port lomo13mm ING 6/5/10 09:16 Página 1

24 Discover
The D i s c o v e r Collection

Air Tr a v e l Air Tr a v e l
J o rge Ontiveros

Discover
Air Travel

Jorge Ontiveros
Jorge Ontiveros
Discover

With this collection, Aena, the public J o rge Ontivero s

organisation that manages airports and air
After several years in the Spanish Army, in
navigation in Spain, hopes to bring the exciting 1989 he became a civilian air traffic controller.
world of aeronautics closer to society as a whole. Between 1999 and 2005, he developed his
Other books in English: professional activity in management at Aena.
Airports The main goal of the collection is to provide He has published many articles and essays on
air transport and air traffic control in
Airline Companies information on all aspects of airports, air numerous magazines, amongst which are:
Air Sports navigation, and air transport in general in a lively
Aviador, Mach.82, Avion Revue, Empuje, and
Airport Operations Revista de aeronáutica y astronáutica. He was
and accessible manner. part of the professional team that developed
Other books in Spanish: Título Propio en Gestión Aeronáutica -the
T h e D i s c o v e r C o l l e c t i o n is designed Course in Aviation Management of the
El transporte aéreo Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, where he
to appeal to all kinds of readers, and requires no
Las aeronaves has been a lecturer. He has collaborated with
prior knowledge of aeronautical subjects. the Universidad Carlos III in courses in air
El control aéreo traffic management, which have been
Las profesiones en la aeronáutica The clarity of the language and explanations
sponsored by the European Union. He
La aviación general contained in these books will help anyone using occasionally participates as an aviation expert
and consultant on issues related to air traffic
La carga aérea Aena facilities to better understand the activities control. He is cofounder of ATC magazine, the
La navegación aérea underlying their day-to-day operation. Professional Air Traffic Controllers Association
La navegación por satélite of Spain (APCAE), founder and editor of ATC
The Discover Collection could open up a today magazine and webmaster of
Los pioneros de la aviación “ATCweb”, a blog where you can find most of
fascinating, constantly evolving world to
La industria aeronáutica his works, amongst them: “¡Aeropuerto
pre-university students, and even help orient congestionado!, ¿ampliar o trasladar?”
El handling aeroportuario (Congested airport!, Expand or relocate?),
La aerostación their future careers.
“El binomio piloto-controlador, ¿un equipo?”
Los cohetes (The pilot-controller association, a team?),
or “El control aéreo y la seguridad en vuelo”
Los helicópteros (Air traffic control and flight safety), a work
Los motores de aviación which won an award from the Aena
El derecho aeronáutico Foundation, where he has been a lecturer.
He is also author of the book in this collection
Las mujeres en la aeronáutica “Discover Air Traffic Control”, which is now in
La meteorología en la aviación its third edition.
1as págDES24 ING 10/5/10 09:03 Página 4

Jorge Ontiveros Discover Air Travel

4 5

21. ...And couldn’t get up in the morning! 124

CONTENTS
22. Thunder and lightning! 126
23. Fasten your seatbelt; we are encountering
Foreword 6 an area of turbulence... 130
Introduction 9 VIII. Travelling by plane or by car, which
is safer? 136
Preliminary note 10
24. Risk and safety; travelling by plane or
by car? 136
I. Discover Air Travel 12
25. Car safety 144
1. From the age of pioneers till today 12
26. “I am scared of planes, I am scared
2. Commercial aviation in Spain 16 of boats too...” 150
3. If this is your first time 22
IX. Flying healthily 156
II. Flying, trick or magic? 28 27. Breathing at 10.000 metres 156
4. Why does an aeroplane fly? 28 28. I can’t feel my legs! 160
5. How does an aeroplane fly? 34 29. Jet lag, what it is and how to alleviate it 161
III. The aeroplane: design, manufacture 30. I am expecting, can I fly? 164
and maintenance 40 31. When I fly I get earache 167
6. Manufacturing reliable planes 40
X. Clarifying doubts 170
7. From manufacture to line flying 47
32. I have a young child; will travelling by plane
8. We take care of your plane; we take care of you 53 be complicated? 170
IV. Air routes and air traffic control 58 33. Would it be complicated to fly with
9. Where do aeroplanes fly? 58 reduced mobility? 175
10. Air traffic control 61 34. Everything you always wanted to know... 178
35. And just before we finish...some advice
V. At the airport 66 relating to... 180
11. The airport 66
12. The best protection is invisible 75
Appendix 187
Passenger rights 189
13. Come on, hurry up! 83
Web pages 190
14. A bird in the hand is worth... 86
Items prohibited in hand luggage 193
VI. On the plane 92 Items prohibited in checked luggage 197
15. Ladies and gentlemen, welcome on board! 92
Courses to lose your fear of flying 198
16. Ladies and gentlemen, this is your captain speaking 98
Movies about air travel 199
17. Entering the runway for take-off 104
Different in-flight magazines 200
18. In case of an emergency landing 110
Travel magazines 201
VII. Meteorology 116 Books to help you lose your fear of flying 202
19. It’s raining, it’s pouring. The old man is snoring… 116 Bibliography and recommended reading 204
20. ...He bumped his head and went to bed... 120 End note 206
1as págDES24 ING 10/5/10 09:03 Página 4

Jorge Ontiveros Discover Air Travel

4 5

21. ...And couldn’t get up in the morning! 124

CONTENTS
22. Thunder and lightning! 126
23. Fasten your seatbelt; we are encountering
Foreword 6 an area of turbulence... 130
Introduction 9 VIII. Travelling by plane or by car, which
is safer? 136
Preliminary note 10
24. Risk and safety; travelling by plane or
by car? 136
I. Discover Air Travel 12
25. Car safety 144
1. From the age of pioneers till today 12
26. “I am scared of planes, I am scared
2. Commercial aviation in Spain 16 of boats too...” 150
3. If this is your first time 22
IX. Flying healthily 156
II. Flying, trick or magic? 28 27. Breathing at 10.000 metres 156
4. Why does an aeroplane fly? 28 28. I can’t feel my legs! 160
5. How does an aeroplane fly? 34 29. Jet lag, what it is and how to alleviate it 161
III. The aeroplane: design, manufacture 30. I am expecting, can I fly? 164
and maintenance 40 31. When I fly I get earache 167
6. Manufacturing reliable planes 40
X. Clarifying doubts 170
7. From manufacture to line flying 47
32. I have a young child; will travelling by plane
8. We take care of your plane; we take care of you 53 be complicated? 170
IV. Air routes and air traffic control 58 33. Would it be complicated to fly with
9. Where do aeroplanes fly? 58 reduced mobility? 175
10. Air traffic control 61 34. Everything you always wanted to know... 178
35. And just before we finish...some advice
V. At the airport 66 relating to... 180
11. The airport 66
12. The best protection is invisible 75
Appendix 187
Passenger rights 189
13. Come on, hurry up! 83
Web pages 190
14. A bird in the hand is worth... 86
Items prohibited in hand luggage 193
VI. On the plane 92 Items prohibited in checked luggage 197
15. Ladies and gentlemen, welcome on board! 92
Courses to lose your fear of flying 198
16. Ladies and gentlemen, this is your captain speaking 98
Movies about air travel 199
17. Entering the runway for take-off 104
Different in-flight magazines 200
18. In case of an emergency landing 110
Travel magazines 201
VII. Meteorology 116 Books to help you lose your fear of flying 202
19. It’s raining, it’s pouring. The old man is snoring… 116 Bibliography and recommended reading 204
20. ...He bumped his head and went to bed... 120 End note 206
1as págDES24 ING 10/5/10 09:03 Página 8
Jorge Ontiveros
8 9
Introduction
This book has been written thinking about you, THE PASSENGER. Its objective:
that you know how the lattice that surrounds the flight works, and also to pro-
vide you with answers to many questions that you may have had for years. We
are also going to talk about safety, both on land and in flight, as well as give
you some advice to make your flight more comfortable.
I would like to point out here that, regarding the chapters dealing with air tra-
vel safety, I have taken into account the maturity of the reader, and also the fact
that you are aware of the dangers and hazards of everyday life; how going to
the cinema, to the corner shop, for a walk in the park, a bike ride or any type
of travel presents risks. So does flying.
What makes air travel different from all the rest is that it has become the safest
means of transport there is. This badge has been merited not just because of
the “natural” advances in technology, but also because of “forced” advances
as we learn from accidents that have happened through the years, and the com-
mitment of all the professionals that surround you.
However, this work does not intend to be a handbook to help you lose your fear
of flying, although there is a chapter dedicated to that. There are many publi-
cations on this subject already in the market, the internet has scores of pages
dealing with it and there are very good professional psychologists and courses
to help you lose this fear, some of them organized by airlines themselves or by
pilot associations.
It may be impossible for you not to suspect that this writer intends to convince
you to continue flying or to start doing it, and to make you trust blindly in the
whole network that surrounds you from the moment you enter the premises of
your departure airport until you arrive at your destination. Or, if you are not an
aeroplane user - or if you are undecided about it, it is quite possible that you
think the strategy behind these pages is to convince you not to fear flying.
Actually, yours truly understands that you may have that feeling. Particularly,
when during the conception of this book there was enough news that made me
consider not going ahead with this project, in case I made a fool of myself. One
can be sensitive too!
Therefore, a necessary requisite to approach this work is your awareness that
sadly, accidents can happen. Be it on aeroplanes, cars, bicycles, scooters, buses,
Discover Air Travel
trains or skiing. However, they are progressively less frequent due to the safety
measures set in place both proactively and reactively.
According to Daniel Mauriño, Safety coordinator for the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO), “there is not another production system that has
invested and keeps investing as many millions and millions of dollars as aviation
invests in safety. Nevertheless, we keep doing it because there is a social
demand for safety that comes behind the first social demand, which is cheap
travel”.
Let me ask you first to consider this statement for a moment, because behind it
lies the safety network that will watch over you for the duration of your trip.
As you proceed with the reading I am proposing, you’ll discover, as they say, a
new world. Between the pages of this volume, you will find quite interesting
things like, for example, what the iconic naturalist Félix Rodriguez de la Fuente
has to do with air safety, where the ABS (anti-block braking system) that
operates on our vehicles nowadays comes from, or how aeroplanes are protec-
ted from lightning.
And when you read on, it is possible that you may see planes in a different light,
paying more attention to them and all that surrounds them, observing things
that you have never noticed before, and being amazed at the lengths to which
human ingenuity will go. It is even possible, that the whole flying experience of
flying will start to seem different, more pleasurable. If that happens, we will
have met the objective we had set for ourselves, both Aena as publisher, and
yours truly as author.
In conclusion, the objective of this work is that you know the activities going on
around you while you are in the premises of an airport or during your flight, to
make sure everything happens normally in every respect, as well as giving you
some tips and answering questions that you may have had for some time. As
usual, we have tried to do this in an enjoyable way, so that reading this volume
of The Discover collection may be, from the first page to the last, a pleasant
voyage of discovery.
I do not wish to conclude without advising you, before you begin this journey,
to fasten your seatbelt, and pay attention to the safety demonstration perfor-
med by the crew, because you are about to enter the runway for take-off...
Have a pleasant journey!
Jorge Ontiveros
Madrid, May 2010
1as págDES24 ING 10/5/10 09:03 Página 8
Jorge Ontiveros
8 9
Introduction
This book has been written thinking about you, THE PASSENGER. Its objective:
that you know how the lattice that surrounds the flight works, and also to pro-
vide you with answers to many questions that you may have had for years. We
are also going to talk about safety, both on land and in flight, as well as give
you some advice to make your flight more comfortable.
I would like to point out here that, regarding the chapters dealing with air tra-
vel safety, I have taken into account the maturity of the reader, and also the fact
that you are aware of the dangers and hazards of everyday life; how going to
the cinema, to the corner shop, for a walk in the park, a bike ride or any type
of travel presents risks. So does flying.
What makes air travel different from all the rest is that it has become the safest
means of transport there is. This badge has been merited not just because of
the “natural” advances in technology, but also because of “forced” advances
as we learn from accidents that have happened through the years, and the com-
mitment of all the professionals that surround you.
However, this work does not intend to be a handbook to help you lose your fear
of flying, although there is a chapter dedicated to that. There are many publi-
cations on this subject already in the market, the internet has scores of pages
dealing with it and there are very good professional psychologists and courses
to help you lose this fear, some of them organized by airlines themselves or by
pilot associations.
It may be impossible for you not to suspect that this writer intends to convince
you to continue flying or to start doing it, and to make you trust blindly in the
whole network that surrounds you from the moment you enter the premises of
your departure airport until you arrive at your destination. Or, if you are not an
aeroplane user - or if you are undecided about it, it is quite possible that you
think the strategy behind these pages is to convince you not to fear flying.
Actually, yours truly understands that you may have that feeling. Particularly,
when during the conception of this book there was enough news that made me
consider not going ahead with this project, in case I made a fool of myself. One
can be sensitive too!
Therefore, a necessary requisite to approach this work is your awareness that
sadly, accidents can happen. Be it on aeroplanes, cars, bicycles, scooters, buses,
Discover Air Travel
trains or skiing. However, they are progressively less frequent due to the safety
measures set in place both proactively and reactively.
According to Daniel Mauriño, Safety coordinator for the International Civil
Aviation Organization (ICAO), “there is not another production system that has
invested and keeps investing as many millions and millions of dollars as aviation
invests in safety. Nevertheless, we keep doing it because there is a social
demand for safety that comes behind the first social demand, which is cheap
travel”.
Let me ask you first to consider this statement for a moment, because behind it
lies the safety network that will watch over you for the duration of your trip.
As you proceed with the reading I am proposing, you’ll discover, as they say, a
new world. Between the pages of this volume, you will find quite interesting
things like, for example, what the iconic naturalist Félix Rodriguez de la Fuente
has to do with air safety, where the ABS (anti-block braking system) that
operates on our vehicles nowadays comes from, or how aeroplanes are protec-
ted from lightning.
And when you read on, it is possible that you may see planes in a different light,
paying more attention to them and all that surrounds them, observing things
that you have never noticed before, and being amazed at the lengths to which
human ingenuity will go. It is even possible, that the whole flying experience of
flying will start to seem different, more pleasurable. If that happens, we will
have met the objective we had set for ourselves, both Aena as publisher, and
yours truly as author.
In conclusion, the objective of this work is that you know the activities going on
around you while you are in the premises of an airport or during your flight, to
make sure everything happens normally in every respect, as well as giving you
some tips and answering questions that you may have had for some time. As
usual, we have tried to do this in an enjoyable way, so that reading this volume
of The Discover collection may be, from the first page to the last, a pleasant
voyage of discovery.
I do not wish to conclude without advising you, before you begin this journey,
to fasten your seatbelt, and pay attention to the safety demonstration perfor-
med by the crew, because you are about to enter the runway for take-off...
Have a pleasant journey!
Jorge Ontiveros
Madrid, May 2010
1as págDES24 ING 10/5/10 09:03 Página 10
Jorge Ontiveros
10
Preliminary note
The images of plane trails in the sky and of passengers at airport terminals has
become a regular sight, almost a necessity it could be said, in modern society.
Despite the fact that aviation has promoted the development of commerce and
tourism (not to mention wars) to levels unthinkable years ago, the aeroplane has
transformed our mentality and the way we appreciate distances due to shorter
travel times. With that, it has somehow extended our lives inasmuch as we can
live many more experiences, discover many more places, people and cultures
than if it had not developed to the current stage. Furthermore, if the Concorde
had been as successful commercially as it was forecast at the time, the
possibilities would have been endless, although the future hasn’t had its last
word yet.
That is one of the main advantages of air travel over other means of transport,
for in a few hours, sometimes just in a few minutes, and for prices that are
getting more and more “reasonable”, it lets us move to almost everywhere in
the world and return home as if it were nothing after enjoying a pleasant
holiday, doing business or visiting friends.
All of this, has caused air travel to stop being something strange, far flung and
adventurous to become, in spite of what sometimes happens, a common
activity in our lives.
Data from the International Air Transport Association (IATA) estimates close to
2,000 million passengers -almost a third of the world’s population- are flown
annually; a number that is expected to increase around a 6% per annum in the
next five years. All this travelling requires very strict regulations and very
responsible, well qualified professionals.
Safety is a fundamental principle that is permanently present in any aeronautical
activity. Be it designing, building or operating an aircraft, it constitutes one of
the objectives set by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) in
December 1944 at the Chicago Convention, where it mentions in article 44, the
“safe development” of international civil aviation, “safe air transport” and
“flight safety in international air navigation”.
Discover Air Travel
11
This philosophy has endorsed that, in the more than half a century that has
gone by since these principles were established, the modern plane that carries
you to your destination is a product of thorough design, technological advances
and human ingenuity.
But, it must be said it is also a consequence of clumsiness, though not ours as
individuals, but of human beings, for, after tripping over the same stone, we
learn from our mistakes because analysing the reasons for those mistakes helps
science, technology and regulation to develop and, at the same time, to
improve air safety and many other areas for humankind.
I would not want you to start to discover air travel without knowing the
people that have made their professional knowledge accessible to me reviewing
different chapters. Their invaluable advice has been key in allowing this book to
take off and fly into your hands. It is also fair and prudent to add that if you find
any mistakes or errors, the author is exclusively responsible, for not having been
able to adapt their advice to the contents of the chapters you are about to read.
Aníbal Isidoro Carmona (Aeronautical Engineer), Antonio Esteban Oñate
(Aeronautical Technician), Fernando Maestro Aznar (Air Traffic Controller),
Manuel Galo Romero (Airbus 320 Pilot), Begoña Ontiveros (Flight Attendant),
David Ontiveros (Boeing 737 NG Pilot), Jaime Ontiveros (Flight Attendant), Jesús
Orte Bermejo (Technical Flight Officer), Manuel Ortega (Airbus 320 Pilot),
Mariano Pérez Criado (Psychologist), Francisco Sastre (Aeronautical Medicine
Doctor), Mar Bueno Rubio (Flight Attendant), Luis Utrilla Navarro (Aeronautical
Technician and Writer), Mariano Domingo Calvo (Aena’s Airport Security
Manager) and Manuel Zugasti Enrique (Head of Aena’s Ecosystems
Department).
I am not forgetting Ángel Luis Arias Serrano for believing in this project from the
beginning, Carmen de Cima Suárez for her constant support, Esther Maseda
and the team of Aena’s Documentation and Publishing Centre, nor Pilar Alonso
or Javier Berguizas, for their availability and invaluable and efficient help during
the complex process of publishing this book.
To all of them, thank you very much.
1as págDES24 ING 10/5/10 09:03 Página 10
Jorge Ontiveros
10
Preliminary note
The images of plane trails in the sky and of passengers at airport terminals has
become a regular sight, almost a necessity it could be said, in modern society.
Despite the fact that aviation has promoted the development of commerce and
tourism (not to mention wars) to levels unthinkable years ago, the aeroplane has
transformed our mentality and the way we appreciate distances due to shorter
travel times. With that, it has somehow extended our lives inasmuch as we can
live many more experiences, discover many more places, people and cultures
than if it had not developed to the current stage. Furthermore, if the Concorde
had been as successful commercially as it was forecast at the time, the
possibilities would have been endless, although the future hasn’t had its last
word yet.
That is one of the main advantages of air travel over other means of transport,
for in a few hours, sometimes just in a few minutes, and for prices that are
getting more and more “reasonable”, it lets us move to almost everywhere in
the world and return home as if it were nothing after enjoying a pleasant
holiday, doing business or visiting friends.
All of this, has caused air travel to stop being something strange, far flung and
adventurous to become, in spite of what sometimes happens, a common
activity in our lives.
Data from the International Air Transport Association (IATA) estimates close to
2,000 million passengers -almost a third of the world’s population- are flown
annually; a number that is expected to increase around a 6% per annum in the
next five years. All this travelling requires very strict regulations and very
responsible, well qualified professionals.
Safety is a fundamental principle that is permanently present in any aeronautical
activity. Be it designing, building or operating an aircraft, it constitutes one of
the objectives set by the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) in
December 1944 at the Chicago Convention, where it mentions in article 44, the
“safe development” of international civil aviation, “safe air transport” and
“flight safety in international air navigation”.
Discover Air Travel
11
This philosophy has endorsed that, in the more than half a century that has
gone by since these principles were established, the modern plane that carries
you to your destination is a product of thorough design, technological advances
and human ingenuity.
But, it must be said it is also a consequence of clumsiness, though not ours as
individuals, but of human beings, for, after tripping over the same stone, we
learn from our mistakes because analysing the reasons for those mistakes helps
science, technology and regulation to develop and, at the same time, to
improve air safety and many other areas for humankind.
I would not want you to start to discover air travel without knowing the
people that have made their professional knowledge accessible to me reviewing
different chapters. Their invaluable advice has been key in allowing this book to
take off and fly into your hands. It is also fair and prudent to add that if you find
any mistakes or errors, the author is exclusively responsible, for not having been
able to adapt their advice to the contents of the chapters you are about to read.
Aníbal Isidoro Carmona (Aeronautical Engineer), Antonio Esteban Oñate
(Aeronautical Technician), Fernando Maestro Aznar (Air Traffic Controller),
Manuel Galo Romero (Airbus 320 Pilot), Begoña Ontiveros (Flight Attendant),
David Ontiveros (Boeing 737 NG Pilot), Jaime Ontiveros (Flight Attendant), Jesús
Orte Bermejo (Technical Flight Officer), Manuel Ortega (Airbus 320 Pilot),
Mariano Pérez Criado (Psychologist), Francisco Sastre (Aeronautical Medicine
Doctor), Mar Bueno Rubio (Flight Attendant), Luis Utrilla Navarro (Aeronautical
Technician and Writer), Mariano Domingo Calvo (Aena’s Airport Security
Manager) and Manuel Zugasti Enrique (Head of Aena’s Ecosystems
Department).
I am not forgetting Ángel Luis Arias Serrano for believing in this project from the
beginning, Carmen de Cima Suárez for her constant support, Esther Maseda
and the team of Aena’s Documentation and Publishing Centre, nor Pilar Alonso
or Javier Berguizas, for their availability and invaluable and efficient help during
the complex process of publishing this book.
To all of them, thank you very much.
Par IV-DESC24 ING 10/5/10 08:56 Página 58

Jorge Ontiveros Discover Air Travel

58 59

Part IV airport following the flight plan route. So do the air traffic controllers, but they
cannot constantly indicate to each plane where to turn to follow their route.
Route? What route?

In the same way that there are roads, railways and maritime routes, the sky is
Air routes and air traffic control organised into airways for aircraft circulation. These airways are invisible to
everybody except to pilots and air traffic controllers. Cockpits are equipped
with systems that allow them to interpret signals broadcast by radio transmit-
ters or to fly following geographic coordinates aided by the global positioning
system, (GPS) satellite network23. Air traffic controllers have these airways
marked in their radar screens and can follow the flights and warn pilots if
anything is out of order.

If pilots make use of these signals to navigate from A to B, they are said to fly
under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR), and this will allow them to fly as high as
their aeroplanes are able to. If they use roads, railways and topography
for guidance they are flying under Visual Flight Rules (VFR) and they will have
to fly lower to be able to see the terrain and avoid losing their way. Even
though there are always exceptions to every rule, we could generalise
saying that passenger planes always fly under IFR from the time they take off
until landing, and that they are supervised by air traffic controllers using their
radar screens to issue flight instructions and to keep them away from other
planes.

9. Where do aeroplanes fly?
This chapter describes what happens during a flight and answers a question
that you may have asked yourself before: how is it possible that pilots know
exactly where they are in the vast blue sky and which route to take to get to
their destination?
If you look up at the sky on a clear day, what do you see? Leaving aside the
clouds, it is likely that you will see trails left by aeroplanes. You may notice
several trails going in the same direction in the sky, which cross other trails
going in a different direction. If that is what you see, you are viewing the
airways with your very own eyes. These airways are about 15 km. wide, and
the trails left by the aeroplanes are not smoke; they are exhaust gases that
become visible when they freeze at around -50° Celsius.
Therefore, flying under Instrument Flight Rules involves directing a plane using
electronic equipment on-board to interpret signals broadcast by land transmit-
ters -radio navigation- with acronyms such as NDB, VOR, DME or ILS. It may
also involve flying guided by geographic position information gathered by the

The most obvious answer is probably that this is what air traffic controllers are
for. But that is not the case, well, not exactly.
23 The GPS constellation is formed by 24 satellites in six orbit planes around the earth at a height of 20,200 km.
Although air traffic control supervises the pilots and provides them with assis-
These are the same satellites used by the navigation system in your car.
tance during the flight, pilots know perfectly well how to fly their planes to the
Par IV-DESC24 ING 10/5/10 08:56 Página 58

Jorge Ontiveros Discover Air Travel

58 59

Part IV airport following the flight plan route. So do the air traffic controllers, but they
cannot constantly indicate to each plane where to turn to follow their route.
Route? What route?

In the same way that there are roads, railways and maritime routes, the sky is
Air routes and air traffic control organised into airways for aircraft circulation. These airways are invisible to
everybody except to pilots and air traffic controllers. Cockpits are equipped
with systems that allow them to interpret signals broadcast by radio transmit-
ters or to fly following geographic coordinates aided by the global positioning
system, (GPS) satellite network23. Air traffic controllers have these airways
marked in their radar screens and can follow the flights and warn pilots if
anything is out of order.

If pilots make use of these signals to navigate from A to B, they are said to fly
under Instrument Flight Rules (IFR), and this will allow them to fly as high as
their aeroplanes are able to. If they use roads, railways and topography
for guidance they are flying under Visual Flight Rules (VFR) and they will have
to fly lower to be able to see the terrain and avoid losing their way. Even
though there are always exceptions to every rule, we could generalise
saying that passenger planes always fly under IFR from the time they take off
until landing, and that they are supervised by air traffic controllers using their
radar screens to issue flight instructions and to keep them away from other
planes.

9. Where do aeroplanes fly?
This chapter describes what happens during a flight and answers a question
that you may have asked yourself before: how is it possible that pilots know
exactly where they are in the vast blue sky and which route to take to get to
their destination?
If you look up at the sky on a clear day, what do you see? Leaving aside the
clouds, it is likely that you will see trails left by aeroplanes. You may notice
several trails going in the same direction in the sky, which cross other trails
going in a different direction. If that is what you see, you are viewing the
airways with your very own eyes. These airways are about 15 km. wide, and
the trails left by the aeroplanes are not smoke; they are exhaust gases that
become visible when they freeze at around -50° Celsius.
Therefore, flying under Instrument Flight Rules involves directing a plane using
electronic equipment on-board to interpret signals broadcast by land transmit-
ters -radio navigation- with acronyms such as NDB, VOR, DME or ILS. It may
also involve flying guided by geographic position information gathered by the

The most obvious answer is probably that this is what air traffic controllers are
for. But that is not the case, well, not exactly.
23 The GPS constellation is formed by 24 satellites in six orbit planes around the earth at a height of 20,200 km.
Although air traffic control supervises the pilots and provides them with assis-
These are the same satellites used by the navigation system in your car.
tance during the flight, pilots know perfectly well how to fly their planes to the
Par IV-DESC24 ING 10/5/10 08:56 Página 60

Jorge Ontiveros Discover Air Travel

60 61

same satellites that direct the 10. Air traffic control

navigation system in our car, or
by any other aides that help navi- The mission of Air Traffic Control (ATC) is to provide safety, order and a smooth
gation during the en route part flow to air traffic in that order. It performs this mission at airports as well as
of the flight as well as during during flight in what are known as “en-route control” and “approach control”.
approach and landing. It is that
simple.

An important point is that all the

Airways as seen from the ground.
Airways as pilots see them.
Airways as air traffic controllers see them.
systems that broadcast signals
enabling aircraft to follow
airways must be certified
regularly. This is to ensure that
the signals are adequate,
because there can be misalign-
ments and interference from
other radio broadcasts such as
frequency modulation (FM) for
ILS approach and landing.
There are established programs
of regular inspections to deter-
mine how these systems work,
and to identify any possible
anomalies that could affect flight At the airport we have the traffic control tower. Because of its position relative
procedures based on them if to the runways and taxiways and thanks to its height, it is a privileged location
these irregularities went unno- from which to organize aircraft movement, both on land and in the airspace
surrounding the airport -generally within an eight kilometre radius from the
ticed. The reason for these
inspections is not just to ease runway.
navigation for the pilots or air Before the aeroplane starts moving from the parking area, air traffic control has
traffic management for the air already begun its mission; first, giving instructions to the crew about the flight
traffic controller, but because of plan route -clearance delivery. Then, indicating to the pilots the taxiways that
their vital importance in ensuring they must follow to get from the parking area to the runway for take-off
flight safety. -ground control. For this the air traffic controller must take into account any
other planes, bag or cargo carts, maintenance vehicles, passenger buses, cate-
This verification is known as cali-
ring vehicles or refuelers, all necessary for an airport to function smoothly.
bration and Aena has an aero-
Before entering the runway (after making sure that it is unoccupied), the air
plane well equipped to analyse
traffic controller informs the pilots of the wind speed and direction and autho-
the broadcast data, and very
rises them to enter the runway for take-off.
capable professionals to perform
these procedures so that the net It is not widely known that, as we have seen above, once an aeroplane leaves
of airways is available 24 hours a the airport, pilots do not fly wherever they want, but must follow an established
day. path. After take-off, air traffic controllers will supervise the aircraft through its
Par IV-DESC24 ING 10/5/10 08:56 Página 60

Jorge Ontiveros Discover Air Travel

60 61

same satellites that direct the 10. Air traffic control

navigation system in our car, or
by any other aides that help navi- The mission of Air Traffic Control (ATC) is to provide safety, order and a smooth
gation during the en route part flow to air traffic in that order. It performs this mission at airports as well as
of the flight as well as during during flight in what are known as “en-route control” and “approach control”.
approach and landing. It is that
simple.

An important point is that all the

Airways as seen from the ground.
Airways as pilots see them.
Airways as air traffic controllers see them.
systems that broadcast signals
enabling aircraft to follow
airways must be certified
regularly. This is to ensure that
the signals are adequate,
because there can be misalign-
ments and interference from
other radio broadcasts such as
frequency modulation (FM) for
ILS approach and landing.
There are established programs
of regular inspections to deter-
mine how these systems work,
and to identify any possible
anomalies that could affect flight At the airport we have the traffic control tower. Because of its position relative
procedures based on them if to the runways and taxiways and thanks to its height, it is a privileged location
these irregularities went unno- from which to organize aircraft movement, both on land and in the airspace
surrounding the airport -generally within an eight kilometre radius from the
ticed. The reason for these
inspections is not just to ease runway.
navigation for the pilots or air Before the aeroplane starts moving from the parking area, air traffic control has
traffic management for the air already begun its mission; first, giving instructions to the crew about the flight
traffic controller, but because of plan route -clearance delivery. Then, indicating to the pilots the taxiways that
their vital importance in ensuring they must follow to get from the parking area to the runway for take-off
flight safety. -ground control. For this the air traffic controller must take into account any
other planes, bag or cargo carts, maintenance vehicles, passenger buses, cate-
This verification is known as cali-
ring vehicles or refuelers, all necessary for an airport to function smoothly.
bration and Aena has an aero-
Before entering the runway (after making sure that it is unoccupied), the air
plane well equipped to analyse
traffic controller informs the pilots of the wind speed and direction and autho-
the broadcast data, and very
rises them to enter the runway for take-off.
capable professionals to perform
these procedures so that the net It is not widely known that, as we have seen above, once an aeroplane leaves
of airways is available 24 hours a the airport, pilots do not fly wherever they want, but must follow an established
day. path. After take-off, air traffic controllers will supervise the aircraft through its
Par IV-DESC24 ING 10/5/10 08:56 Página 62
Jorge Ontiveros
62
departure, its route and arrival from en-route and approach control centres,
maintaining radio contact with the aeroplane until another air traffic control
tower takes over to clear it for landing. This is performed after ensuring that the
runway is empty of other aircraft or any kind of obstacles. The aeroplane will be
continuously in touch with a team of air traffic controllers that will make sure
the plane reaches its destination without any incidents24.
The main mission of air traffic controllers is to keep aircraft apart. This means
that air traffic controllers must ensure that those planes under their care do not
move closer to each other more than a given minimum limit known as “sepa-
ration minima”. To this end, a series of standards has been set that establishes
the minimum separation distance necessary between two aircraft to achieve
safe air navigation.
Separation can be horizontal or vertical. The former can be achieved either
through longitudinal separation, keeping the aircraft apart one behind the other
for a certain distance or for a certain time as specified in the standards, or
through lateral separation, keeping them apart applying specific separation
distances.
Vertical separation is achieved by defining the different altitude levels relative to
the terrain or to mean sea level, separated by a distance of 300 metres (1,000
24 Spain has four en-route control centres: at Madrid, Barcelona, Seville and the Canary Islands, and three terminal
area control centres that direct incoming and outgoing traffic within their responsibility zone: Santiago, Valencia
and Palma de Mallorca.
Discover Air Travel
63
Vertical separation
Lateral separation
Longitudinal Longitudinal
separation separation
Lateral separation
Vertical separation
Mobile parallelepiped to demonstrate the marginal safety zone allocated to each aircraft
which should not be invaded by another.
feet) in such a way that aircraft moving in a given direction will fly even levels
-2,000, 4,000, 6,000 feet and so on- whilst those travelling in the opposite
direction will fly odd levels -1,000, 3,000, 5,000 feet and so on. This way, two
aeroplanes flying within their authorised levels will be separated by at least
1,000 feet (300 metres) at the time they cross each other. Of course, if two
planes are at any point separated by a distance lesser than the vertical minimum
established by the regulations, they should be separated in the horizontal plane.
Each aeroplane has its own volume of air space that should not be invaded by
other aeroplanes.
If it is anticipated that this volume of protective air space is going to be inter-
cepted by another aircraft, there are systems on board and on the ground that
warn pilots and air traffic controllers that the separation distance is being exces-
sively reduced. Pilots are warned through the TCAS -Traffic alert and Collision
Avoidance System- and air traffic controllers through a conflict warning, based
on information gathered from radar screens and the flight plan of the aero-
planes.
The TCAS is a piece of equipment installed in the cockpit to provide the crew
with information regarding the position of nearby aircraft, to warn of conflic-
ting aeroplanes and to offer advice on solutions to resolve these issues and that
must be followed by the pilot. All this is based on rules and equations with
formulae integrated in its computer program. Warnings are issued when the
measures taken by air traffic control do not manage to keep the aeroplanes
apart the minimum separation distance established in the standards, or when a
pilot has not followed the instructions of the air traffic controller. It could be said
that it is similar to an additional safety net.
Par IV-DESC24 ING 10/5/10 08:56 Página 62
Jorge Ontiveros
62
departure, its route and arrival from en-route and approach control centres,
maintaining radio contact with the aeroplane until another air traffic control
tower takes over to clear it for landing. This is performed after ensuring that the
runway is empty of other aircraft or any kind of obstacles. The aeroplane will be
continuously in touch with a team of air traffic controllers that will make sure
the plane reaches its destination without any incidents24.
The main mission of air traffic controllers is to keep aircraft apart. This means
that air traffic controllers must ensure that those planes under their care do not
move closer to each other more than a given minimum limit known as “sepa-
ration minima”. To this end, a series of standards has been set that establishes
the minimum separation distance necessary between two aircraft to achieve
safe air navigation.
Separation can be horizontal or vertical. The former can be achieved either
through longitudinal separation, keeping the aircraft apart one behind the other
for a certain distance or for a certain time as specified in the standards, or
through lateral separation, keeping them apart applying specific separation
distances.
Vertical separation is achieved by defining the different altitude levels relative to
the terrain or to mean sea level, separated by a distance of 300 metres (1,000
24 Spain has four en-route control centres: at Madrid, Barcelona, Seville and the Canary Islands, and three terminal
area control centres that direct incoming and outgoing traffic within their responsibility zone: Santiago, Valencia
and Palma de Mallorca.
Discover Air Travel
63
Vertical separation
Lateral separation
Longitudinal Longitudinal
separation separation
Lateral separation
Vertical separation
Mobile parallelepiped to demonstrate the marginal safety zone allocated to each aircraft
which should not be invaded by another.
feet) in such a way that aircraft moving in a given direction will fly even levels
-2,000, 4,000, 6,000 feet and so on- whilst those travelling in the opposite
direction will fly odd levels -1,000, 3,000, 5,000 feet and so on. This way, two
aeroplanes flying within their authorised levels will be separated by at least
1,000 feet (300 metres) at the time they cross each other. Of course, if two
planes are at any point separated by a distance lesser than the vertical minimum
established by the regulations, they should be separated in the horizontal plane.
Each aeroplane has its own volume of air space that should not be invaded by
other aeroplanes.
If it is anticipated that this volume of protective air space is going to be inter-
cepted by another aircraft, there are systems on board and on the ground that
warn pilots and air traffic controllers that the separation distance is being exces-
sively reduced. Pilots are warned through the TCAS -Traffic alert and Collision
Avoidance System- and air traffic controllers through a conflict warning, based
on information gathered from radar screens and the flight plan of the aero-
planes.
The TCAS is a piece of equipment installed in the cockpit to provide the crew
with information regarding the position of nearby aircraft, to warn of conflic-
ting aeroplanes and to offer advice on solutions to resolve these issues and that
must be followed by the pilot. All this is based on rules and equations with
formulae integrated in its computer program. Warnings are issued when the
measures taken by air traffic control do not manage to keep the aeroplanes
apart the minimum separation distance established in the standards, or when a
pilot has not followed the instructions of the air traffic controller. It could be said
that it is similar to an additional safety net.
Par IV-DESC24 ING 10/5/10 08:56 Página 64

Jorge Ontiveros Discover Air Travel

64 65

The conflict warning alerts the pilot some time before the established minimum
separation distance is reduced, giving time to take corrective measures before
the TCAS comes into action.
If, in spite of all of this, an aircraft gets to within a shorter distance than that
which is established in the standards (be it because an air traffic controller has
wrongly applied the separation minima or because a pilot has not followed the
air traffic controller’s instructions), an air traffic incident may take place. In that
case, the pilots and controllers involved must send a report to the appropriate
body. In Spain, this body is the Comisión de Estudio y Análisis de Incidentes de
Tránsito Aéreo, under the Agencia Estatal de Seguridad Aérea. This report will
be analysed to draw pertinent conclusions and to propose measures to prevent
a re-occurrence of the incident. The final report must be issued to pilots and air
traffic controllers so that the parties involved may correct their mistakes and
their colleagues may learn from them.
The air traffic controller
The air traffic controller is not an “air traffic officer”. This is a very specialised
profession with a high concentration of responsibility for human lives resting on
the shoulders of just one person. This circumstance means that the men and
women that work in this field must have certain personal qualities, a profile that
allows them to work under extreme psychological pressure.
If the profile is met, the future air traffic controllers require theoretical training
and practical experience in simulators that enable them to gain the skills needed
to carry out their job. After this stage, Aena will train the controllers for the
specific jobs in the control tower or the centre they have been assigned to; this
is known as “habilitation rating”. During their professional lives, air traffic
controllers must follow ongoing training programs to keep up with new proce-
dures and new technological tools.

Air traffic flow management Pilots and controllers

It was created at the beginning of the seventies to complement air traffic
control and to avoid exceeding its capacity. It deals with the regulation of the
amount of aeroplanes that may take-off from a given airport, or that may enter
certain airspace blocks within a certain timeframe. Its aim is to avoid congestion
on the ground and in the air
and therefore, to avoid over-
loading air traffic control.
This way the traffic flows
smoothly, without unneces-
sary delays during flight that
could mean a serious danger
to air navigation. In other
words, air traffic flow mana-
gement ensures that each
aircraft taking off from an
airport will be able to reach its
destination without having to
wait in the air. This regulation
of demand is applied through
“time slots” or simply “slots”.
These are periods of time within which an aircraft has to take-off or go through
a certain point in their route, and could involve a delay in the programmed
departure time of some flights.
Piloting and controlling aircraft are possibly two of the most demanding profes-
sions in current society. Transporting human beings in a very expensive aircraft
on the one hand, and managing to do it in an orderly, fluid and safe manner on
the other are the reasons for this. It is evident that both of these activities repre-
sent a huge responsibility, particularly taking into account that many lives
depend on them.
Fortunately, there is very advanced technology to help these professionals with
this responsibility, as well as very strict regulations to be met. There is something
else: a healthy dose of trust from those flying in the good judgement of the
controllers. It is rare that the controller’s decisions are questioned. Even so, pilots
have complete autonomy to direct their flights in the manner they deem safest.
If after evaluation of a situation they consider that an instruction given by the
controller is not safe for the aircraft, regulations give them the right to disregard
it, to ask for an alternative authorization or to take any action that they deem
necessary to keep the aircraft safe. After all it is the crew’s safety as well as that
of the aircraft and its passengers that is at stake.
Par IV-DESC24 ING 10/5/10 08:56 Página 64

Jorge Ontiveros Discover Air Travel

64 65

The conflict warning alerts the pilot some time before the established minimum
separation distance is reduced, giving time to take corrective measures before
the TCAS comes into action.
If, in spite of all of this, an aircraft gets to within a shorter distance than that
which is established in the standards (be it because an air traffic controller has
wrongly applied the separation minima or because a pilot has not followed the
air traffic controller’s instructions), an air traffic incident may take place. In that
case, the pilots and controllers involved must send a report to the appropriate
body. In Spain, this body is the Comisión de Estudio y Análisis de Incidentes de
Tránsito Aéreo, under the Agencia Estatal de Seguridad Aérea. This report will
be analysed to draw pertinent conclusions and to propose measures to prevent
a re-occurrence of the incident. The final report must be issued to pilots and air
traffic controllers so that the parties involved may correct their mistakes and
their colleagues may learn from them.
The air traffic controller
The air traffic controller is not an “air traffic officer”. This is a very specialised
profession with a high concentration of responsibility for human lives resting on
the shoulders of just one person. This circumstance means that the men and
women that work in this field must have certain personal qualities, a profile that
allows them to work under extreme psychological pressure.
If the profile is met, the future air traffic controllers require theoretical training
and practical experience in simulators that enable them to gain the skills needed
to carry out their job. After this stage, Aena will train the controllers for the
specific jobs in the control tower or the centre they have been assigned to; this
is known as “habilitation rating”. During their professional lives, air traffic
controllers must follow ongoing training programs to keep up with new proce-
dures and new technological tools.

Air traffic flow management Pilots and controllers

It was created at the beginning of the seventies to complement air traffic
control and to avoid exceeding its capacity. It deals with the regulation of the
amount of aeroplanes that may take-off from a given airport, or that may enter
certain airspace blocks within a certain timeframe. Its aim is to avoid congestion
on the ground and in the air
and therefore, to avoid over-
loading air traffic control.
This way the traffic flows
smoothly, without unneces-
sary delays during flight that
could mean a serious danger
to air navigation. In other
words, air traffic flow mana-
gement ensures that each
aircraft taking off from an
airport will be able to reach its
destination without having to
wait in the air. This regulation
of demand is applied through
“time slots” or simply “slots”.
These are periods of time within which an aircraft has to take-off or go through
a certain point in their route, and could involve a delay in the programmed
departure time of some flights.
Piloting and controlling aircraft are possibly two of the most demanding profes-
sions in current society. Transporting human beings in a very expensive aircraft
on the one hand, and managing to do it in an orderly, fluid and safe manner on
the other are the reasons for this. It is evident that both of these activities repre-
sent a huge responsibility, particularly taking into account that many lives
depend on them.
Fortunately, there is very advanced technology to help these professionals with
this responsibility, as well as very strict regulations to be met. There is something
else: a healthy dose of trust from those flying in the good judgement of the
controllers. It is rare that the controller’s decisions are questioned. Even so, pilots
have complete autonomy to direct their flights in the manner they deem safest.
If after evaluation of a situation they consider that an instruction given by the
controller is not safe for the aircraft, regulations give them the right to disregard
it, to ask for an alternative authorization or to take any action that they deem
necessary to keep the aircraft safe. After all it is the crew’s safety as well as that
of the aircraft and its passengers that is at stake.
 ,QLFLR &RQWDFWR (QJOLVK  ,QIRUPDFL yQGHLQWHUpV )$4

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port lomo13mm ING 6/5/10 09:16 Página 1

24 Discover
The D i s c o v e r Collection

Air Tr a v e l Air Tr a v e l
J o rge Ontiveros

Discover
Air Travel

Jorge Ontiveros
Jorge Ontiveros
Discover

With this collection, Aena, the public J o rge Ontivero s

organisation that manages airports and air
After several years in the Spanish Army, in
navigation in Spain, hopes to bring the exciting 1989 he became a civilian air traffic controller.
world of aeronautics closer to society as a whole. Between 1999 and 2005, he developed his
Other books in English: professional activity in management at Aena.
Airports The main goal of the collection is to provide He has published many articles and essays on
air transport and air traffic control in
Airline Companies information on all aspects of airports, air numerous magazines, amongst which are:
Air Sports navigation, and air transport in general in a lively
Aviador, Mach.82, Avion Revue, Empuje, and
Airport Operations Revista de aeronáutica y astronáutica. He was
and accessible manner. part of the professional team that developed
Other books in Spanish: Título Propio en Gestión Aeronáutica -the
T h e D i s c o v e r C o l l e c t i o n is designed Course in Aviation Management of the
El transporte aéreo Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, where he
to appeal to all kinds of readers, and requires no
Las aeronaves has been a lecturer. He has collaborated with
prior knowledge of aeronautical subjects. the Universidad Carlos III in courses in air
El control aéreo traffic management, which have been
Las profesiones en la aeronáutica The clarity of the language and explanations
sponsored by the European Union. He
La aviación general contained in these books will help anyone using occasionally participates as an aviation expert
and consultant on issues related to air traffic
La carga aérea Aena facilities to better understand the activities control. He is cofounder of ATC magazine, the
La navegación aérea underlying their day-to-day operation. Professional Air Traffic Controllers Association
La navegación por satélite of Spain (APCAE), founder and editor of ATC
The Discover Collection could open up a today magazine and webmaster of
Los pioneros de la aviación “ATCweb”, a blog where you can find most of
fascinating, constantly evolving world to
La industria aeronáutica his works, amongst them: “¡Aeropuerto
pre-university students, and even help orient congestionado!, ¿ampliar o trasladar?”
El handling aeroportuario (Congested airport!, Expand or relocate?),
La aerostación their future careers.
“El binomio piloto-controlador, ¿un equipo?”
Los cohetes (The pilot-controller association, a team?),
or “El control aéreo y la seguridad en vuelo”
Los helicópteros (Air traffic control and flight safety), a work
Los motores de aviación which won an award from the Aena
El derecho aeronáutico Foundation, where he has been a lecturer.
He is also author of the book in this collection
Las mujeres en la aeronáutica “Discover Air Traffic Control”, which is now in
La meteorología en la aviación its third edition.