) there are two varieties of one-stringed vina
with one gourd at the upper end or with two gourds at both ends of
the stick.
This type of vina is also found in sculptures of the
goddess Saraswati of the Pala period (700 A.D.) (fig. 11 and 12).
These nissari vinas are represented in sculptures and paintings
till around 1000 A.D., though fretted vinas (s-ari) began to appear
even as early as 700 A.D. Fretted vinas and fretless y~zhs
existed side by side before the yazh disappeared from the scene
altogether.
Manickyavacakar (700 A.D.) refers to the coexistence of this
fretted lutevina and the fretless harp-vina (yazh) in one of his
poems as: "Vinaier orupal ydzhinar orupal" (literally,
"vina
players on one side and y'zh players on the other side").
10

Vil
Figure 2
Sagbda
Figure 1
Piri
Figure 4
Siri
Figure 3
11

Figure 6
Figure 7
Makara
Figure 8
Figure 5
Figure 9
12

Figure 10
Figure 11
Figure
Figure 12
Figure 14
13

13
Symbolism of the Vina

By seeing or touching the veena one attains Svarga
and Moksha; it purifies a fallen man from sins
such as that of killing a Brahman. The danda is
God Siva, the string is Goddess Uma, the shoulder is
Vishnu, the bridge is Lakshmi, the gourd is Brahma,
the navel is Saraswathi; the connecting wires are
Vasuki, the Jiva is Moon, the pegs are Sun; the veena
thus represents all Gods and is therefore capable of
giving all auspiciousness.
--Sangitaranakara, (henceforth SR) 1210-1247 A.D. [Ananthapadmanabhan
1954: 5]
There is a parallelism between the vina and the humanbody from
the point of view of yogic philosophy. The spinal column with the
curved end is likened to the shape of the vina with the curved yli.
(For names of instrument parts, see Table 3.) The humanvertebrae
are compared to the frets on the vina. The twenty-five concepts in
the science of Yoga are compared to the ti$enty-five frets of the
vina (24 frets + the meru which is the first fret giving the note
sa). According to the science of yoga, in the humanbody there are
six nerve centers starting from the lower end of the spinal column
to the head. The n-gapasam, kudirai, and four frets (24, 19, 12, and
7) are considered the "nerve centers" on the vina. There are two
viewpoints based on which s de of the vina is considered the head
and which side the abdomen. By disciplined practice on the vina
one is believed to get control over the psychic powers just as by
controlling the kundalini, the yogi gets to the higher planes of
consciousness.
Another traditional symbolism used is the comparison of the two
parts of the vina to the breasts of the
globularLikewise the tuning pegs with the ivory or
goddess Saraswathi.
deer horn nipples extend the same feminine principle.
In fact,
the vina is played by more womenthan men today, and there is a
belief that playing the vina is good for pregnant women.
In Indian thought, the vina in its structure and function
reflects the traditional humanistic as well as metaphysical understanding of Manin relation to the SupremeGodhead. Atman is
identifiable with the brahman, jiv-tma with the paramtma, the
former being the individual principle, the latter the Universal
The underlying unity betweengatmanand brahmanis the
principle.
essence of the non-dualistic philosophy.
Manyaspects of Indian
life reflect this insistence on fundamental unity. The function of
the main strings and the side strings reinforces this fundamental
unity between Atmanand Brahman. The side strings provide the
ldhira gruti (drone). The main strings go out of tune while
playing as they are pulled frequently. The side strings are the
stable strings as they are not pulled; they are only strummed. The
four main strings were in the beginning, in turn with the ddhfra
sruti of the side strings.
Later, when they go out of tune due to
much action, the side strings give the stable reference. This is
parallel to the philosophical concept of the individual strayed by
14

the Karmic actions, seeking the changeless Brahman. The performer's

striving or his sadhanx (practice) to be in perfect tune with the
adhira sruti is likened to the spiritual struggle to realize the
The vina
harmonybetween the individual and the universal principle.
is considered the cow lete instrument because it has the fundamental
drone within itself.
In numerology four is an important number, e.g., four seasons,
four directions, four vidas, four ages (krta, trFta, dv:para, and
kali), four fold Indian way of life (dharma, ar-t-, k-ma, mnksha);
in the West we find the cross, four wings of the cherubim, the four
gospels, etc. Martin Ruland (1892) [quoted in Jung 1967] interprets
this archetypal arrangement of quaternity in terms of psychology:
phantasia (a subjective figment of the mind without objective
validity),
imaginatio (an image making, form-giving, creativity of
the mind), speculatio (philosophical thinking), and agnata fides
1 [Jung 1967: 167] " . . . in spontaneous psychic
(in-born faith).
products
. . . the same archetype
is at work and in principle
pro-
duces over and over again the same figures, meanings and values
autochthonously." [Ibid.: 283] Talking about the cross as quaternity,
Jung refers to the self, to man's wholeness. Extending these thoughts
while explaining the symbolism behind the four main strings on the
vina, one could interpret, in the line of Hindu thinking, that they
represent Man in his fourfold path of life namely, dharma (duty),
artha (material gain), kima (love), mrksha (liberation).
"Four
footed and complete is dharma in Krita age--it is verily identical
with Truth." [Sources of Indian Tradition 1960] Whenwe superimpose
this statement with that of Jung's, about "Man's wholeness," the
above interpretation of the four main strings becomes clear. So,
the four main strings represent the ATMAN
(Complete Man).
To Indian thought three is also a sacred number. Three Gods,
(Brahma, Vishnu and Siva), three sacred threads, repeating mantra
three times, etc. So, the three side strings witP the three
birudais and the three lan1ars, in themselves forming a trinity,
The four
could be interpreted as the supreme principle, BRAHMAN.
main strings, the four main birudais on the dragon side and the four
langars, in themselves forming another trinity, could be interpreted as Manbeing essentially divine. Table 1 summarizes the
symbolism of the vina.
Thus vina epitomizes philosophy; due to his false knowledge
Manforgets his primal divinity and goes astray; by following his
dharma (duty), through self discipline he conquers evil and
attains salvation.
15

Table 1:
Symbolism of the Vina
Three side strings +

corresponding three
birudais and three
langars (another
unit of three)
BRAHMAN
Four main strings +

four corresponding
birudais and four
langars (another
unit of three)
ATMAN
(manwho is
essentially divine.)
Kudamand
kudukkai
Male and female

principle.
24 frets + m~ru
25 yogic principles to
discipline the self
Black wax
False knowledge (m ya)11
Yali12
Triumphover evil or
moral courage.
Birudais +
langars
Mind that controls.
Structural History
The question as to precisely when and how the frets appeared on
the vina is still in the dark. Referring to the harp stage of vina
here is a conjecture:
All the instruments up till this stage were played on open
It was found to be a laborious process to be
strings.
twanging the various strings for the various notes and
serious attempts were made to play the different notes
on the same string and this led to the invention of frets.
The finger holes of flute naturally suggested the idea of
frets. [Sambamurthy1962: 51]
Here is another conjecture on how frets came to be used:
a stick is inserted into a small resonating body such as
a tortoise shell or a coconut shell and a string attached
to it. By pressing the string against the neck or by
touching it slightly with the fingers, the string is
shortened, thereby producing a rise in pitch. The
16

variation in the sound according to the length of the

string led to the use of fretted instruments where the
player could determine the pitch by varying with his
fingers, the length of the string that is to vibrate.
Thus more than one note could be produced from the same
string. [Krishnaswamy1971: 15]
Yet SwamiPrjnanananda suggests that the idea of frets existed
even during the vedic period. According to him the vina was used
to accompanychants with two fixed frets, the open string giving the
third note of the three swards (pitches) used, uddatta, anudatta, and
svarita.
It is interesting to note the reason Sachs gives for replacement of the lute by the guitar in Europe in the late eighteenth
century: "The decline of the lute gave rise to the guitar (around
But guitar
1750?). The harpsichord could have replaced the lutes.
was quick in rising
because of its
portability
. . . " [Sachs 1968:
273] So, one of the reasons for the introduction of guitar was
perhaps its portability in comparison with the harpsichord. It is
equally probable that fretting of vina fulfilled a similar need of
portability, as opposed to the many stringed harps.
The twelve tone scale probably emerged around 7th century A.D.
The varieties of the swaras namelyl3ra, ri, ru, re, etc., are found
in the Kudimiy5malai inscriptions.
It is also probable that such
a twelve tone system eventually paved the way for the frets.
The
fretted p'ipa lute in the Imperial Treasury (Shoso-in) at Nara,
near Osaka, Japan, is reco jed to have been brought from India
in the eighth century A.D.
This seems to indicate that there
were fretted vinas of the p'ipa type even as early as the seventh
or eighth century A.D.
Kumba(1400 A.D.) attributes the invention of the fourteen
fretted kinnari to M anga (800 A.D.) the author of Brhad-desi.
Later writers like Nanydeva (1000 A.D.),
[Tarlekar 1961- 172]
and Someswara (1100 A.D.) also mention this kinnari vina with
In Belur temple (1100 A.D.) there is a female figure playing
frets.
on a thirteen fretted vina. In Vastupala and Tejapala on Mt.
Girnar, (1200 A.D.) there is another sculpture in the playing posture with a thirteen fretted vina. (fig. 13 and 14) Tarlekar
[1961: 173] suggests that frets for all the swards came to be
used between 900 and 1000 A.D. Sarngadeva in"iYs SR mentions
three categories of stringed instruments namely the fretless stick
The kinnari with frets
zithers, the harps and the fretted zithers.
is included in the third category.
We find a description of the placement of the fixed frets on
the vina in the third chapter (verse 21-43) of Ramamatya's
SwaramiClakal-nidhi[henceforth SMK]1550 A.D. That corresponded
to the first scale, kanakTngi, in the mela system of Venkatamakhin.
17

It is obvious that fixing of the frets must have been a fairly new
idea even as late as the sixteenth century. [Powers 1959: 6]
The important link between the present fixed-fretted lute-type
Saraswati vina and the fretted instruments mentioned in SR and the
later works, is the stick zither type seven-stringed fretted instrument with two gourds on either end of the stick, which also brackets
the North Indian bin. The different subtypes of this vina, (according
to the different tuning systems used) are mentioned in the SMK,
Pundarikavitala's Sadr gacandridaya (before 1599 A.D.), [henceforth
SC] Srikanta's Rasakaumudi(1575) 1henceforth RK], Govinda Dikshita's
Sangita Sudha (1614-1623) [henceforth SS] and Venkatamakhin's
Caturdandi Prak5iika, (1633-1676) [henceforth CP] [Iyengar, R. 1981:
77-90]
Sachs reconstructs the evolution of the bin in the North and
the vina in the South. The reliefs of6the first stick zithers
appeared at the temple of Mavalipuram about 600 A.D. The
resonator was a half calabash attached to one end of the stick.
It had two strings with the stick pointing towards the ground and
the calabash held against the chest of the player. It was plucked
About
by the right hand, while the left hand stopped the strings.
1000 A.D. the position of the calabash was raised from the chest to
the shoulder. Later the other end was provided with another half
calabash. The modern form with a whole calabash on either end was
created around 1400 A.D. Later more strings were added and wire
plectra were beginning to be used. In the South the lower gourd was
replaced by the wooden body of a lute, with a long wooden sound board
with metallic frets.
The gourd in the other end became smaller.
[Sachs 1968]
The invention of the fixed-fretted Saraswathi vina is attributed
to Govinda Dikshitar, the minister to the Tanjore ruler Raghunatha
Naik. "Till his time frets had been tied to the Veena Dandawith
guts. It y s Deekshitar who fixed the frets on wax." [Iyengar, R.R.
1972:179]
We sometimes do not question why we do certain things in a

certain way because of the tradition behind them. Suddenly there
arises a necessity to vindicate what we do or sometimes it just
occurs to us in a flash. Probably Govinda Dikshitar felt compelled
to account for the innumerable ragas which existed in his time.
Fixation of frets could have happened due to experimentation.
There must have arisen a need for the visual means to understand
the idea of the twelve tones to an octave. Whennew ragas were
emerging it was probably difficult for the performers to understand
the subtleties without a proper reference. For example, the raga
varali is traditionally left to the student to understand by himself
due to the belief that the gru and the sishya (student) would cease
to have good relationship if taught. But the reason probably is that
the raga varali involves complex sruti (pitch) values for a student
18

to understand in his initial

So he is left to
years of learning.
discover at a later stage by himself.
Probably such ragas which
s'ruti values, led
required a reference to understand the intricate
to experimentation.
The present fixed fretted vina must have been
an outcome of such an experimentation.
More Recent Treatises
Even by the time of the S.R. vina was a generic word. It is
discussed in the chapter vady'dhyaya along with other instruments.
The three different
mentioned are:
the fretless
stick
categories
the harps, and the fretted zithers.
zithers,
Different techniques
of performance are also discussed.
To the first type belonged the
eka tantri (one-stringed)
vina which was a simple zither with a
attached to a long stem provided with a peg for
resonator--gourd
the string.
There was only one bridge (kakuba) with a metal strip
for placing the jiva (a bamboo fibre introduced between the metallic
plate of the kakubha and the playing main strings).
Frets are
mentioned when ascribing different
deities
to the various parts
of the vina.
Vinas like the mattakikila,
citra,
etc., belonged
to the second type while the alapini and kinnari are two of the
vinas which belonged to the third category.
The kinnari had frets,
"fourteen or fifteen
in number.
The description
of the instruments
are followed by hand-performances (hastavy"pira)."
[Iyengar, R.
1981: 87] The other vinas varied from two to twenty
strongs.
Later in the work Kalinidhi (1446-1465) of Kallinatha,
we find
that the mattakakila mentioned in SR is equated to the svaramandala
of his time.
The same instrument seemed to have existed even in
Somanatha's period (1609)!
But Somanatha rejects this fretless
ancient instrument as unsuitable
to illustrate
the various
vadanabhWdds. On the other hand, he found the extant rudra vina
to be the most suitable
instrument to demonstrate the current
which exhibited fof8the first time, a tenperformance practice,
dency to blend with the vocal technique.
Thus we find that only
between the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was there a sudden
rudra vina.
importance given to this specific
So we can safely
ascribe the transition
from the "generic" to the "specific"
type
of vina to the period between the thirteenth
and sixteenth
centuries.
The ancestry of this rudra vina goes back to the
kinnari mentioned in the SR. Structurally,
the Rudra vina was
still
in the process of evolution.
Its somewhat difficult
arrangement of one movable peg for only the playing fourth
string (one
nearest to the right hand) and an unmovable peg "which had no
direct contact with any of the wires" was later rectified
in the
seven stringed fretted instrument bin, by having seven movable
pegs
for all the seven strings.
[Iyengar, R. 1981: 80] The b-n bears
close resemblance to this rudra vina of Somanatha. The
miru,
kakubha, nabhi, and sarika are still
the components of the bin
the
names
are different.
But the jiva, an important
though
19

component of the rudra vina, had lost its use. These are certainly
improvements on the bin, making the tuning and the performance
easier.
"The close structural similarities between the sixteenth
century rudra vina and the contemporary bin clearly indicates the
historical continuity of the instrument." [Ibid.: 85] The bin is
still the same rudra vina stick zither with two big gourds at
either end.
The CP throws much light on the theory that the bin is a later
development of the rudra vina. There are three types of vinas
mentioned in the CP. While the first two varieties, sudda and
madhyam la vinas are the same as the earlier works, the third
type is called raghuniathndra m8la vina. All the three differ essentially in their respective tuning systems; the other differences are
with regard to the placement of the frets.
The madhyamnlavina was
longer than the other two due to greater numberof frets.
Venkatamakhinfurther classifies
each vina into two categories,
namely eka raga and sarva r-ga mZla vinas. The first type involves
movable-fets to suit the raga the performer wishes to play. Here
the performer will be able to play only the particular rdga. The
second category of vina has fixed frets to facilitate playing any
specific raga. Long and short frets were used for both these types
of vinas. Of the three vinas the madhyamelavina used twelve long
frets for the first octave and eleven short frets for the second,
In the descripgiving a total compass of two octaves on one string.
tion of these vinas with respect to the strings, the author considers the string away from the player ---as the first string;
and with respect to the side strings the one nearest to the kudam
of octave Sa) is considered the first string.

two main strings were made of brass while the
S3 (with the tuning
_-
2 The first
1 third and fourth were made of steel.

Table 2:
The MadhyamnlaVina
Tuning:
Main Strings:
Side Strings:
(G)
anumandara pancam
mandara shadjam
(C)
mandara pancam
(G)
madhya shadjam19
(C)
madhya shadjam (jallika)
(C)
madhya pancam
tara shadjam (tipi)
(G)
(C)
2
1
Frets:
20

There were a total of twenty-three frets giving two octaves.

In the case of the Zka rg madhyamelavina, the four frets, madhya
and tira pancama (G and G), tara and ati tira shadjama (C and C-)
were fixed while the other frets were movable changing according to
the raga. In the sarva raga madhyam7lavina, all the twenty-three
frets were fixed, the first twelyg frets being long and the folThere was no kai'iki nishada
lowing eleven frets being short.
(B-flat) 5jet in the tara stayi (upper octave). [SubbrahmanyaSastri
1941: 11]
Venkatamakhinalso notes that a few others did put a
shorter fret for the tdra st.yi kaigiki nishada (B-flat in2~he
higher octave), making a total ofTwenty-four fixed frets.
The bin, the North Indian counterpart of the modern vina, is
closer to this rudra vina mentioned in earlier Sanskrit works, not
only in its basic structure as a stick zither and its fixed fretted
nature, but also in the tuning system of the sudda mila sub-type.
In fact Hindusthani music in general has retained the tuning system
of the Suddamelavina. More specifically
the bin could be classified as the suddha mela akhila raga vina (a vina in the suddamela
scale with fixed frets capable of playing all ragas). The sitar on
the other hand, in these terms could be classified as the suddam-ela
&kar ga vina (a vina in the suddamela sc e capable of playing one
If the bin and sitar
raga at a time due to the movable frets).
share the tuning system, the vina and sitar have a structural
similarity, the major improvement leading from the stick zither to
the lute type of instrument. The sub-categories of rudra vina differed only in the tuning system and not in the basic structure,
whereas the modern vina differs from the rudra vina in its basic
structure.
Following the rudra vina nomenclature, based on the tuning and
the nature of frets, the modern Saraswati vina could be considered
as an akhila raga madhyamelavina (a vina with the madhyamela
tuning capable of playing all ragas due to the fixed frets).
Since both the basic structure and the tuning system of the rudra
vina are still retained by the bin, it could be considered the
living ancestor of the present-day (South Indian) saraswati vina.
21

Table 3:
The Saraswathi
Vina
Names of the parts:24

1.
Yali
2.
Birudai
3.
Meru
4.
Kudukkai
5.
Mettu
6.
figurehead of a dragon
the wooden peg to fasten the string
the carved metal plate over which the main
strings pass while coming out of the peg box
(the name refers to a mythological mountain)
the gourd serves primarily as a rest, while
the second resonator function is secondary
fret
7.
Dandi
Kudirai
8.
Rekku
the part which connects kudukkai and kudam

the main bridge on the kudam
the metallic plate on the kudirai
9.
Pakka
R9kku
the curved side bridge for the side
10.
11.
strings
wax
Mezhugu
Kudam
the main resonator
12.
Muruk
k1 tti.25
13.
Langar26
the metal wires
14.
Langar Kai
the movable fine tuning mechanismover the

langars
15.
Naga-27
the semi circular metal plate fixed at the
p~asam
the metal rings fastened to the langars which

in turn are used to fasten the strings
tied
to the nagapasam
end of the kudam
Namesof the strings and their tuning: (Refer to Table 5)

Main Strings:28
Side Strings:
4 Anumandara
(P)-(G)
Mandara
(S)-(C)
Pancama
Sdrani
Pakka Sdrani
(S)-(C)
Pakka Pancama
(P)-(G)
Pakka Anusirani
(S)- ()
(P)-(G)
(S)-(C)
22

Table 5:
01
MAIN
2.
Strings-Frets-Swaras
o
Ca
12
C9TcROS
_MAN
4RjM
?ArA
MGP
Gm
d PD
IN
.....
___
A___
---~ R
I: RAN(1S
w\
t~f
) oiPal
C' '
blA
L'
P
)I IIC"

Table 4: Vina Measurements

The following is the measurement (in centimeters) of a normal sized
Tanjore ottu vina. Since these are hand crafted, each vina will show
slight variations.
Overall length:
136.5 cm
a = 38
g = 79.7
m=
b = 12
h = 90
n =
c = 16
i = 17
d = 16
j = 57*
p = 19
e = 4.8
k = 63
q = 35.6
f = 4
1 = 17.7
r = 19
19
1.4
o s = 123
t = 4.9
Thickness
of r-ekku = .4
Recent Evolution
Vinas are generally made of jackwood, but rosewood is also used
in Trivandrumand Mysore vinas. There are two different types of
vinas, namely otu and Rkinda, the former made of more than two
pieces while the latter is made of just one piece29f wood. The
kmanda
vina is believed to be better than the ottu vina.
The Tanjore, Trivandrumor Mysore vina has the yali facing down
while the Bobbili-type Andhra vina has it up. While most vinas do
not have a sound hole on the top of the kudam, some vinas do. Now
it is usual to find copper wound bass strings, instead of the plain
brass ses mentioned in the CP; the rest of the strings are made of
steel.
Some performers in Andhra use more than three side strings
with different tuning arrangement for different ragas (probably
influenced by the sitar tuning of the sympathetic strings).
Some
vinas also have openable tops for the peg box, facilitating
stringing.
In 1930, S.M. Jayaraj Pillai of Vellore made a Bobbili type vina
with 23 strings (the usual 7 strings + 16 sympathetic strings) which
was "a big improvementon the old time-honoured Veena, on modern
24

1;: "
---
,1,,
"'
r\
Ol
I
lbl
rr
k
ler
fS----z~!

scientific principles."
(Pillai 1931: 116-118) The addition of
The
sympathetic strings brings this instrument closer to the sitar.
other noticeable differences were: 1) the avoidance of ivory or deer
horn work on the surface; instead, there were wood carvings; 2) brass
screws instead of lagarkais for fine tuning. Nowwe find some performers of Mysore and Anihra using this type of vina. Someperformers
have begun to use guitar or banjo keys instead of the traditional
wooden birudais, though they just keep the birudais for magnetic
the aesthetic appeal. Most performers have now magnetic or nonmagnetic contact microphones built into their instruments.32
Manchala Jagannatha Rao, a renowned musicologist of Hyderabad (a
vina player too) adopting these features in his vina, plays Hindustani
as well as Karnatak music. The four main strings are tuned as follows:
4th
3rd
2nd
1st
string--string--string--string---
S
P
S
m
(C)
(G)
(C)
(F)
There are six side strings which, apart from the normal use in providing
the tonic, can be tuned to suit the particular raga one wants to play.
He has a total of 28 frets, extending the range to 4 octaves. His sitarstyled sympathetic strings, altogether nine of them, could be tuned from
mandaradhaivata (A) to madhyakaisiki nishada (Bb) depending on the raga
to be performed. He says that these sympathetic strings help to achieve
continuity which is not possible in the normal vina. He uses guitar keys
as well as a magnetic pick-up.
Andhra vinas are the most ornate, while Mysore ones are noted for
their simplicity.
Tanjore and Trivandrumvinas are moderately decorated.
The vina makers previously used deer horns or ivory for such work; nowadays
they are often decorated with plastic strips.
Previously, if gourds were
not available, paper mache kudukkais (with paintings of flower designs,
goddesses, and deer) were used. Now they are repl ed by either aluminum
or fiberglass kudukkais (in wood or yellow color).
Some have even begun
to use vinas made partially or fully of fiberglass (excepting the yali).34
Now, due to the performers travelling far and wide, new take-apart vinas
with removable finger boards are beginning to be made.35 In Bangalore,
for example, borrowing from the concept of "all-in-one" audio-video sets,
a maker has invented a vina which includes a gottuvadyam and a tambura,
which he calls Triveni (three vinas--meaning vina in a generic sense).
More recently, S. PadmanabhaRao, a retired engineer of Bangalore,
has experimented with a vina eliminating the sitar-styled sympathetic
The special features on his vina are:
strings.
1. six main strings--one could play on two main strings at a time,
if needed;
2. eight side strings, tunable according to the raga, with the capability
to mute some strings;
3. take-apart fret board--eliminating wax-- with screwable mechanism, to
adjust the fret positions;
26

Plate
Plate
1:
2:
Take-anart vina maker of Bangalore
In back, "Triveni"; in front, vina with an upturned

tambura
yali, attached to an electronic
27

Plate
3:
Take-apart
vina,
"Triveni"
Plate
4:
Take-apart vina,
"Triveni"
28

Plate
5:
"Experimental Vina" by Padmanabha Rao of Bangalore
Plate
6:
"Experimental Vina"; 6 main strings,
8 side strings
29

4. frets made of an allow of 10%lead, 5%tin and the rest copper;

5. red cedar body (more fibrous and less hygroscopic than the
traditional jack wood) with a bridge made of ebony, to resist tension
due to pulling;
6. hexagonal-shaped birudais for the main strings (as opposed to
the circular setm, used in the traditional birudais) to avoid slipping;
7. Two separate, non-magnetic, pick-ups for the main and the side
strings, connected to two different channels, for special effects.
According to him, these changes have increased the quality and the potential of the vina.
Thus, from its primitive bow harp beginning, passing through different colorful stages in its evolution, the vina is now facing the Age of
Electronics.
VINAPLAYING
TECHNIQUE
The word used in the SR for the different functions for both
This refers
right and left hand is hastavyap-ra (hand function).
primarily to the fingering techniques for the current harp-like Rka
tantri vina (one-stringed vina) which prevailed then. Since it was
a harp, we find there are more numberof right hand techniques
mentioned than for the left hand ones though altogether there are
thirteen terms for both hands. In the later works even some common
techniques which probably could be applied to any plucked instrument
had lost their names though the actions were still retained.
Conversely, some similar technical names mentioned here, though
retained in the later works had lost their significance.
For
example, the name spurita which appears in this work has survived
to the present in the Karnatak tradition, but has lost its original
connotation. Spurita originally meant a shake, a fast back and
forth movementof the left hand bambooplectrum (kamrika or sdraa).
Similarly another technical term karthari, which signified an outward action by four fingers of both hands together in the time of
the SR, is described in the later RVas only a right hand technique.
The word khasita, on the contrary, has retained both the name and the
meaning in36he Hindusthani tradition, which is a repeated slide by
left hand.
Though the functions denoted by ghata and pata are
30

retained in the Karndtak tradition, the names have lost their usage.37
In addition to the twenty-four hastavyapiras SR describes a set
of ten functions which were called vadyas (performances). "Nine of
these appear to be specific combinations of particular hastavy-pdras
and in specific sequence too. The tenth function is a combination
of all the other nine." [Iyengar, R. 1981: 227] In addition to
these there are four special striking modes called dhatus for other
harp-like vinas, such as the nakula, citra, vipanci, mattak-kila, etc.,
which is "a restatement of information inherited from more ancient
works in the descriptive tradition."
This blind adherence to the
descriptive tradition makes it difficult for one to assess whether
such instruments described in those works were still in the performing
tradition of their respective periods. Most of the later Sanskrit
works merely reproduced what was found in the SR. Somanathadiffered
from that blind approach; he did not refer to either the hastavy~phrds
or the dhatus because he considered them extraneous to the context
of the performance practice of his time. Even the single term kartari
(found in SR) lost its original meaning in Somanatha's Raga Vibh~da
[henceforth RV]. [Ibid.]
From the v-adanibhhdasof Somanathawe understand that his rudra
vina, very much like the modern Saraswathi vina, required more action
for the left fingers than for the right.
It is interesting to note
that in one set of SR's hastavyapdras there are nine different
strokes for the right hand while there are only two for the left;
whereas in the RV there are twenty different actions for the left
hand! By the time of Somanatha, the vina had attained a status comparable to the voice, requiring an entirely new technical approach to
the instrument. In his vadanibhedas Somanatha is sometimes consistent
and logical while at other times he is not. His vadanabhedas fall
roughly into four categories:
fingering, deflection, slides and others.
The fourth category involves dynamics, pause, reduced time values,
lower and higher registers and phrase endings. The inconsistency is
noticed in his switching from one category to the other abruptly.
However, one of the plectral techniques is particularly interesting.
"The middle finger tip first plucks the playing string and is followed
by an inward and an outward stroke by the index finger; the sruti
strings are strummedby the little finger, only with the outward
stroke
of the index finger
. . . it is mandatory in the performance
of stdy-s and prabhandds where regular rhythmic pulsations are part

that it is only optional in perof the style of performance
This is bound to raise some
forming the aldpas of ragas. ,a
Whatwas the function of sruti strings in Somanatha's
questions.
time? Whywere these called s'ruti strings? Was their prime
function to keep sruti only? Nowwe call these tdla strings, but
they are also used as sruti strings.
Judging from the way this is
performed, this technique seems to refer to a special use for tisra
(a unit of three) phrases. [Iyengar, R. 1981: 236] This is an area
which has more scope for research.
31

While Somanathahas very little to say about the right hand

fingering technique, SubbaramaDikshitar, on the other hand, has
enumerated thirteen different mittus for the right hand in his
Sangita Sampradia Pradarsini, the most recent work. Sangita Sdra
Sangrahamu(a Telugu work attributed to one Tiruvenkata, around 1800)
though not much credited with conventional language and adequate
descriptions, nonetheless, lists ten different gamakas and mittus.
Tulaja in his Sangita Sar-imruta (1729-1735) [henceforth SSa] mentions
three right and four left hand fingerinj9techniques.
Yet another
work, the Vina Lakshana by Parameswara, describes ten gamakdsafter
the vina technique.
The latest work to include a description of gamak-s and mittus
is Sambamurthy'sSouth Indian Music series (in English).
In the
fifth book of this series, [1963: 152-155] he lists twenty-three
mittus, sometimes with different names for the same techniques, with
definitions slightly modified, or sometimes with synonomousterms
for the same technique, which4buggests that he had probably borrowed
these from different sources.
There are Tamil equivalents for certain Sanskrit or Telugu terms which are probably his own contributions.
I have included this also, mainly because this is easily
available even outside India.
On pages 35-39is a comparative chart of plectral techniques
listed in the three works: South Indian Music (Book V), SSP, and
SSS. The order of the techniques is my own. To avoid tedious
verbal descriptions I have invented symbols for easy reference and
comparison. These are explained in Table 6, pages 33-34.
Side strings may be used for effect individually.
In tanam
it is not intended for
playing when they are used collectively,
effect; it is part of the phrases used. Traditionally the collective use of the side strings during compositional renditions is only
for marking the strong beats of the particular tala used.
Whenthe symbols for the main or side strings, with or without the numbering to indicate particular strings appear after the
it means that the particular
finger pluck symbol, Ex:
In this parfinger is used for plucking:-Ethe specified string.
ticular case the little finger strums all the side strings by an upward motion.
Wherever necessary I have included some explanations.
32

Table 6:
Key to Symbols for Vina Strokes
Downwardpluck by index finger
Downwardpluck by middle finger
pluck by ring finger
4Downward
Upwardstroke by little
A pluck by the thumbnail
finger
Loud plucks
Soft plucks
A finger symbol followed by an upward

arrow means an upward stroke.
plucking
The fingers separated by-
10
means alternative
11
as in,
*U
pitching
Index finger pluck followed by a

middle finger stop and a pluck
33

12
-
13
Alternated finger plucks with stops

in-between, i.e., if index finger
plucks, the middle finger stops
before plucking; similarly if the
middle finger plucks, the index finger
stops before plucking
Collective
use of all the four main
strings
14
-1
15
is numbered like
If it
use of all
Collective
this,
only
those specific strings are used.

Here it means, the first main string,
sarani, is used.
the three side
strings
16
If it is numbered like this, only

those specific
strings are used.
Here it means, the first side
string,
17
x
x
x
x
These main strings
x-x
are used col-
lectively by any one of the fingers

If any one of
for the sake of effect.
the strings is used individually, the
numberof the string will be indicated
like
18
pakka sdrani, is used.
this:
---
These side strings are used collectively

by any one of the fingers
(though mostly the little finger will

be used). If one of the strings is
used individually, the number of the
string will be indicated like this:
x
x2
34

Table 7
Comparative Chart of Plectral
Techniques
-- Right Hand Techniques
SIM = South Indian Music, by P. Sambamurthy (English)

SSP = Sangita Sampradaya Pradarsini,
by Subbarama Dikshitar
SSS = Sangita Sara Sangrahamu, by Tiruvenkata (Telugu)
No.
SIM
A
SYMBOL
1.
2.
SSP
B
SYMBOL
LB
L6
Veli
T
t
Mei
LZ
Tarjani
Veli
Veli
eM
Mi
Tada
4.
5.
SYMBOL
G7ti
Kizh
Tarjani
3.
SSS
C
(Sanskrit)
Tunai
Todu
Kutra
Periya
7.
Sanna
Sanna
8.
Pattu,
Idai
Adda
(For
Janta
swaras)
Dodda
6.
Pattu
k::4
middle
finger
stop
35

No.
SYMBOL
9.
SYMBOL
Abaddha
(pluck
when there
is no
syllable)
10.
Tadai
Tada
-
(in
phrases
S
V.
like
:_
(in tis'ra
groups
when the
SRG-
second
NSRGDNSRG)
swara not
articulated-
'
- s
- -
S,R etc.)
11.
Katri
Sama,
JSdu
Sama,2
Karthari
(to
(quickly)
produce
syllables likekra,tra,
sri.)
Kattiri
(for
tremulous
effect)
12.
Swara
(mittu
for swara)
swara)
13.
Sahitya
(mittu
for
words)
36

SYMBOL
No.
14.
SYMBOL
SYMBOL
Ranjaka
(mittu
for
'harmonious
effect')
15.
Edama
(inbetween
strokes
2)
16.
Kuta
oR
17.
same
as in
A
Vidi
(individually
for
effect.
finger
not
specified)
18.
Kanish-3
tika,
Laya,
Pakka
19.
Gotu
Pakka
imultaneous
pluck
20.
Kodi
?
(Placing the
finger
lightly
on the
first
string
and lifting
37

it!)
SYMBOL
SYMBOL
No.
21.
Sruti 4
(for
harmonious
effect)
22.
Vidippu
(letting
the
strings
vibrate
after
pattu
mittu)
Notes
for
the
SYMBOL
SYMBOL
Sruti
(mittu
for
proper
tuning)
chart:
1.
Tulaja uses the term taka
R. 1981: 365)
(Iyengar,
taka
as equivalent
for
this.
of Ahobala there are two possible

2.
In the Sangita
Pirijata
on the word vahih
for the term kartari,
depending
interpretations
then the meaning is a "burring
or bahih (outwards).
If it is bahih,
of the middle and the
sound produced by the outward striking
(repha)
in turn
This explanation
R. 1981: 335)
index finger."
(Iyengar,
of karthari.
to Rigavibhbda's
description
corresponds
partially
sound.
is just a burring
If it is read as vahih,
then kartari
of the finger
(There is no elucidation
movement; for details
refer
to Iyengar,
R. 1981)
3.
365)
Tulaja
uses
the
term sruti
4.
The only possible
mittu occurs only at the
the index finger
order:
the string
plucks letting
in this
sense.
(Iyengar,
R. 1981:
is
of this technique
interpretation
follows
end of a phrase.
The action
middle
middle finger
stops;
plucks,
vibrate.
38

that this
this
finger
Table 8:
Index for the List of Technical

Alphabetical
Names Used fo
hFeRight Hand
1.
Abaddha
( 9 B)
19.
M81
( 3 A:C)
2.
Adda
( 8 B)
20.
Pakka
(18 A:B)
3.
Dodda
( 6 B)
21.
Pattu
( 8 A:C)
4.
Edama
(15 C)
22.
Periya
( 6 A)
5.
G6ti
( 1 B)
23.
Ranjaka
(14 A)
6.
Gbtu
(19 A)
24.
Sihitya
(13 A)
7.
Idai
( 8 A)
25.
Sama
(11 A:C)
8.
Jodu
(11 A)
26.
Sanna
( 7 A:B)
9.
Kanishtika
(18 A)
27.
Sruti
(21 A:C)
10.
Karthari
(11 C)
28.
Swara
(12 A)
11.
Katri
(11 B)
29.
Tada
(10 B)
12.
Kattiri
(11 A)
30.
Tadai
(10 A)
13.
Kizh
( 2 A)
31.
Tarjani
( 2 A:C)
14.
Kidi
(20 A)
32.
T6du
( 5 B)
15.
Kuta
(16 B)
33.
Tunai
( 5 A)
16.
Kutra
( 5 A)
34.
Veli
( 3 A:B:C)
17.
Laya
(18 A)
35.
Vidi
(17 A:B)
18.
L5
( 2 A:B:C)
36.
Vidippu
(22 A:C)
These three works supposedly reflect

both textual and oral tradition to suit the performance practice.
some oral tradiBut still
tions do not use these terms to explain the finger action.
However,
in the present context of institutionalized
the students
learning,
are becoming aware of these terms.
Sambamurthy has used some Tamil
words, such as periya, tunai, idai, m-l, kizh and pakka. The two
But
and yeli (out).
Tamil words one fin s in SSP are pakFa(side
the term pa a is used only when referring to
in the oral tradition
39

the side strings and not to indicate a particular right finger action.
The terms which are commonlyused in the oral tradition are spurita,
praty5hata, ravai or brikka and *jru--all these are gamakaswich
are part of the left finger technique. The one term which is used
in the oral tradition to indicate the right finger action is talam,
which means the same as laya in the written tradition (18 A).
The classification
of mittus in this textual tradition is not
based on the uniqueness of plectral techniques in terms of the
resulting sound production. There are different criteria mixed
The touchstone should be only in
together in this classification.
terms of how a particular mode of plucking affects the tonal quality
and how the technique is unique in a particular melodic context.
Thorough research is necessary in order to define more clearly the
plectral techniques as applied to the contemporary vina performing
styles.
We have presented here seven out of the above list of twentytwo as the most relevant techniques relating to contemporary vina
performance. The following is a discussion of these technical
terms. The terms mentioned in the beginning of each of these divisions are the most relevant in the list.
1. Goti: The definition of this includes the downwardplucking
function of either index or middle finger. The special name for
index downwardpluck (1i) is redundant. Suggestion: This term
could include also a downwardpluck of the main strings by any
finger.
(Only the Sangita SamayaSdra gives a name for the downward pluck with the middle finger, Tada. For that matter, just
by listening it is difficult to distinguish the middle from the
index finger pluck. Also compare the meaning for this term in
SSP-10B.
2. Veli: SSP specifies only index finger. There is no term
found for an upwardmiddle finger pluck. Suggestion: veli could
also include the upwardplucking function of middle finger.
3. Patu: (idai, adda) is a unique mittu bringing a distinct
sound quality to the finger plucking. Here the definition should
be amendedto include also a middle finger pluck followed by an
index finger stop and pluck.
Tunai or Kutra or T6du: This technique only specifies the
index and middle finger in the downward
alternating character otfle
plucking mode. It does not affect either the middle or index finger pluck quality.
Periya and sanna mittu refer to the loud and
softness of plucks, which could perhaps be generally applied to any
mittu. So there is nothing special about them.
40

Tunai in Tamil means "that which assists"; whereas kutra means

that which is defective.
Tada, in the sense used in Tamil (tadai)
Only the word
implies obstruction.
suggests the shared
the sense of assisting each
quality in the alternative plucks (intu.ai
other). The term kutra does not make much sense here.
4. Katri: This is a unique pluck to produce double sounds.
Its equivalents, sama and j'odu ("equal") suggest that the two
fingers are together. Though the two fingers are together there
is a time delay in the resultant sound because they are plucked
one after another in quick succession.
The name karthari or katri,
on the other hand,suggests the image of a pair of scissors (from
its Tamil meaning), and gives the extended meaning of a broken
sound quality characteristic of the technique.
Abaddhamittu does not have any quality to it.
It does not
have any meaning for a listener who cannot comprehendthe language.
Also Tadai mittu does not bring any quality to the pluck. It
simply describes how a particular phrase is dealt with in terms
of plucking. Each one can find his own way to dealing with such
phrases.
5. Kuta: This is a special mittu in terms of both the number of fingers and strings, bringing a different quality to the
resulting sound. Another category of pluck with thumbnails is
also included in kuta. The sound quality of the nails would be
different from the pluck by the three fingers mentioned. There is
no reason why it should be only thumbnails.
Suggestion: A special
category of pluck with nails could be included.
Swara, sahitya, and ranjaka have no special plectral character-
do not bring a distinct sound. Ranjakamhere only

istics; they
softness of pluck, equivalent to sanna mittu (see above).
implies
6. Kanishtika: (laya pakka) This mittu has an important

time-keeping function; the quality is due to the conglomerated sound
of the side strings, indicating the strong beats of a tala cycle.
The term vidi is described as the individual pluck of the
main strings fo rspecial
effect; but there is no such term for
individual plucks for the side strings.
Suggestion: vidi could
probably include individual plucking of any string for effect.
But still there is nothing special about the quality of the pluck;
it simply sounds sa and pa, the tonic and the fifth in different
registers.
7. GCttu: This gives another dimension to kanishtika by
adding one more note to sa, pa, sa of the side strings.
The description of the term
in Sambamurthyis not clear.
It implies only a gesture and not ki.di
a sound. Probably what he means
is that while the left fingers play the swaras, the right fingers,
41

instead of plucking, tap the string which results in an indistinct

sound. This brings an interesting dynamic quality to the swaras
played.
gruti mittu is not clear. As far as one can understand, it is
supposed to give some pleasing effect.
Vidippu is again another confused description.
Sambamurthyspecifies that pattu mittu is specially used to
The description means that the
play janta swaras (pairs of notes).
index finger plucks and the middle finger stops and plucks again,
But in the S.S.S. we find that the
letting the string vibrate.
In fact, what the term
vibration of the string is not specified.
means is that this technique is used to produce distinctive tones
as against the loose plucks which produce "hanging" tones. There
is no reason why the technique should be used to produce janta
swaras only just as Sambamurthydefines.
Left HandTechnique41
mittu indicates the right hand technique, the term
the most important concept in Indian music, is synonomous
gamaka,
with W1kle
the left hand technique. Gamakais from the Sanskrit root,
gam, gacch, "to go." The gamakas could be explained in terms of
how they are produced on the vina except those ones like humpita,
mudrita and naita which are particularly meant for the vocal
production. Since the space here does not permit an elaborate treatment of the gamakas in terms of the left hand technique, I will
restrict myself to briefly summarizing the function of the left hand
in the production of some important gamakas. There are basically
four functions of the left hand: 1) playing the swaras distinctly
by moving from one fret position to the other up or down. Generally,
most players use both the index and the middle fingers while
ascending up the scale of swaras; while descending the scale the
fingers are separated.
(Occasionally the fingers are used
Certain traditions insist on this
together in the slowe'3speed.)
2) sliding from a lower to higher or
separating technique.
This is both orally and
from a higher to lower fret position.
textually knownas jaru. [ftrajdru, irakkajiru] This brings a
"horizontal" connection to the swaras. 3) pulling from a lower
fret position to a 4gher swara. This brings a "vertical" connection to the swaras.
This technique is used for the kampita variety
of the gamakas. These two techniques of the left hand to "connect"
the swaras bring two subtle dimensions to the resultant gamaka.
This is quite unique to vina. 4) a left finger pluck and a left
finger stop. The left finger stop is achieved by lifting the
These
finger off the fret, while still keeping it on the string.
two functions in combination with the others produce interesting
changes. For example, the left middle finger, sliding quickly from
42

a lower to a higher fret position followed by a left finger pluck (while)

the index finger is still in a lower fret position) produces this gamaka
There are fingeringavoiding a finger slide altogether.
differently,
type "stress" gamakas, called spurita and pratyahata, which are produced
by the left finger technique, the first one while ascending, the second
one while descending. There are deflection-type "stress" gamakas, too,
like nokku and odukkal. Tribhinna is a gamaka,unique to vina, which
produces chordaTeffects.
Figures 16 through 21 illustrate some fingering techniques,
Basic Position in Performance
The player sits cross-legged, placing the kudukkai on his left thigh
while holding the kudamby gently pressing the right thigh against it.
The instrument will be a little slanted if the left thigh is positioned
slightly higher by placing it on the right ankle.45 This posture facilitates sliding.
Someplayers hold the instrument closer to themselves,
while certain others keep it farther away, as much as the frets are
visible to the audience.46 The kudukkai is hinged on its rim to allow
for the swerving motion during performance. The vertical position of
holding the vina which was practiced by eminent artists like Venkataramanadasof Andrapradesh, and the elder of the Karaikudi brothers,
SubbaramaIyer, in Tamil Nadu, is seldom used nowadays. Some players
place their right hand on the Kudamabout an inch away from the wrist
into the forearm so that the hand is loose, arching like a crane. Some
others place the right arm, specifically
that part of the arm called the
The middle
Figure 16: Right Hand Position.
This is after
and the index fingers alternate.
the Kanishtika Mittu (see Table 7, #18).
43

Figure 17: Pulling Technique. The fingers

pulling up to a step from one fret position.
Figure 18: Separating Technique 1. The fingers are separated

between two adjacent frets while descending. After this, the
middle finger is lifted and the lower swara will be heard.
44

Figure 19: Separating Technique 2. Separating

the fingers between frets which are a step apart.
Figure 20: Separating Technique 3. Separating

the fingers to reach a swara in the lower string
(sarani to pancamam,in this case).
45

Figure 21:
Tribhinna
46

wrist, on the butt of the kudamso that the fingers are arched (as part
of a circle).
Here the wrist rests on the kudamin such a way that the
only by a gentle forward moveplayer is able to reach the anumandaram
ment of the wrist.
While most performers most of the time use only
index and middle fingers, some use also the ring finger. To play
harmonics some use the thumband the little or ring finger in combination, the former to touch the required node, the latter to pluck the
string at the string at the same time. Thus, all the five jght
Some
fingers are used at some point or other during performance.
performers use wire plectra, some their fingernails and some others
the soft part of the finger for plucking. Accordingly, in the resultant sound one can distinguish three different tonal gradations. The
one with a wire plectrum has a certain sharp-metallic quality, the
one with fingernails has a certain edgy-soft quality while the one
with the tip of the4?kin part of the fingers has a certain bluntedSomeplayers use plectra for the little finger
languorous quality.
as well, which when combined with any of the above categories gives
each of them an added "flavor."
Performing Technique for Karaikudi Style
1. Wire plectra are always used. Previously, a silver plectrum
was used for the little finger also; now it is no longer used. The
index and middle fingers alternate in plucking downwardpast the
string, in a perpendicular motion. Upwardplucking is never used
with respect to these two fingers.
The initial exercises punctuate
this aspect o 9the alternation of these fingers, aiming at a balance
and evenness.
Whenthe phrase involves a held note the fingering
is as follows:
m
The rest period in the above example, if we could depict it, receives
an imaginary middle finger pluck, resulting in the same index finger
pluck after the rest period (Tadai). This is what is termed tadai
mittu (10A). The name tadai (an obstacle) suggests the loss of evenmuch as in terms
ness, not necessarily in terms of plucking quality
of the phrase structure, but it could also be both. 9g
2. It is stressed that the plucks should not be loose. Pattu
mittu is taught in the beginning for the clarity of independent tones.
3. Whenthe strong beats of a tala and the syllables (whether
of the swara or sahitya) synchronize, then the gotu mittu is used.
For example, if it is adi tala, the counts, 1, 5 and 7 receive G6tu
mittu (
Whenthere is no
simultaneously).
z
-
47

syllabic synchronization with the strong beats of the tala, the

little finger alone plays the side strings, marking the strong
beats; in the context of playing a composition in the framework
of a tala, the function of the little finger is to keep the strong
beats only. This is orally referred to as playing tAlam (denoting
the tala keeping function of the little finger).
This is mandatory
in the Karaikudi school. The other function of the little finger is
to pluck the appropriate side strings downward, individually for a
pleasing effect or sometimes as adumbration of the inner realization
of the pulses.
4. The function of the little finger is also apparent during
tanam playing. Here the little finger strikes the side strings upIn tanam
ward, alternating with either index or middle finger.
playing, the finger plucks follow the pattern of the syllables used
while singing. The words anamta (eternal) and dnamta (bliss) are
combined in different ways in singing. Also some meaningless syllables like namta, tomta, etc., are used. But they generally conform to the following patterns:
(a)
nam
(b)
A nam
(c)
(d)
ta
,
,
(3 pulses)
ta
nam ,
,
(4 pulses)
ta
(5 pulses)
nam ,
ta
(6 pulses)
In the above examples the symbol under the commasshows that the
tala strings are plucked at those points. Here there will be no g6tu
mittu used. The little finger always functions independently, striking
the side strings in an upwardmovement. As one would notice, if the
syllable is extended more than one unit of time, as in "A ,
, nam
ta" the tala strings are strummeda pulse before the next syllable.
To my knowledge there
function of the little
is no technical name used for this

finger in tanam playing.
independent
5. In tanam playing on the pancamaor mandaramstring (in

Karaikudi style) the ring finger plucks the sarani upward just the
same way the little finger is used while playing tanam on the sarani
There is no name for this technique either, but this techstring.
nique is optional.
6. The index or the middle finger plucks the individual main
strings (other than the one used for playing the melody at that time)
for pleasing effects or just as in the case of the side strings, to
48

symbolize the ever flowing pulses felt deep within.

7. Occasionally the index or the middle finger strums all the
four playing strings or the first two or three of the four main strings
for effect.
Table 9:
No.
Right Finger Technique
Symbol
Tunai
tz,
Pattu
Laya
Gotu (sipiultaneous)
tz .-
Ring finger plucking the

Sdrani upwards
Little finger plucking one of

the side strings individually
for effect
Index or middle finger plucking

the main strings individually
or collectively
for effect
Left HandTechnique:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Summaryof the Plectral Technique
(alternated)
==
-"
(some important points)
The index and the middle fingers are held together in the ascent,
while separating technique is used for the descent.
The index finger is never removed from the string except after
reaching the lowest fret (d-flat).
Pulling is not done more than up to two steps.
Left finger stopping is used appropriately for distinct sound
quality.
Tribhinna, a gamakapeculiar to the vina to bring chord-like
swara-cluster is sparingly used-. But the swaras are sounded one
after another and not simultaneously.
In such cases the swaras
For example, in the
correspond to the syllable of the text.
kriti Sarasas-imad&na(r-ga: Kpinrirayani,t tlA: Adi, Composer:
ThyagarAja) the first three syllables of the text in
will be played by holding the
anupallavi, "Para masambhava"
index finger of the B-flat fret (10th), against the three
strings, mandaram,pancama, and sdrani, and playing the swaras,
49

ni (B-flat), ma (f), and ni (B-flat) one after another.

typically a vina approach to the text.
6.
This is
For the gamaka, ravai left finger slide is coupled with a left
finger pluck and a"?drop." This is unique to Karaikudi style.
Regional Vina Styles

The nature of the stylistic
distinctions in vina playing is not
similar to that of the gharanas in Hindustani music. But it has become
customary to categorize thee styles invina under four broad geographical
regions: Trivandrum, Tanjore, Mysore, and Andhra, after the four southern
states of India, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Mysore, and Andhranradesh. Under
these broad categories there are styles in every region which, in a
general sense, exhibit individuality, not in being completely different
from the mainstreams, but more in the way they relate to one or more of
the principal regional styles in their individual way. Especially
since the national media of television and radio networks have brought
classical music to everyone's reach, styles are increasingly amalgamated.
The modern institutional music education has also contributed enormously
In order to clearly distinguish the individual
to the fusing of styles.
element from what is amalgamated, one needs a thorough understanding of
the prominent regional styles,
In this sense, these regional styles
become the bedrock of what is individual in vina style.
The materials given in the following pages are from these sources:
1) SomeNotable Vainikas of the Tanjore Samasthanam,by Seetha,
2) Compositions of Vainika Sikhamani Veena Seshanna, by Rao,
3) The Veena, by Ananthapadmanabhan,
4) Balasaraswathi, by Menon,
5) Muthuswamy
Dikshitar, by the National Centre for the Performing Arts,
6) Interviews with P. Hariharan (Trivandru , B.V.K. Sastri (Mysore),
and Nookkalai Chinna Sathyanarayana (Hyderabad).
The list of the artists is by no means complete. The divisions into these
different states on linguistic grounds are more recent. But still there
exist some noticeable stylistic
differences between artists of one region
and artists of another. While the stylistic
differences are not that distinct
between Tanjore and Trivandrum, the differences between Tanjore and Mysore
or Tanjore and Andhra are muchmore pronounced.
In the charts, the most prominent figures in the past are printed in
In some cases, it is not knownwhether the persons
upper case letters.
were vina players.
It is interesting to note that, in the Papammalfamily
line, only one was a vina player by profession, yet the name has remained
one of the greatest amongvina players in music history.
Still, I have
included the full particulars of that family because it is one of the very
few families in the whole of South India with a long musical and dance
heritage,
50

10
Table
TRIVANDRUMSTYLE
PALGHAT
Parameswara Bhagavatar
(1815-1892)
Elder son
Kalyanakrishna
Bhagavatar
(1847-1891)
Venkatadri
Bhagavatar
(1814-1884)
Younger son
Ramachandra Bhagavatar
(Died in 1909)
First
son
Venkatadri
Bhagavatar
(1877-1953)
Second
Anantharama
daughter
Muthulakshmi
son
Bhagavatar
son
Third son
Krishna Bhagavatar
son
M.A. Kalyanakrishna
(1913-1979)
M.K. Kalyanakrishna
Bhagavatar
(75 years old)
Bhagavatar
1,2
Both were
in the
court
of Swathi
Both were
in the
court
of Ayiliam
Tirunal
(1813-1846).
3,4
Tirunal
(ruled
between
1860-1880).
5
in residence
at Wesleyan
Was an artist
One of his early students
many students.
6
Lives in Canada.
He has produced
University.
is Mrs. Rajeswari
Menon.
(Continued
on next
51

page)
Table
10A
TRIVANDRUMSTYLE
TRIVANDRUM
Tevu Bhagavatar
I
Disciple
Chatu Bhagavatar
Disciple
Bhagavatar
Sankaranarayana
(1846-1888)
Younger brother
Padmanabha Bhagavatar
(1863-1949)
Parameswara Bhagavatar
(1888-1965)
I
sons
6
Mahadevan
Hariharan
Padmanabhan
Krishnan
1
Also
known as Devaraja
Bhagavatar.
Belongs
to Dikshitar
school.
2
court.
Was in possession
of a silver
vina made in Swathi Tirunal's
3
Also known as Ayya Bhagavatar.
Taught vina to T. Lakshmana Pillai,
the famous Tamil composer.
4
from Kalayanakrishna
Learnt some vina techniques
Bhagavatar(1847-1891).
5
An article
on this player
appeared in the Madras Music Academy's
in his
this vina player
1966. Somerset Maughm has mentioned
souvenir,
"A writers
Note Book" (p.285).
6
He retains
the silver
vina of Chatu Bhagavatar.
7
from this vina player.
I collected
most of this information
52
(continued
on next

page)
book
Table
10B
TRIVANDRUMSTYLE
TRIVANDRUM
K.S.Narayanaswamy
Iyer
A student
of Sabhesa Iyer at Annamalai University.
He has taught
of Sangita
Mr. Narayana Menon, the Director
Nataka Academy,
many students.
New Delhi and M.S. Subbalakshmi,
the renowned vocalist
of India are
Another
two of his students
who are not vina players
by profession.
vina player who is
Venkataraman is a professional
of his,
disciple
on the staff
of All India
Radio, Trivandrum.
53

Table 11
TANJORESTYLE
1
Vina Kalahasti
Sastri Line
Vaidyappa
I
Ramalingappa
Kalahasti Ayya
(Patron: Tulaja II)
1763-97
Disciples
1
Perumalayya
(Patron:
Sarabhoji
1798-1843
Dipamburam
Kasturirangayya
Sonti
Venkataramanayya
(Patron: Tulaja
II)
Narayanaswamy
Kodandaiyya
Disciple
[THYAGARAJA]
(1767-1847)
54
(continued on next page)

II)
THYAGARAJA
1767-1847
disciple
Vinai
Kuppaiyer2
1800-1862
Vinai
Kuppaiyer
Line
Family
Sambaiyer
VINAI KUPPAIYER
Krishnaswamy
Ramaswamy
Tiruvottiyur
IIye
lyer
Iyer
-
1845
I
Thayammal
Sundarammal
Thyaga3
1917
Kumaraswamy
Chinnaswamy
S.Duraiswamy
Iyer
Iyer
Iyer
Rukmini
1882-
daughter
Mrs. Viswanathan
Vinai
Kuppaiyer
Disciple
Line
VINAI KUPPAIYER
Kottavasal
Venkatarama
Ponnuswamy
Sitaramayya
Iyer
(continued
55

on next
page)
1
Also
patronised
by Raghunatha
Tondaiman
of Pudukkottah.
2
Vina Kuppaiyer of Tanjore and Vina Kuppiah
of Mysore are two different
Some believe
they are one and the same. Vinai Kuppaiyer was
persons.
a Tamil brahmin who belonged
to Tiruvottiyur.
His family gotra (lineage)
is Bharadwaja.
Around 1856 he was invited
to the Mysore court by the
then ruling
B.V.K. Shastri,
prince Krishnaraja
Wodeyar (1797-1863).
a musicologist
of Bangalore
believes
they are two different
persons.
refer
"Pallavi
Swara Kalpavalli-p.xxi)
(for more information
3
He was a composer of varnas and kritis.
He was also
a composer
of varnas.
5
He was a violin
6
He was a pallavi
player
and a composer
of varnas.
exponent.
56

Table
12
TANJORE STYLE
Dikshitar
Line
GOVINDA
DIKSHITAR
Sudha)
(author:
Sangita
1614-1623
L
i
(elder
son)
Yagnyarama
Dikshitar
VENKATAMAKHIN
Caturdandiprakasika)
1633-1676
(author:
(descendant)
Venkateshvara
Dikshitar
Venkatavaidyanatha
Dikshitar
(disciple)
son I
Ramaswamy Dikshitar
1735-1817
children
MUTHUSWAMY
DIKSHITAR
1775-1835
Chinnaswamy
Dikshitar
1778-1823
Balambal
Baluswamy
Dikshitar
1786-1858
(continued
57

on next
page)
Baluswamy Dikshitar
1786-1858
(daughter)4
Annapurni
of
Ramaswamy Iyer
Tiruvarur
Venkatarma
Chinnaswamy
SUBBARAMADIKSHITAR
1839-1906
Iyer
Ambi Dikshitar
1863-1936
IF
Baluswamy Dikshitar
(living)
1
He was married
to Bhagirathi
He was married
to Subbammal.
Ammal.
2
3
He had two wives;
no male
issue;
a daughter
by the
first
wife.
4
She was married
to Sivarama
Iyer
of Tiruvarur.
5
He was also
grandfather,
the author of
6
He belongs
of
possession
known as Balasubrahmanya
Dikshitar.
He was adopted by his
for the male line to continue.
He was
Baluswamy Dikshitar
Sangitasampradayapradarshini.
to Tiruvarur.
Now he lives
in Mylapore,
the vina played by Muthuswamy Dikshitar.
Madras.
58

He is
in
Table 13
TANJORESTYLE
3
Adiappayya Line
1
ADIAPPAYYA
PACCIMIRIAM
[patron: Pratapasimha]
1787-1798
(son)
(disciple)
2
[SHYAMASASTRI]
(disciple)
Pallavi
Gopala
Iyer
Krishnayya
[author: Saptatalesvara]
(disciple)
Ghanam
Krishna Iyer
(descendant)
STYLE
ANDHRA
7
6
Gururayacharyula
Tirumalayya
[Vij ayanagaram]
son of Vina
court
Adippiah
(Tulaja's reign)
I
(son)
Chinna
Gururayacharyulu
10
Subbier
Subbukutti
Ayya
(Vina
Annachi
(Sarabhoji II)
Iyer)
(continued
59

on next page)
11
[VENKATARAMANADAS]
Notes for Tanjore Style

1:
3 :
Seetha mentions Pratapasimha as the patron (1787-1798).

But
date for Pratapa's reign,
Ananthapadmnanabhangives a different
He also gives other patrons, Tulajaji
1741-1764.
(1765-1787),
Rajan of Pukukkottah, and Zamine.
2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11: This information is from Ananthapadmanabhan 1954.

The rest of the information is from Seetha 1979.
3:
This information is given both by Seetha 1979 and Ananthapadmanabhan

1954. The latter states that he was a court musician.
7:
Tirumalayya is the son of one, Adippiah (not to confuse with

Adiappayya).
Addippiah was a court musician during Tulaja's reign.
9:
In1 notes given by Seetha (1979) we find the name Subbiah, while
in her chart we find Subbier.
I guess they are one and the same
Within parentheses in the chart we find
(Ayya equivalent to Iyer).
"Vina Annachi Iyer, Contemporary court Vidwan." It is not clear
whether this Annachi Iyer and Subbier are one and the same.
9, 10: Seetha just states that they belong to the line of Adiappayya.
She does not say whether they belong to the family line or disciple
line.
10:
But Ananthapadmanabhan mentions that Subbukutti Ayya was the

In Seetha's article we find that
grandson of Adiappayya.
Subbukuttiayya was patronized by Sarabhoji II.
Ananthapadmanabhan
says that he was patronized by Ramachandra Todaiman of Pudukkottai.
He also says that when Mahavaidyanatha Iyer visited
the court of
RamnachandraTondaiman, the two musicians Subbukutti Ayya and
Subbaraya Iyer (Karaikudi Sambasiva Iyer's grandfather) were in
the same court.
Probably this Subbukuttiayya was patronized
both by Sarabhoji and Ramachandra Tondaiman.
7, 9, 10: From the chart it appears as though Subbier and Subbukutti

But Seetha also says that
Ayya branch from Tirumalaiyya.
Tirumalayya and Subbier were contemporaries.
60

Table 14
STYLE
TANJORE
4
Chikka Ottappayya
Chikka Ottappayya
Tsallagali
Viraghavayya
Vijaya
Varahappa
alias
Dharmayya
Ramasamayya
Tsallagali
Gopalayya
Varahappa
Dikshita
Tsallagali
Krishnayya
Appayya
(Disciples continued on
next page.)
(cousin)
Ramayya
Dikshita
Adimurthy
Iyer
Dasavadyam
Krishnayya
Atmaramayya
Venkatachalam
Ayya
Fiddle Venkatachalam
Iyer
(continued on next page)
61

Tsallagali
Krishnayya
Disciples
Kanchi
Thyagaraja Velu kanchi
Dikshitar Sadasivayyangaru Nilakanta
Sastri
Mayavaram
Vaidyanatha
Iyer
Akhilandapuram
Dikshitar
Fiddle Venkatachalam
Iyer
Gonala
Ramaswamy Lakshmana
Sambayya
Ayya
Ayya
(Patron: Zamorin of
Ilaiyaralanendal)
Note:
Vina Sambayyaof Mysore and later BangaruswamyAyya of Mysore

court are descendants of the Chikka line.
62

Table 15A
TANJORESTYLE
5
Papammal Family Line
Papammal
(court)
Rukmini
(court musician)
Kamakshi
1810-1890
(dancer and musician)
Ponnuswamy
(violin)
Sundarammal
1830-1888
(musician)
Narayanaswamy
(Violin)
Kutty
Appakkannu
(Ghatam)
(Violin)
Rupavati
(vocal)
1
VINAI DHANAMMAL
1867-1938
(continued
63

on next page)
Table 15B
1
VINAI DHANAMMAL
1867-1938
I
-I 2
Rajalakshmi
Lakshmiratnam
(vocal)
(vocal)
(vocal)
(vocal)
1890-1967
1888-1940
T. Sankaran
Tamil Isai
School of
Music
Sundaranrajan
(violin)
Composer
Srinivsan
Kamakshi
Jayammal
BALASARASWATHI
Varadan
1918-1984
Ranganathan
(mrdangam)
(Wesleyan University)
I
daughter.
Viswanathan
(flute)
(Wesleyan
University)
LAKSHMI
Vij aya-
S4
Brinda
I
Mukta
Kodandaraman Abhirama-
Krishnan
sundari
vocalists
Govardhan
(violin)
daughzter
Son
Son
Veghavahini
(vocal)
She was the only vina player
2, 3, 4
They also Played vina,
by profession.
though by profession
they were vocalists.
Special note:
note" I want to record here what Dr. T. Viswanathan told me on
behalf of his family.
In a strict
sense, there is no one to continue the
vina tradition
of Dhanammal. Savitri Rajan of Madras was the only one to
have studied vina with Dhanammal for a short while.
Rangaramanuja Iyengar
was only an ardent admirer of Dhanammal.
Special
64

Table 16
TANJORESTYLE
Gangamuthu Line
Gangamuthu
(circa
Chinnayya
1760)
Vadivelu
Sivanandam
Ponnayya
vina player
and
composer
I
(sons)
(daughter)
wife of
Jagannathan
Mahadevan
Sabhapathi
Nellaiappan
(sons)
1854-1905
I
Kannuswamy
I
Vadivelu
(son)
Kandappan
PONNAYYAPILLAI
1899-1941
Ganesan
sons)
Sivanandam
Kitappa
(1924)
1 and 3 are the only vina players.

2:
Balasaraswathi's
3:
Sivanandam's wife,
guru.
Sharda, also plays
65
vina.
They perfonn together.

Table 17A
TANJORESTYLE
7A
Malayappa Iyer Family Line
Malayappa Iyer
3rd generation
c.1750
Venkateswara
4th generation
c.1780
Subbaraya
(court musician)
Pudukkottah
5th generation
c. 1810
Subbayya
alias
Subrahmanya
(court musician)
Pudukkottah
6th generation
c.1840
KARAIKUDI
BROTHERS
(SUBBARAMA)
1875-1938
and
(SAMBASIVA)
1888-1958
7th generation
(continued
on next page)
66

Table 17B
KARAIKUDI
BROTHERS
SUBBARAMA
and
SAMBASIVA
(Daughters)
Subbalakshmi
(non-vina
Sundaramba
Lakshmi
Sankari
Meenakshi
players)
8th generation
1900
(Adopted son)
(children)
4
Raj eswari
5
Venkataraman
Kalakshetra
Subramanian
Chandrasekar
Chandramouli
1
Sasika
(Adopted son
of Sambasiva
Iyer)
I9th
generation
9th generation
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 These are the

only vina players by profession.
daughters of Sankari and Meenakshi also play vina.
1 She is married to D.K. Naravanan. Rajeswari
goint to Sambasiva Iyer, started vina with her.
The author of this
The
and Subramanian, before
article.
67

Table 18
TANJORESTYLE
7B
IYER
SUBBARAMA
SAMBASIVA
IYER
(Disciples)
Lakshmi
and
Sankari
and
Meenakshi
(daughters)
Gomathy Sankara lyer

Study: 1928-1930
(Discip
es)3
Devakottai
Narayana
Iyengar
Rajeswari
Padmanabhan
Ranganayaki
Rajagopalan
1932Study:
1938-1950
1905Study:
1922-1925?
1939Study:
1945-1955
(Disciple)
4
Tirugokarnam
Ramachandra
Iyer
1919Study:
1938-1941
Mysore
T.N. Ramaswamy
Sastri
1926-1978
Study:
1941-1958
(Intermittent)
K.S. Subramanian
1944Study:
1957-1958
He is a musicologist.
Two of his prominent students who reside in
Madras are
G.N. Dandapani Iyer and Pitchumani Iyer.
2,2 3 Karaikudi SaThasiva Iyer made a public
ststement in 1952, when he
was honored (for the first time ever after
independence) with a Presidential
were the only disciples
award, that these two artists
of his, in the sense
that they started vina from him when they were children and learned from
noone else.
This was before he adonted Subrananian.
(continued
68

on next page)
He has many students

He also belongs to the Karaikudi family line.
Professor David Reck of Amherst College, Amherst, Massato his credit.
Professor Reck's doctoral dissertation,
was one of his students.
chusetts,
"A Musician's Tool-kit" (Wesleyan University,
1983), is a study of five
artist.
this
performances by
Note:
Jayalakshmi, a vina teacher in the Music Academy, Madras, learned

from Sambasiva Iyer for about three years.
Plate
7:
Karaikudi Vina Brothers (1914):

Subbarama Iyer
Upright vina:
Horizontal vina:
Sambasiva Iyer
Mrdangam: Dakshinamurthy Pillai
69

Plate
8:
Karaikudi Sambasiva Iyer:
An informal nosture
Table 18A
. Balachander
Dandapani Iyer
disciple
Gayathri Narayanan
Pitchumani Tyer
Kalnagam Swaminathan
1 He is self-taught.
He is self-taught.
His
ina style
style
His vina
is unique.
is
unique.
70

after
lunch (1952)
Table
19
MYSORESTYLE
Adappayya
(descendant)
VINA KUPPIAH
Female
Line
Male Line
(grandson)
Bhakhi
(grandson)
Venkatasubbiah
1792-1838
Chikkaramappa
daughter
Venkamma
son
Subbanna
(grandson)
Ananthasubbiah
adopted son
Dodda Seshanna
son
SESHANNA
1852-1926
Adopted
SUBBANNA
1854-1939
son
Ramanna
I
daughter
Bhagamma
son
A.S.
son
Swaramurthy
V.N. Rao
son
Chandrasekarayya
Subrahmanya
(Continued
71

on next
page)
SESHANNA
SUBBANNA
Dodda Subbarao
disciple
Sharmadevi
Subbramanya
Chikka
i
Sastri
Subbarao
disciple
grandson
disciple
Lakshminarayanappa
Venkatagiriappa
R.S.
Kesavamurthy
R.K.
Sooryanarayanan
disciple
M.S.
Bhima
son
Rao
.I
disciple
Narayana
lyer
disciple
Venkatappa
disciple
Doraiswamy
Iyengar
72

Table 20
ANDHRA
STYLE
BOBBILI
Sishtu
Sarvasastrulu
PITHA
PURAM
VIZIA
NAGARAM
KALAHASTI
SANGAMESWARA
SASTRI
Venkataramanadas
VenkataswamyRaju
VIZAKA
PATNAM
Venkayya
son
Sishtu
Chellamayya
Tumarada
Satyanarayana
Suryanarayana
Rao
Sishtu
Bhagavanulu
Venkataramanadas Line
Venkayya
[PACCIMIRIAM
ADIAPPAYYA]
I
(Descendant)
Gururayacharyalu
I
(Son)
Chinna
Cururayacharyalu
(Son)
VENKATARAMANADAS
1:
Sangameswara Sastri's
brother-in-law
and Guru.
(continued
73

on the next page)
Emani Achutarama
Sastri
son
Emani Sankara
Sastri
disciple
Chittibabu
74

NOTES
1.
"This is plausible but wrong, like many plausible
2.
The seven tones were not shadia, rishabha, etc.; they were called:
krushta, prathama, dvitlya, tritiya, caturtha, mandaraand atisvarya.
3.
Ga: the third degree of the seven-swara scale (sa, ri, ga, ma,
pa, dha, ni).
4.
I made the drawings from Iyenagar 1972.
5.
The author does not corroborate his reasoning with examples from
these Tamil works.
6.
Pertaining to this anecdote Sambamurthvmentions another pan

called megaragakurnunki, literally "Kurunji the cloud raga" which
is equivalent to the current nilhmbari.
7.
For more details
8.
There is a mythological story of how Shiva created the vina after

being inspired by the poetic beauty of his divine consort, Parvati,
while she was sleeping with her hand across her bosom.
9.
The doctrine of this school of philosophy is called Advaita.

According to this: "the universe exists, but merely as a product
of the one eternal Essence, when overspread by Mayaor Illusion."
[Monier- Williams 1951: 152]
explanations."
refer to Subramanian1977.
10.
This basic function is represented in the Tamburdrone in a

concert. But one outside the culture might miss this point.
Here is an interesting experience of a listener after hearing
an Indian concert in the West: "I wished the buzzing sound of
the long vertical instrument stopped at some point!"
11.
Monier- Williams [1951: 143] prefers the term 'false knowledge'

to the generally accepted translation of Maya as "ignorance."
12.
Stone yalis support the temple roofs. Yali has this sacred
association with temples. The yali head on the vina is decorated
with gold paper or even gold dust.
13.
These musical inscriptions are found in the former state of

Pukukkottah. A king (a student of one, Rudracharya) was responsible for these inscriptions, though it is not knownwho this
king was. Referring to this, Subrhamanian(1972) says: "As per
the present state of our knowledge it would be safer to consider
MahendravarmanI (600-639 A.D.) responsible for these achievements." But these inscriptions were knownto be "composed"by
75

one Paramamahesvara,"which is not amongthe knowntitles of

Mahendravarman
I." This title, however, is associated with
I did not very
Pasupatas and Kalamukhas,whom"Mahendravarman
much love." This is one of the reasons why historians like
K.R. VenkataramaIyer, K.R. Srinivasan and T.V. Mahalingamdo
not attribute these artistic achievements to MahendravarmanI.
Furthennore, on the ground that Pudukkotahregion was beyond
the southern boundary of the Pallavas, these scholars do not
hold the Pallava kings responsible for both Kudumiyamalaiand
Tirumayamrelics. [Subrahmanian1972: 144-145]
14.
Oral communication: Tong-Kin-Woon,1979.
15.
"The reference to the Brhaddesi by Kumbamakes Matanga the

originator of the Kinnari vina with frets."
16.
More properly called Mahabalipuramnamedafter the mythical

personage, Mahabali.
17.
Govinda Dikshitar is credited with the fixing of the frets by

many authors. But no one, to my knowledge, attributed also the
introduction of wax base for the frets to Govinda Dikshitar
except RangaramanujaIyengar.
18.
Ranganayaki [1981: 232] points out that Somanathaequates the

vina specifically with the voice and not with the body as is
usually done.
19.
Tonic Sa is assumed as equivalent to the middle C.
20.
He does not say how long and how short they were.
21.
In the CP we find the word "pItam" which refers to the region

of the Tara st'yi.
22.
But there is no mention anywhere in the CP how these frets were

fixed, whether they were tied to the dandi by means of threads
or they were fixed on wax as is in vogue today. (refer to
footnote 17)
23.
Here the sitar is brought into discussion only casually; it is

because of the commontuning system with the bin and because of
the tradition of naming any stringed instrument a vina.
However, there is no intention to impute any connection to the
rudra vina.
24.
This nomenclature is used generally in Tamil Nadu. The other

states with regards to a few parts of the instrument may have
vernacular equivalents.
Refer to the vina drawing to identify
the parts.
25.
This is a special device in some vinas where the ring is a

76

movable mechanism (linked with the langar), which facilitates

straightening the strings if faulted.
26.
S. Ramanathan(Ramjee and Co., Trichy) thinks that it is a

misnomer. More properly what is presently known as Langar should
be called Ndgapdsam. If we consider the root meaning of this compound word what Ramanathansays seems plausible.
27.
Pgs'a (Apte. pp. 334): A cord, chain, fetter, noose.

Ndga (Ibid. pp. 283): A snake in general; particularly,
a cobra.
28.
This is my preference in numbering the strings.

Sdrani is the
first string,tuned to the tonic Sa and all other strings are
only in relation to it. Similarly the pakka sLrani is tuned to
the pitch of the Sarani and hence it is considered the first
string.
29.
But Ramanathan(Ramjee and Co., Trichy) does not agree with this.
He says that some well made ottu vinas could be better than
ekanda vinas.
30.
Both the sound-hole and the copper woundbass strings were introduced by Karaikudi Sambasiva Iyer. He constructed a machine
operated by hand to wind the steel strings with copper or silver
ones; he later stuck tu copper wound strings. (oral communication,
S. Ramanathanof Ramjee and Co.)
31.
This is an innovation by Sambasiva Iyer (oral communication,

Narayana Achari, Tanjore, a traditional vina maker).
32.
To my knowledge, S. Balachander was the first
33.
In C.G. Jung's interpretation, yellow is symbol of prosperity

The aluminum
(the Chinese dragon is also golden colored).
kudukkais made nowadays are also painted yellow. Some makers
even paint the entire vina yellow. Married womentraditionally
wear a sacred thread dipped in turmeric solution as a symbol of
On any felicitous occasion married women
auspiciousness.
customarily sing a song carrying a brass plate with turmeric
water, moving the plate three times in circles and finally
spilling the water on the ground to invoke the divine blessings.
34.
For the first time David Reck made an experimental fiberglass

vina and demonstrated in the Music Academy, Madras (Dec., 1973).
Following this up a full-sized fiberglass vina and a mrdangam
were made and demonstrated by two top ranking artists, Pitchumani
Iyer on the vina and UmayalpuramSivaraman on the mrdangam.
35.
S. Ramanathan(Ramjee and Co.) first
36.
But it exists as a variant, ghasit.
to introduce this.
introduced this.
77

37.
The plectral technique ccinna mentioned in SR is close to the

one used in the Karaikudi school for tinam playing on the
string.
pancnammn
38.
Nowto keep tala, the upward stroke of the side strings synchronizes only with the downwardstroke of the main strings by the
index finger.
39.
Inconclusively dated as 1750 by the editor, J.S. Pade (pp. iv),

published by the Oriental Institute, Baroda (GOSNo. CXXXI1959).
40.
There is no reference given except for a casual mention of

Sangita Sara Sangrahamuas a work which enumerates dasapranas.
41.
Left hand technique is always in conjunction with the right

hand; very occasionally some players may play with the left
hand alone for the sake of effect.
42.
"Music without a gamaka is like a moonless night, a river without water, a creeper without flowers, a lady without ornaments
and a flower without smell." --from NS XXIX: 75 [Sambamurthy1975:
133]
43.
Brinda ( a top ranking vocalist, also a vina player of the

Dhanammalstyle), Mysore DoraiswamyIyengar and the Karaikudi
style consider this technique very important to vina.
44.
This is restricted to swaras up to one and a half to two steps

in most traditions.
But S. Balachander, a contemporary artist
of renown, has used this technique to a very great extent.
This has become the most prominent of his stylistic
characteristics.
Venkataramanadas, a legendary vina player in the Andhra
style, is knownto have played a full gitam staying in a single
fret position, using the first two strings (Shadja and Pancama)
1954: 48]
suitably. [Ananthapadmanabhan
45.
This is insisted
46.
In the Karaikudi style it is underscored that the player should

keep the vina neither too close to nor too far away from his
body.
47.
I do not mean that all performers use all the five fingers.
48.
Vinai Dhanammalused the skin

Manyplayers use wire plectra.
part of the finger for the main strings while she had metal plectrum on the little finger for the side strings.
On the other
hand, Mysore DoreswamyIyengar used the finger nails for both
the main and the side strings.
49.
While referring to this RangaramanujaIyengar (p. 275) says:
on in the Karaikudi style.
78

"It is an inexorable rule that they (fingers) descend upon the

strings alternately and that the forefinger and the little finger
act together and relieve the middle finger from all attention to
Th5lam."
50.
In some styles
beginning.
this isochronous plucking is not insisted
79

on in the
IEFERENCESCITED
Ananthapadmanabhan, C. S.
The Veena. Bangalore:
1954
Apte, Vaman Sivaram
1963
Sanskrit-English
India.
n.p.
Government of
New Delhi:
Dictionary.
Coomaraswamy, Ananda
"The Parts of the Veena," in Journal of the American
1937
Oriental Society 57, 101-103.
Iyengar, Doreswamy V.
in Kuppuswamy, Gowri, and Hariharan,
1982
"Veena Seshanna,"
M. (eds)
Glimpses of Indian Music. New Delhi: n.n., 232-34.
Iyengar, Rangaramanuja
1972
History of South Indian (Carnatic)
Music.
Madras: private.
Iyengar, V. Ranganayaki
1981
"Gamakaand Vadanabheda: A Study of Somanatha' s Ragavibhoda
in Historical
and Practical Context."
Ph.D. Thesis: University of Pennsylvania.
S.M.
Jayaraj Pillai,
1931
"Super Veena,"
2, 116.
Jung, C.G.
1958
in
Journal of the PMusic Academy, Madras
Psychology
Pantheon.
and Religion.
1967
Alchemical
University.
Studies.
1974
Dreams.
Bollingen
Hull R.F.C.,
Krishnaswamy, S.
1971
Musical Instruments
India.
Menon, Narayana
n.d.
Balasaraswathi.
Sir Monier
Monier-Williams,
A Sanskrit-English
1951
Bollingen
Series.
Series.
New York:
Princeton:
Princeton
4, 8, 12, 16.
of India.
New Delhi:
Dictionary.
New Delhi:
Government of
International
Oxford:
Cultural
Centre.
Oxford University.
Powers, Harold S.
"The Background of the South Indian Raga System."
1959
Thesis:
Princeton University.
80

Ph.D.
Praj nanananda, Swamy

1961
"Saptatantri Vina in the Sculpture of the Buddhist Caves
of Pitalkora,"
in Journal of the Music Academy, Madras
32, 120-125.
1973
Historical
Development of Indian Music;
Mukhopadhyay.
Rao, B.K. Padmanabha, ed.

Co positions
of Vainika Sikhamani.
1965
Kalabhivardhani Sabha.
Sachs, Curt
1940
The History
Sambamurthy, P.
1960
History
of Musical
Instruments.
of Indian Music.
Madras:
Calcutta:
Mysore:
Sangeetha
New York:
W.W. Norton.
Indian Music Publishing.
1962
Catalogue of Instruments
1963
South Indian Music,
5.
Madras: Indian Music Publishing.
1975
South Indian Music, 4.
Madras: Indian Music Publishing.
Seetha, S.
1979
in Government Museum, Madras. n.p.
"Some Notable Vainikas of the Tanjore Samasthanam," in

Journal of the Music Academy, Madras 50, 105-113.
Shankar, Vidya S.
1969
"Gamakas," in Journal of the Music Academy, Madras 40, 89-97.
1983
The Art and Science

Music Academy.
of Carnatic Music.
Madras:
Madras
Sharma, Premalatha
1975
"Gamaka: A Study of the Textual and Performance Traditions
in Vocal Music,"
in Indian Music Journal 60.
Subrahmanian, N.
1972
History
of Tamil Nadu.
Madurai:
Koodal.
S.
Subrahmanya Sastri,
1941
The Caturdandi Prakasika of Venkatamakhin, 2.
Madras Music Academy.
Subramanian, S. Karaikudi
"An Introduction
1975
University.
to Vina Style,"
M.A. Thesis:
81

Madras:
Wesleyan
Tarlekar, G.H.
"Fretted Vina in Indian Sculpture,"
1965
Music Academy, Madras 36, 170-75.
Sources of Indian Tradition.
1960
Vedavalli,
1982
in Journal of the
New York:
Columbia University.
M.B.
"Mysore as a Seat of Music During the 19th and 20th
Ph.D. Thesis: University of Madras.
Centuries."
Viswanathan,
1975
T.
"Raga Alapana in South Indian Music."
Wesleyan University.
Ph.D. Thesis:
82


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"kuzhal inidu yazh inidu enbadammakkal

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There is a story about Tirugnyhna Sambandar(700 A.D.) who once

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Symbolism of the Vina

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the Karmic actions, seeking the changeless Brahman. The performer's

. . . the same archetype

is at work and in principle

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Symbolism of the Vina

Three side strings +

Four main strings +

Male and female

False knowledge (m ya)11

Mind that controls.

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variation in the sound according to the length of the

was quick in rising

. . . " [Sachs 1968:

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We sometimes do not question why we do certain things in a

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to understand in his initial

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of octave Sa) is considered the first string.

S3 (with the tuning

1 third and fourth were made of steel.

madhya shadjam (jallika)

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There were a total of twenty-three frets giving two octaves.

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Names of the parts:24

the part which connects kudukkai and kudam

the curved side bridge for the side

the main resonator

the metal wires

the movable fine tuning mechanismover the

the semi circular metal plate fixed at the

the metal rings fastened to the langars which

end of the kudam

Namesof the strings and their tuning: (Refer to Table 5)

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Table 4: Vina Measurements

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Take-anart vina maker of Bangalore

In back, "Triveni"; in front, vina with an upturned

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"Experimental Vina" by Padmanabha Rao of Bangalore

"Experimental Vina"; 6 main strings,

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