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Food Chemistry
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodchem
Review
a r t i c l e
i n f o
Article history:
Received 23 September 2015
Received in revised form 7 December 2015
Accepted 16 December 2015
Available online 17 December 2015
Keywords:
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Food processing
Human health
a b s t r a c t
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) emerged as an important contaminant group in a gamut of processed food groups like dairy, nuts, herbs, beverages, meat products etc. Different cooking processes and
processing techniques like roasting, barbecuing, grilling, smoking, heating, drying, baking, ohmic-infrared
cooking etc. contribute towards its formation. The level of PAHs depends on factors like distance from
heat source, fuel used, level of processing, cooking durations and methods, whereas processes like reuse,
conching, concentration, crushing and storage enhance the amount of PAHs in some food items. This
review paper provides insight into the impact of dietary intake of PAHs, its levels and formation mechanism in processed food items and possible interventions for prevention and reduction of the PAHs contamination. The gaps and future prospects have also been assessed.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Contents
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PAHs dietary exposure and associated health hazards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PAHs occurrence in different food groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Mechanism of PAHs formation in food and governing factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.
PAHs forming direct processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1.
Heating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.2.
Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.3.
Baking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.4.
Frying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.5.
Ohmic-infrared cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.6.
Roasting and toasting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.7.
Grilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.8.
Barbecuing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1.9.
Smoking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.
PAHs enhancing miscellaneous processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1.
Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2.
Crushing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.3.
Conching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.4.
Re-using . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.5.
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interventions to prevent/reduce PAHs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.
Choosing correct cooking method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.
Controlling cooking procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1.
Distance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.2.
Time and temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: tripti.niftem@gmail.com (T. Agarwal).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.12.074
0308-8146/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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6.
7.
5.2.3.
Cooking Intensity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.4.
Use and re-use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3.
Choose suitable fuel and heat source. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.4.
Application of suitable ingredients. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.5.
Modifying edible forms or methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.
Monitoring processing aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.1.
Refining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.2.
Storing and canning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.6.3.
Tracing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.7.
Use alternatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.8.
Innovative interventions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gaps and future research prospects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Appendix A.
Supplementary data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are highly hydrophobic and
organic lipophilic compounds with fused aromatic rings mainly
of hydrogen and carbon atoms. These compounds are semi- or
non-volatile in nature, non-biodegradable-environmentally persistent, variably structured toxic compounds; combined and categorized as chemically related ubiquitous group of environmental
carcinogens (Essumang, Dodoo, & Adjei, 2013; Ledesma,
Rendueles, & Daz, 2014). Four and more ringed (or cycles) compounds with less volatility, adsorb on other combustion particles
like soot, are classified as Larger or Heavy PAHs while widely distributed, extremely volatile compounds with less than four aromatic cycles comprises Smaller or Light PAHs. PAHS are a
product of incomplete combustion of organic material during
pyrolysis (Veiga et al., 2014). PAHs are emitted during forest fires,
volcanic eruptions, fossil fuels and wood combustion, industrial
processes and cooking. In the atmosphere, these compounds
undergo photochemical and chemical oxidation reactions with
nitrogen oxides (NOX), atmospheric oxygen (O2), sulfur oxides
(SOX) and hydroxyl radical (OH) producing more toxic compounds
(Naccari et al., 2011). Human exposure to these compounds occurs
in a mixed, non-uniform composition and hence, none single compound is held responsible for human health hazards (Iwegbue,
Onyonyewoma, Bassey, Nwajei, & Martincigh, 2015). Besides, 2
12% inhalation exposure to PAHs, diet contributes to 8898% PAHs
exposure especially in case of non-smoking populations (Alomirah
et al., 2011). Use of polluted water and contaminated soil during
crop production stages, agricultural burning, fire, contact with
non-grade mineral oils along with deposition of air particulates
(vehicle fume exposure, asphalt) on food items, and Post-harvest
and food processing phases act as major pathways for PAHs formation and contamination in food (Jimnez, Ballesteros-Gmez, &
Rubio, 2014).
The present review thus focuses on the dietary exposure of
humans to PAHs, its occurrence in different food groups, mechanism and factors involved in its formation, proposed interventions
for controlling their levels in food and identified gaps.
2. PAHs dietary exposure and associated health hazards
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), Agency of
Toxic substance and Disease register (ATS-DR), Environmental Protection Agency and European Union has mentioned PAHs in priority pollutant list owing to their carcinogenic and mutagenic
properties (Table 1). The Codex Alimentarius Commission asserted
the presence of Bay and Fjord regions in PAHs structure as a reason
for their high reactivity (Orecchio, Ciotti, & Culotta, 2009). These
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Table 1
Carcinogenic and mutagenic properties of PAHs.
Sr. No.
Compound names
Genotoxicity
IARC classificationa
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Acenaphthene
Acenaphthylene
Anthracene
Benz(a)anthracene
Benzo(b)fluoranthene
Benzo(k)fluoranthene
Benzo(g,h,i)perylene
Benzo(a)pyrene
Chrysene
Dibenz(a,h)anthracene
Fluoranthene
Flourene
Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene (IP)
Phenanthrene
Pyrene
Naphthalene
Questionable
Questionable
Negative
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Positive
Negative
Positive
Questionable
Questionable
Positive
a
1 Carcinogenic, 2A Probably carcinogenic, 2B Possibly carcinogenic and 3
Not classifiable.
compounds themselves convert to diol epoxides or act synergistically in efficient covalent binding with cellular macromolecules
like DNA, add errors in its replication, mutation and tumor genesis,
thereby initiating cancer (Iwegbue et al., 2015; Orecchio et al.,
2009). The number of rings in the compounds positively correlates
to toxicity level. Positive linkage between PAHs exposure and cancers of lung, respiratory system and stomach is established by
methods like biochemical and cytogenetic markers and DNA
adducts (Ledesma et al., 2014). Daniel et al. (2011) showed
enhanced risk to renal cell carcinoma on consumption of barbequed meat through histological studies. Benzo(a)pyrene (BaP)
exhibited adverse and toxic effects on cells and tissues, reproduction, development and immune system of animals (Essumang
et al., 2013; Manda et al., 2012).
Alomirah et al. (2011) found high genotoxic PAHs in grilled vegetables, shish tauk and chicken and smoked foods which were key
diet contributors for Kuwait children, adolescent and adults. The
cancer risk associated with consumption of animal origin foods
by children/adolescents and adults amounted to 2.63/107 and
9.3/107 benzo(a)pyrene equivalent respectively. Human exposure
studies demonstrated that magnitude of Benzo(a)pyrene dietary
exposures is 2500 ng/day which supersedes inhalation exposure
of 1050 ng/day. Globally, the estimated average intake of PAHs
range from 0.02 to 3.6 lg/person/day while in countries like India,
Nigeria and China it ranged as 11, 6.0 and 3.56 lg/person/day
respectively, relative to cooking oil intake or BaP content in fish
consumed (Diggs et al., 2011). Shen et al. (2014) mentioned that
770
the presence of PAHs in raw milk. The compounds enter the animal
system, crosses blood mammary barrier efficiently and becomes a
constituent part of milk, despite of their lower transfer rate in milk
(Londoo, Garcia, Scussel, & Resnik, 2013). Additionally, presence
of chrysene in Pasteurized and UHT samples along with Benzo(k)
Fluoranthene in UHT whole milk samples exhibits significant role
of heat treatment in PAHs formation. Also, the differences in PAHs
amount of UHT whole and semi-skimmed samples were dependent on their fat contents and lipophilic interaction with milk
triglycerides (Londoo et al., 2013). Contrarily, in another study,
skimming of milk reduced the PAH content. Natural emulsified
globules with native stabilizing membrane found in raw whole
milk damages on mechanical treatments like skimming or homogenization resulting in reduction of fat globule size and changes in
their electrostatic and interfacial properties (Girelli, Sperati, &
Tarola, 2014). The milk samples lacked Heavy PAHs supported
the fact that PAHs distribution capacity, volatility and lipophilicity
is governed by their aqueous soluble nature, air transportation and
tissue accumulation apropos to plants and animals.
Among sixteen PAHs, 0.337.02 ng/g naphthalene was reported
in Sun-dried salt, heat processed at 250700 C, with different carbon sources. Citric acid exhibited significant contribution in PAHs
formation while processing (Kim, Kim, Choi, & Lee, 2014). Similarly, sucralose, an artificial food sweetener loses its stability at
high temperatures above 119 C and undergoes thermal degradation to form toxic compounds like chloropropanols, polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), probable
PAHs successors (Dong, Liu, Hu, & Zheng, 2013).
4.1.1.1. Boiling. Perell, Mart-cid, Castell, Llobet, and Domingo
(2009) conducted studies on meat, hake, potato, string beans, rice
and olive oil disposed to 23 l of boiling water for variable cooking
period and studied cooking effect on PAHs formation in these food
items. Among all the boiled products, hake showed highest total
PAHs content (5.36 lg/kg) while potato contained lowest PAHs
(3.15 lg/kg). The rice boiling added PAHs in quantity double to initial raw product. Additionally, in another study, boiled ham possessed 1.22 lg/kg total PAHs (Martorell et al., 2010) while no
significant difference was observed between grilled and boiled beef
samples (1.87 and 1.09 lg/kg) but differed from unprocessed ones
(<0.10 lg/kg). Hence, meat processing practices like grilling, smoking and roasting as well as boiling must be cautiously done so as to
meet safety and quality aspects.
In another study, PAHs levels were found higher when coffee
brewing was done through filtration than boiling process (Tfouni
et al., 2013). It was observed that the addition of boiling water or
brewing pattern affected leaching of these contaminants and the
denouement profile.
4.1.2. Drying
Drying is a commonly used method for moisture removal from
food grains, oilseeds, vegetables, tea etc. Corn Drying is performed
in industrial and other small scale kilns and the future use of the
dried corn largely determines the kind of fuel used, way of air heating and composition of combustion gases used during the process.
Combustion of corn is accompanied with two processes namely:
pyrolysis resulting in instable PAHs formation and the pyrosynthesis favoring transformation to highly complex PAHs. The
surface of dried corn exhibited higher value of adsorbed PAHs compared to raw, non-contaminated corn seeds. Moreover, light oil
based kiln drying resulted in higher B(a)P contamination over natural gas based kilns (Kis et al., 2009). Smoke drying of oilseeds,
drying degrees and refining or rafination processes greatly varied
PAHs content among different batches and brands of vegetable
oils and cold pressed unconventional vegetable oils containing
Table 2
Reported PAHs concentrations in different food groups.
Sr.
No.
Food group/category
References
Dairy products
Milk
5.4147.2
Cheese
Milk Powder
0.21643.18
11.878.4
Yogurt
7.1212.8
1.721.7
Naccari et al. (2011), Girelli et al. (2014), Luzardo, Rodrguez-Hernndez et al. (2013) and
Luzardo, Zumbado et al. (2013)
Cirillo et al. (2012) and Esposito et al. (2015)
Luzardo, Rodrguez-Hernndez et al. (2013), Luzardo, Zumbado et al. (2013) and Esposito
et al. (2015)
Hernndez et al. (2014), Luzardo, Rodrguez-Hernndez et al. (2013) and Luzardo, Zumbado
et al. (2013)
Luzardo, Rodrguez-Hernndez et al. (2013), Luzardo, Zumbado et al. (2013) and Camargo and
Toledo (2000)
Processed
1.097335.7
Ossai, Iwegbue, Ajogungbe, and Tesi (2015) and Kis et al. (2009)
Processed
0.57880
Iwegbue et al. (2015), Ciecierska and Obiedzinski (2013), Olabemiwo, Tella, Omodara, Esan,
and Oladapo (2013)
Eggs
Chicken
Pork
Fish
Others (crabs, sea food, beef sausages etc.)
49.6496.26
1.131.74
0.1534.65
1.591068.8
0.222618.4
(Highest value corresponds to Seafood
crabs)
Confections
Sugar
Salt
Others (Honey, Chocolates, Cocoa Butter)
0.074.03
0.337.02
0.17235.91
Beverages
Alcoholic Drinks
Sugarcane based drinks
3.83091.1
(Highest value corresponds to Dark
Sumatra Coffee type)
0.2172.3
0.01351.57
0.548234.30
Kang et al. (2014), Rojo Camargo et al. (2012), Payanan et al. (2013), and Ciecierska and
Obiedzinski (2013)
Pimentel, Martnez-Carballo, Regueiro, and Simal-Gndara (2013)
Oils
Plant based
Fish oils
9.535
619001
(Highest value corresponds to Ervamates)
2.58 and 73.8
0.0542.54
10
Nuts
Dried or processed
0.944.57
771
772
4.1.4. Frying
During frying, high temperatures are achieved, for example,
170205 C temperatures reached during frying of chips and
extruded products in different oils. Similarly, temperatures
between 160 and 185 C are achieved during discontinuous frying
of French fries and fish (Perell et al., 2009). Mono-unsaturated
hydrocarbons present in oils or fat undergoes aromatization and
de-hydrocyclization, favoring PAHs formation and contamination
of food processed with these fats (Olatunji, Fatoki, Ximba, &
Opeolu, 2014). Sixteen PAHs concentration were determined in
fried products like sardine, tuna, veal, hake, chicken, pork, lamb
and potato (Perell et al., 2009) which exhibited higher PAHs concentration (13.3035.42 lg/kg) over same samples cooked by
other methods (3.1527.93 lg/kg). Among all samples, fried fish
showed highest PAHs concentration (35.42 lg/kg). Contrarily,
PAHs concentration in roasted hake and chicken (19.26 and
27.93 lg/kg respectively) superseded fried samples (13.30 and
14.96 respectively). Contemporary fish processing involves processes like char-boiling, grilling, roasting, boiling and braaing.
PAHs levels in fish fillets of hake, snoek, yellow tail and angel fish
cooked by frying, boiling and grilling were determined. The sum of
P
BaP and BkF ( 2PAH) was 1.46 lg/kg in fried fish and 0.56 lg/kg
as least in boiled angel fish. PAHs abundance followed the order:
snoek > hakes > yellow tail > angel fish. Variations in fillets PAHs
depended on several factors like penetration of oil, duration, temperature achieved and air circulations (Olatunji, Fatoki, Opeolu, &
Ximba, 2015).
773
Table 3
PAHs concentration in roasted food products.
S.
No.
Food product
Samples
PAHs value
Finding
References
Nigerian staple
foods
Roasted plantain
Ogbuagu and
Ayoade (2012)
Roasted Fish
Suya
Romanian Coffee
samples
0.00190.732 lg/kg
Edible oils
Total PAHs: 0
3.44 lg/kg
29.16 lg/kg
103.56 lg/kg
34.79 lg/kg
774
775
Food product
Samples
Fish
PAHs value
P
4PAHs: 312 lg/kg
Smoked fish
Smoked meats
P
PAHs: 159.48 lg/kg
P4
4PAHs: 57.23 lg/kg
Chorizo de cebolla
Chorizo gallego
Chourico de Carne
Salpicao
Tras-os-Montes
Alentejo
Moura
Chourico de Carne
Salpicao
Tras-os-Montes
Alentejo
Smoked salmon
Smoked moose
Finding
References
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
had the highest PAHs
Mohammadi,
GhasemzadehMohammadi, Haratian,
Khaksar, and Chaichi (2013)
Phenenanthrene, Naphthalene,
Anthracene found in both
776
777
778
paella rice dish, chickpeas, lentils, white beans etc. contains casing,
not removed during these preparations and possess maximum
PAHs contamination due to smoking and other cooking practices.
Hence, it has been advised to remove meat product casing before
eating it so as to reduce risk exposure due to these contaminants
(Ledesma et al., 2014). Moreover, collagen casings must be used
while smoking sausages to reduce PAHs contamination and
enhance barrier to their entry (Skaljac et al., 2014). Similarly, in
another study, 3.4,88,1779 and 9937 lg/kg PAHs concentration
was observed in bread (Pan-de-Cea), cheeses (San-Simon-da Costa,
Idiazabal and Humus), sausage (Chorizo garlic pork) and paprika
(Pimenton de La Vera) respectively, and it was advised to remove
external part of cheeses and sausages before ingestion. Moreover,
use of paprika spice in small quantities will not pose much harm
despite of its high PAHs concentrations (Fasano, Yebra-pimentel,
& Martnez-carballo, 2016).
5.6. Monitoring processing aspects
5.6.1. Refining
A monitoring programme for oil refining industries needs to be
developed and application of activated charcoal to remove PAHs
should be strictly followed (Rojo Camargo et al., 2012).
5.6.2. Storing and canning
Studies conducted on cachaca drink has shown that its packaging in containers added to PAHs contamination and hence, the
storage and other containers like can etc. must be monitored properly (Machado et al., 2014).
5.6.3. Tracing
Alomirah et al. (2010) studied PAHs content in different vegetable oils and fats in Kuwait including the products imported
from different countries. High PAHs level was reported in Indian
imported products to Kuwait like sesame oil, mustard oil and
mixed vegetable oils. Maximum concentration of PAH8 was
found in mixed vegetable cooking oil samples imported from
China and Egypt i.e. 12 and 7.15 lg/kg respectively stating that
PAHs and its alkylated form must be properly monitored. Since,
trans-boundaries are involved, effective tracing back the product
may also help in checking quality and safety of food products.
5.7. Use alternatives
Protein rich food products undergoing thermal treatment e.g.
charcoal grilled meat are subjected to PAHs generation and deposition through pyrolysis and adsorption process respectively
(Farhadian, Jinap, Hanifah, & Zaidul, 2011). Preheating by steam
and microwave as well as aluminum and banana leaf based wrapping employed prior grilling reduced PAHs levels of meat sample.
BaP and other PAHs were not found in treatment subjected samples while the levels of Fluorene initially present in chicken and
beef samples reduced by 81% and 46% respectively (Farhadian
et al., 2011). Sorption of PAHs present in Meat by packaging film
or vacuum packaging or employing sugar smoking technique
rather than traditional method removes up to 50% PAHs (Nisha
et al., 2015). Similarly, for aged drinks, barrels manufactured with
convective toasting minimized PAHs associated risks and hazards
(Falcn & Gndara, 2005). Also, use of commercial liquid smoking
techniques rather than traditional methods assured food safety
(Esposito et al., 2015).
5.8. Innovative interventions
PAHs formed during smoke curing of fish was reduced to
2169% and removed by adsorption through a specially designed
the dietary risk assessments (Olatunji et al., 2015). Additionally, expressing or relating biological effects of PAHs in food
with cigarette smoking exposure requires careful and cautious approach as internal exposure or risk will be governed
highly by administration route (gastric and pulmonary). The
need thus lies for development of proper regulations and
approach to measure risk (Golozar et al., 2012).
779
References
7. Conclusions
Wide range of food products are present in different parts of the
world; each food product exhibit variations due to differences in
individual preferences, cooking practices, raw materials, ingredients, temperature etc. Even, same food product cooked by single
cooking method exhibits variations. All these factors contribute
difficulty in identification of striking point of PAHs formation in
that food product. Better understanding of PAHs formation mechanism can be achieved if the food products cooking method and
ingredients are standardized. Standardization of food product
apropos to above parameters will also help in providing minimum
risk level doses and setting of proper standards and regulations for
PAHs levels in that food product.
The present data on PAHs in food products and food groups is
very heterogeneous, widely spread and difficult to normalize, making the comparison between the food products tedious. Also, the
scope of studies is diverse such as focusing only on commercial
products, entire chain, single or many cooking practice, different
processing stages and diverse processed forms of food item,
becoming a limitation while comparing data. Standardization of
cooking method and product as mentioned above may remove
the constraint of comparing food products and will aid in categorizing them on basis of PAHs levels, mutagenicity levels and risk
exposure to humans.
Another constraint observed was lack of standard quantification
method and relative conversion factors to normalize data. Though
PAHs values in food are mainly reported in terms of lg/kg, however other units such as lg/l, ng/l, ng/g etc. were also used.
Inter-conversion of units like from lg/l to lg/kg for normalization
is not easy (requires solution density also). Also, PAHs quantification is done through different techniques like GC, HPLC, Sensors
etc. and correlation among these techniques is yet not illustrated
which may be a contributing factor for heterogeneity in data. The
need arises for standardizing quantification method and standardizing units.
Additionally, the results of different studies were reported for a
P
P
P
single or few detected PAHs viz.
4PAHs,
8PAHs,
13PAHs or
P
16PAHs making it difficult to normalize and address suitable toxicological evaluations. Though European Food Safety Authority
P
P
identified
8PAHs or
4PAHs as good toxicity indicators, but
reports on food PAHs levels show that these indicators solely fail
to give overall view of the exposure and also stated them as not
sufficient indicators to establish dietary exposure of PAHs.
Regulatory standards (minimum risk level doses or maximum
contaminant levels) do not exist for all types of food categories.
In this case, the comparison of PAHs concentration in food products, not having standards, is done with other related or nearest
product for dietary exposure risk assessment and the products
has been stated as safe. Moreover, general public food preferences
and eating habits are very different and complex, and very few
studies have targeted them. For better risk assessment and evaluations, it becomes necessary to focus the general public and their
food habits. Hence, there lies an immediate need for regulatory
standards covering different food products or groups and as per
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