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Reinforced Concrete
Concrete in which steel is embedded in such a manner that the two materials act
together in resisting forces. The reinforcing steelrods, bars, or meshabsorbs the
tensile, shear, and sometimes the compressive stresses in a concrete structure.
Plain concrete does not easily withstand tensile and shear stresses caused by wind,
earthquakes, vibrations, and other forces and is therefore unsuitable in most
structural applications. In reinforced concrete, the tensile strength of steel and the
compressive strength of concrete work together to allow the member to sustain
these stresses over considerable spans. The invention of reinforced concrete in the
19th century revolutionized the construction industry, and concrete became one of
the worlds most common building materials.

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Reinforced Concrete Building Elements:

1st Floor
It is the floor that has 1 storey height above ground.
Basement Floor
The floor of the basement of the building. It is also called cellar. The basement floor
is either completely or partially below the ground floor. A basement can be used in
almost exactly the same manner as an additional above-ground floor of a house or
other building. However, the use of basements depends largely on factors specific
to a particular geographical area such as climate, soil, seismic activity, building
technology, and real estate economics.
The concrete floor in most basements is structurally not part of the foundation; only
the basement walls are. Since warm air rises, basements are typically cooler than
the rest of the house. In summer, this makes basements damp, due to the higher
relative humidity.
Basement Wall
The wall surrounding the basement floor is called the basement wall. The basement
walls can be regarded structurally as part of the foundation. The basement walls are

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shear walls which can resist lateral laods as well. Moreover, these walls are meant
to be higly non-porous and water resistant.
Column Bracket
Column Bracket is protrusion from the column also used for hanging or attaching
lamps, bulbs or other accessories to it like road signs.
Column Capital
Column capital is an architectural element used for aesthetic purposeswhich forms
the topmost member of a column.
Drop Panels
Drop panels are used to thicken the slab around the column in flat slabs to avoid
punching shear. Since flat slabs have no stirrups shear is resisted by thickening the
slab around the column to increase the concrete in shear. Beams can also be used,
but generally drop panels are preferred to avoid conflicts with the electromechanical
works of the structure.
The columns supporting the main structure of the building. Usually in frame
structures the exterior columns are of extreme importance and bear the load of the
building as well as resist environmental factors like wind, rain, and other physical
factors.
Flat Plate
Slabs connecting to columns directly. Flat plate system is widely adopted by
engineers as it provides many advantages . The system can reduce the height of
the building, provide more flexible spatial planning due to no beams present, and
further reduce the material cost. However, the main problem in practice is the
brittle failure of flat plate under punching shear. Due to the relatively small floor
loading and the close column spacing, flat plate construction is preferred. For
heavier loading and larger column spacing, column capitals are required, and for
even larger spans to reduce the self-weight, waffle slabs are used.
Flat Slab
The flat plate is a two-way reinforced concrete framing system utilizing a slab of
uniform thickness, the simplest of structural shapes. The flat slab is a two-way
reinforced structural system that includes either drop panels or column capitals at
columns to resist heavier loads and thus permit longer spans. Construction of flat
slabs is one of the quickest methods available. Lead times are very short as this is
one of the most common forms of construction.
Interior Columns
Interior columns in a frame structure suppor the slab and beams internally. They are
not as susceptible to buckling and environmental effects as the external ones but
still are extremely important considering the safety and stability of the building.
Interior columns can also serve aesthetic and architectural purposes.
Pedestal
An architectural support or base, as for a column or statue.

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Roof
A roof is the covering on the uppermost part of a building. A roof protects the
building and its contents from the effects of weather and the invasion of animals.
Structures that require roofs range from a letter box to a cathedral or stadium,
house buildings being the most numerous.
The elements in the design of a roof are:

the material
the construction
the durability &
Serviceability
Spread Footing

To distribute the load of the foundation on the soil, spread footings are installed
below the building's foundation. This type of footing is continous below the
perimeter of the house walls and may be thickened or widened at the points where
concentrated loads are applied e.g. columns. These components are constructed
from concrete and are often reinforced with rebar or steel to add additional support.
Depending on the size and configuration of the building, the footers can be buried
just below ground level or several feet below the surface. In cold climates, they are
always placed below the frost line to minimize problems with concrete heaving that
occurs during freeze/thaw cycles. This type of footer design is highly beneficial to
builders and homeowners. Since they transfer the weight of the building over a
large area, they have little risk of failure
Upturned Beam
Through the use of upturned concrete T-beams, designers created a naturally
ventilated workspace that employs the thermal mass of an exposed concrete
ceiling. This concrete absorbs heat during the day and is purged at night by cool
breezes. The term is usually used in concrete construction, in parking structures,
but here is how it works:
The beam is above the floor it supports, or a combination. Take a parking structure,
there is the required barrier wall, so if you turn the beam up it acts as support and
the barrier. Think of your simple beam diagram with a uniform load on it. The beam
supports this load, so it doesnt matter if the load is applied at the bottom (simply,
other than there are the compression/tension face)
This also works well in buildings, rather than have a large beam under the floor, the
beam is cast above and below the floors, acts as bearing and shear tension and
compression face reinforcement will be somewhat different, but beam cross section
area will stay the same.

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Foundation System
The type of structure which gives structural support to a building beneath its lowest
floor or ground base.
A structure's foundation is the structure which supports it in the ground. The forms
and materials of foundations vary according to ground conditions, frame material,
framing system, and other factors.
In large structures, the foundation (or basement) wall does not play a significant
role in carrying the structural loads above it - this wall mainly resists the lateral load
of the soil (and any water) that the basement is constructed in. Foundation systems
for large buildings are almost always built with concrete, except when steel or wood
piles are used.
In some building systems, the floor slab is designed to assist in carrying some of the
lateral loads of the structure, and the floor slab thereby become an integral part of
the framing system.
Examples of Foundation Systems
(a) Structure supported on a foundation bearing on
soil. (b) Structure supported on a foundation
bearing on rock. (c) Structure supported by a pile
foundation.

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PIER FOUNDATION
It is similar to a deck built
ground. It is supported by
pilings.

several feet above the

pillars and posts or

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PILE FOUNDATION
may be cast in place-concrete poured into
ground cased- steel pipe in ground then filled
uncased- cased concrete 'plug' placed & case
removed micropiles- small diameter drilled &
reinforced

WALL FOUNDATION
It includes footing, drainage system, and a cast in place wall.

SLAB
flat

FOUNDATION
concrete pad poured onto ground
which works well on level ground in
warmer climates.

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Classification of pile with respect to load transmission and functional
behavior

End bearing piles (point bearing piles)

Friction piles (cohesion piles )
Combination of friction and cohesion piles

End bearing piles

These piles transfer their load on to a firm stratum located at a considerable depth
below the base of the structure and they derive most of their carrying capacity from
the penetration resistance of the soil at the toe of the pile (see figure 1). The pile
behaves as an ordinary column and should be designed as such. Even in weak soil a
pile will not fail by buckling and this effect need only be considered if part of the pile
is unsupported, i.e. if it is in either air or water. Load is transmitted to the soil
through friction or cohesion. But sometimes, the soil surrounding the pile may
adhere to the surface of the pile and causes "Negative Skin Friction" on the pile.
This, sometimes have considerable effect on the capacity of the pile. Negative skin
friction is caused by the drainage of the ground water and consolidation of the soil.
The founding depth of the pile is influenced by the results of the site investigate on
and soil test.
Friction or cohesion piles
Carrying capacity is derived mainly from the adhesion or friction of the soil in
contact with the shaft of the pile (see fig 2).

piles

Figure 1:End bearing

Figure 2:Friction or cohesion pile

Cohesion piles
These piles transmit most of their load to the soil through skin friction. This process
of driving such piles close to each other in groups greatly reduces the porosity and
compressibility of the soil within and around the groups. Therefore piles of this
category are sometimes called compaction piles. During the process of driving the
pile into the ground, the soil becomes molded and, as a result loses some of its
strength. Therefore the pile is not able to transfer the exact amount of load which it
is intended to immediately after it has been driven. Usually, the soil regains some of
its strength three to five months after it has been driven.

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Friction piles
These piles also transfer their load to the ground through skin friction. The process
of driving such piles does not compact the soil appreciably. These types of pile
foundations are commonly known as floating pile foundations.
Combination of friction piles and cohesion piles
An extension of the end bearing pile when the bearing stratum is not hard, such as
firm clay. The pile is driven far enough into the lower material to develop adequate
frictional resistance. A farther variation of the end bearing pile is piles with enlarged
bearing areas. This is achieved by forcing a bulb of concrete into the soft stratum
immediately above the firm layer to give an enlarged base. A similar effect is
produced with bored piles by forming a large cone or bell at the bottom with a
special reaming tool. Bored piles which are provided with a bell have a high tensile
strength and can be used as tension piles (see fig.3)

Figure

3:under-reamed base enlargement to a bore-and-cast-in-situ pile

Classification of pile with respect to type of material

Piles are usually made of timber, concrete or steel. Timber can be used for the
manufacture of temporary piles and when the wood is available at an economical
price. Concrete is used for the manufacture of pre-cast concrete piles, cast in place
and pre-stressed concrete piles, while steel piles are used for permanent or
temporary works.
Timber
Concrete
Steel
Composite piles.
Timber piles
Used from earliest record time and still used for permanent works in regions where
timber is plentiful. Timber is most suitable for long cohesion piling and piling
beneath embankments. The timber should be in a good condition and should not
have been attacked by insects.
For timber piles of length less than 14 meters, the diameter of the tip should be
greater than 150 mm. If the length is greater than 18 meters a tip with a diameter
of 125 mm is acceptable. It is essential that the timber is driven in the right
direction and should not be driven into firm ground. As this can easily damage the
pile. Keeping the timber below the ground water level will protect the timber against
decay and putrefaction. To protect and strengthen the tip of the pile, timber piles

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can be provided with toe cover. Pressure creosoting is the usual method of
protecting timber piles.

Advantages and disadvantages of Wood piles

+ The piles are easy to handle
+ Relatively inexpensive where timber is plentiful.
+ Sections can be joined together and excess length easily removed.
The piles will rot above the ground water level. Have a limited bearing capacity.
Can easily be damaged during driving by stones and boulders.
The piles are difficult to splice and are attacked by marine borers in salt water.
Concrete piles
Concrete piles can be divided to pre-cast and cast in place concrete piles:
Pre- cast concrete Piles or Pre fabricated concrete piles
it is formed and reinforced in a high-quality controlled concrete, Usually used of
square (see fig 1-4 b), triangle, circle or octagonal section, they are produced in
short length in one meter intervals between 3 and 13 meters. They are pre-caste so
that they can be easily connected together in order to reach to the required length
(fig 1-4 a). This will not decrease the design load capacity. Reinforcement is
necessary within the pile to help withstand both handling and driving stresses. Pre
stressed concrete piles are also used and are becoming more popular than the
ordinary pre cast as less reinforcement is required.

Figure 4:a) concrete pile connecting detail. b) squared pre-cast concert pile
The Hercules type of pile joint (Figure 5) is easily and accurately cast into the pile
and is quickly and safely joined on site. They are made to accurate dimensional
tolerances from high grade steels.

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Figure 5:Hercules type of pile joint

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Advantages and disadvantages of Pre- cast concrete Piles
+ Are easy to splice. Relatively inexpensive.
+ Stable in squeezing ground, for example, soft clays, silts and peats pile material
can be inspected before piling.
+ Can be driven in long lengths.
+ Can increase the relative density of a granular founding stratum.
Displacement, heave, and disturbance of the soil during driving.
Can be damaged during driving. Replacement piles may be required.
Cannot be driven with very large diameters or in condition of limited headroom.
Cast in place Concrete piles
Cast in place concrete piles are the most type commonly used for foundations due
to the great diversity available for pouring concrete and the introduction of the pile
into the soil. Driving and drilling piles are two types of cast in place concrete piles;
however, the implementation of these piles in place may be accompanied by some
problems such as arching, squeezing and segregation.
These piles are divided to:
Piles are poured in tubes with underneath heels and left when lifting the tubes.
some of those types:
Simplex pile: it is a tube of cast of diameter 40 cm, has an underneath heel,
it is banged underground by an automatic hammer until reaching the arable
land for the establishment, then concrete is poured inside it and banged by
another hammer. In the meantime, the pipe is raised with a certain amount
so as not to enter the soil inside. This pile can bear about 40 50 ton.
Frankie pile: It is a number of tubes entering each other in order to easily
access to great depths within the earth. A heel of reinforced concrete can be
used and left in the ground to prevent the entry of cold water pipes. This pile
can carry a load of 50 80 ton.
Vibro pile: It is a steel pipe of diameter 40 cm, has a conical heel with a
separate flange, it is banged underground by an automatic hammer until
reaching the arable land for the establishment, then the heel is removed and
put into a tube, after that concrete is poured. The tube is moved up and down
(about 80 times per minute) in order to compact concrete. This pile can bear
about 60 ton.
Strong pile: this pile is largely similar to Simplex pile except that the bottom
heel is made from reinforced concrete covered with cast heel. This pile can
carry a load of 25 30 ton.
Under rimed pile: this pile is used at black clayey soil and lands of non
residual soil, so this soil is very dangerous to be established on it.
Piles with open tubes without heel, then concrete are poured inside the tube.
The pipe has a diameter of 40 cm and an average concrete well of 12 to 15
meters depending on the level of land to be established. Some these piles:
Strauss pile: Which is very similar to the Simplex pile but without a heel.
Soil can be removed from the tubes by special devices and concrete is poured
instead of soil. The maximum load that can be carried by these piles is from
20 25 ton.
Kimbersol pile: A well is done of diameter about 80 cm, until reaching the
arable land for the establishment, then the bottom of the well is compacted

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using a rounded hammer and filled with concrete with a ratio of 1 : 5 (cement
: sand). This pile can carry a load of 80 120 ton.
Welfchaulzer pile: a pipe of diameter 30 40 cm is banged until reaching
the arable land for the establishment, and the inside soil is removed, then
steel bars are placed and the opened upper hole is covered tightly Leaving
holes to connect the compressed air so that leachates can be expelled, then
concrete is poured by a ratio 1 : 4.
Raymond pile: Consists of cylindrical chips inside each other with a
diameter of 40 60 cm at the top of the pile and 20 28 cm at the bottom. It
is banged inside by a Mandrill and the cylindrical chips are leaved in the soil
and filled with concrete.
Advantages and disadvantages of cast-in-place concrete piles
+ Can be inspected before casting can easily be cut or extended to the desired
length.
+ Relatively inexpensive.
+ The piles can be cast before excavation.
+ Pile lengths are readily adjustable.
+ An enlarged base can be formed which can increase the relative density of a
granular founding stratum leading to much higher end bearing capacity.
+ Reinforcement is not determined by the effects of handling or driving stresses.
Heave of neighboring ground surface, which could lead to re consolidation and
the development of negative skin friction forces on piles..
Tensile damage to unreinforced piles or piles consisting of green concrete, where
forces at the toe have been sufficient to resist upward movements.
Damage piles consisting of uncased or thinly cased green concrete due to the
lateral forces set up in the soil. Concrete may be weakened if artesian flow pipes up
shaft of piles when tube is withdrawn.
Light steel section or Pre-cast concrete shells may be damaged or distorted by
hard driving.
Cannot be driven where headroom is limited.
Time consuming; cannot be used immediately after the installation.
Limited length.
Bored and cast in -place (non -displacement piles)
+ Length can be readily varied to suit varying ground conditions.
+ Can be installed in very large diameters.
+ End enlargement up to two or three diameters are possible in clays.
+ Material of piles is not dependent on handling or driving conditions.
+ Can be installed in very long lengths.
Concrete is not placed under ideal conditions and cannot be subsequently
inspected.
Water under artesian pressure may pipe up pile shaft washing out cement.
Cannot be readily extended above ground level especially in river and marine
structures.
Boring methods may loosen sandy or gravely soils requiring base grouting to
achieve economical base resistance.
Steel piles

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Made of sectors in the form of H, X or of thick pipes (see fig. 6). They are suitable
for handling and driving in long lengths. Their relatively small cross-sectional area
combined with their high strength makes penetration easier in firm soil. They can be
easily cut off or joined by welding. If the pile is driven into a soil with low pH value,
then there is a risk of corrosion, but risk of corrosion is not as great as one might
think. Although tar coating or cathodic protection can be employed in permanent
works.
It is common to allow for an amount of corrosion in design by simply over
dimensioning the cross-sectional area of the steel pile. In this way the corrosion
process can be prolonged up to 50 years. Normally the speed of corrosion is 0.2-0.5
mm/year and, in design, this value can be taken as 1mm/year

a) X- cross-section

b) H cross-section

c) steel pipe

Figure 6 Steel piles cross-sections

Advantages and disadvantages of Steel piles
+ The piles are easy to handle and can easily be cut to desire length.
+ Can be driven through dense layers. The lateral displacement of the soil during
driving is low (steel section H or I section piles) can be relatively easily spliced or
bolted.
+ Can be driven hard and in very long lengths.
+ Can carry heavy loads.
The piles will corrode,
Will deviate relatively easy during driving.
Are relatively expensive.
Composite piles
Combination of different materials in the same of pile. As indicated earlier, part of a
timber pile which is installed above ground water could be vulnerable to insect
attack and decay. To avoid this, concrete or steel pile is used above the ground
water level, whilst wood pile is installed under the ground water level (see figure 7).
Figure 7: Protecting timber piles from decay:
a) by pre-cast concrete upper section above water level.
b) by extending pile cap below water level

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Classification of pile with respect to effect on the soil

A simplified division into driven or bored piles is often employed.
Driven piles
Driven piles are considered to be displacement piles. In the process of driving the
pile into the ground, soil is moved radially as the pile shaft enters the ground. There
may also be a component of movement of the soil in the vertical direction.

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Figure 8: driven piles
Bored piles
Bored piles (Replacement piles) are generally considered to be non-displacement
piles a void is formed by boring or excavation before piles is produced. Piles can be
produced by casting concrete in the void. Some soils such as stiff clays are
particularly amenable to the formation of piles in this way, since the bore hole walls
do not requires temporary support except cloth to the ground surface. In unstable
ground, such as gravel the ground requires temporary support from casing or
bentonite slurry. Alternatively the casing may be permanent, but driven into a hole
which is bored as casing is advanced. A different technique, which is still essentially
non-displacement, is to intrude, a grout or a concrete from an auger which is
rotated into the granular soil, and hence produced a grouted column of soil.
There are three non-displacement methods: bored cast- in place piles, particularly
pre-formed piles and grout or concrete intruded piles.
The following are replacement piles:
Augered
Cable percussion drilling
Large-diameter under-reamed
Types incorporating pre caste concrete unite
Drilled-in tubes
Mini piles