Professional Documents
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LEARNING OUTCOMES
After reading this chapter, students should be able to:
1. Define and explain motivation.
2. Compare and contrast early theories of motivation.
3. Compare and contrast contemporary theories of motivation.
4. Discuss current issues in motivating employees.
5.
Opening Vignette Best Practices at Best Buy
SUMMARY
Do traditional workplaces reward long hours instead of efficient hours? Wouldnt it make more sense to
have a workplace in which people can do whatever they want, whenever they want, as long as the work
gets done? Well, thats the approach that Best Buy is taking.1 And this radical workplace experiment,
which obviously has many implications for employee motivation, has been an interesting and
enlightening journey for the company.
In 2002, then-CEO Brad Anderson (now the companys vice chairman) introduced a carefully crafted
program called ROWE (Results-Only Work Environment). ROWE was the inspiration of two HRM
managers at Best Buy, Cali Ressler and Jody Thompson, who had been given the task of taking a flexible
work program that was in effect at corporate headquarters in Minnesota and developing it for everyone in
the company. Ressler and Thompson said, We realized that the flexible work program was successful as
employee engagement was up, productivity was higher, but the problem was the participants were being
viewed as not working. And thats a common reaction from managers who dont really view flexible
work employees as really working because they arent in the office working traditional hours. The two
women set about to change that by creating a program in which everyone would be evaluated solely on
their results, not on how long they worked.
The first thing to understand about ROWE The first step in implementing ROWE was a culture audit at
company headquarters, which helped them establish a baseline for how employees perceived their work
environment. After four months, the audit was repeated. The second phase involved explaining the
ROWE philosophy to all the corporate employees and training managers on how to maintain control in a
ROWE workplace. In the third phase, work unit teams were free to figure out how to implement the
changes. From 2005 to 2007, productivity jumped 41 percent and voluntary turnover fell to 8 percent
from 12 percent. And employees say that the freedom has changed their lives. They dont know if they
work fewer hourstheyve stopped countingbut they are more productive.
Teaching notes
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1. WHAT IS MOTIVATION
a) Definition
1. Many incorrectly view motivation as a personal trait.
2. Motivation is the result of the interaction between the individual and the situation.
a) Individuals differ in motivational drive.
b) An individuals motivation varies from situation to situation.
3. Motivation refers to the process by which a persons efforts are energized, directed, and
sustained toward attaining a goal.
4. Function of three key elements: energy, direction and persistence.
a) The energy element is a measure of intensity.
(1) When someone is motivated, he or she puts forth effort and tries hard.
(2) Quality and intensity must be measured.
b) The effort must be channeled in a direction that benefits the organization.
(1) Effort directed toward, and consistent with, the organizations goals.
c) Persistence is the 3rd key element.
(1) We want employees to persist in putting forth effort to achieve those goals.
Teaching Notes
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2. WHAT DO EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION SAY?
a) Introduction
3. In the 1950s three specific theories were formulated.
a) Now considered questionably valid, are probably still the best-known explanations for
employee motivation.
b) The hierarchy of needs theory.
c) Theories X and Y.
d) The two-factor theory, motivation-hygiene theory.
e) Three needs theory.
4. Although more-valid explanations of motivation have been developed, students should
know these theories because:
a) They represent the foundation from which contemporary theories grew.
b) Practicing managers regularly use these theories and their terminology.
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b) When dissatisfied, they tended to cite extrinsic factors such as company policy and
administration, supervision, interpersonal relationships, and working conditions.
22. The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, as was traditionally believed.
a) Removing dissatisfying characteristics does not necessarily make the job satisfying.
b) Exhibit 10-3, the opposite of satisfaction is no satisfaction, and the opposite of
dissatisfaction is no dissatisfaction.
23. Managers who eliminate factors that create job dissatisfaction bring about peace but not
motivation.
a) The factors that eliminate job dissatisfaction were characterized as hygiene factors.
b) To motivate people on their jobs, emphasize motivators, those factors that increase job
satisfaction.
24. The criticisms of the theory include the methodology Herzberg used and his failure to
account for situational variables.
25. Much of the enthusiasm for enriching jobs can be attributed to Herzbergs findings.
a) Herzberg focused on the organizations effect on the individual.
From the Past to the Present
Deciding how work tasks should be performed is of interest to managers. Researchers have been curious
about the ideal approach to work design. They want to know the importance of attitudes toward work and
the employees' experiences, both good and bad, that workers reported.
What he discovered changed the way we view job design. The fact that job dissatisfaction and job
satisfaction were the results of different aspects of the work environment was critical.
1. How do different work designs help motivate employees?
b) What Is McClellands Three-Needs Theory?
26. David McClelland and others have proposed the three-needs theory.
27. Need for achievement (nAch)the drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of
standards, to strive to succeed.
a) Striving for personal achievement rather than for the rewards of success per se (nAch).
b) The desire to do something better or more efficiently than it has been done before.
c) High achievers differentiate themselves from others by their desire to do things better.
d) They seek situations in which they can attain personal responsibility for finding
solutions to problems, in which they can receive rapid and unambiguous feedback,
and in which they can set moderately challenging goals.
e) High achievers dislike succeeding by chance.
f) They avoid what they perceive to be very easy or very difficult tasks.
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28. Need for power (nPow)the need to make others behave in a way that they would not
have behaved otherwise;
a) The need for power (nPow) is the desire to have impact and to be influential.
b) Individuals high in nPow enjoy being in charge, strive for influence over others, and
prefer to be in competitive and status-oriented situations.
29. Need for affiliation (nAff)the desire to be liked and accepted by others.
a) This need has received the least attention by researchers.
b) Striving for friendships, prefer cooperative situations rather than competitive ones,
and desire relationships involving a high degree of mutual understanding.
Teaching Notes
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30. HOW DO CONTEMPORARY THEORIES EXPLAIN MOTIVATION
a) What is Goal-Setting Theory? (Exhibit 10-4)
31. Goal-setting theory - says that specific goals increase performance and that difficult goals,
when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals.
32. Working toward a goal is a major source of job motivation.
33. Specific and challenging goals are superior motivating forces.
34. The specificity of the goal itself acts as an internal stimulus.
35. Participatively set goals elicit superior performance; in other cases, individuals performed
best when their manager assigned goals. Participation is probably preferable to assigning
goals when employees might resist accepting difficult challenges.
36. People will do better if they get feedback on how well theyre progressing toward their
goals because feedback helps identify discrepancies between what theyve done and what
they want to do.
37. Self-generated feedbackwhere an employee monitors his or her own progresshas been
shown to be a more powerful motivator than feedback coming from someone else.
a) Three other contingencies influence the goal-performance relationship:
38. Goal commitment - is most likely when goals are made public, when the individual has
an internal locus of control, and when the goals are self-set rather than assigned.
39. Self-efficacy refers to an individuals belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.
The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed in a
task.
40. National culture - well adapted to North American countries because its main ideas align
reasonably well with those cultures. It assumes that subordinates will be reasonably
independent (not a high score on power distance), that people will seek challenging goals
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65. This research shows that distributive justice has a greater influence on employee
satisfaction than procedural justice, while procedural justice tends to affect an employees
organizational commitment, trust in his or her boss, and intention to quit.
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d) If so, will the reward satisfy his or her individual goals? (valence/attractiveness)
(1) First, what perceived outcomes does the job offer the employee?
(a) The critical issue is what the individual employee perceives the outcome to
be, regardless of whether his or her perceptions are accurate.
(2) Second, how attractive do employees consider these outcomes to be?
(a) This is an internal issue and considers the individuals personal attitudes,
personality, and needs.
(3) Third, what kind of behavior must the employee exhibit to achieve these outcomes?
(a) What criteria will be used to judge the employees performance?
(4) Fourth, how does the employee view his or her chances of doing what is asked?
(a) What probability does he or she place on successful attainment?
e) How Can We Integrate Current Motivation Theories?
73. There is a tendency to view the motivation theories independently even though many of
the ideas underlying the theories are complementary.
74. Exhibit 10-9 presents a model that integrates much of what we know about motivation.
a) Its basic foundation is the simplified expectancy model.
75. The individual effort box has an arrow leading into it that flows out of the individuals
goals.
76. The goals-effort loop is meant to remind us that goals direct behavior.
a) Expectancy theory predicts that an employee will exert a high level of effort if he or
she perceives a strong relationship between effort and performance, performance and
rewards, and rewards and satisfaction of personal goals.
b) Need theories tell us that motivation would be high to the degree that the rewards an
individual received for his or her high performance satisfied the dominant needs
consistent with his or her individual goals.
77. The model considers the need for achievement, equity, and the job characteristics model.
78. Finally, we can see the JCM in this integrative exhibit. Task characteristics (job design)
influence job motivation at two places.
a) First, jobs that score high in motivating potential are likely to lead to higher actual job
performance since the employees motivation is stimulated by the job itself.
b) Second, jobs that score high in motivating potential also increase an employees
control over key elements in his or her work.
79. Jobs that offer autonomy, feedback, and similar task characteristics help to satisfy the
individual goals of employees who desire greater control over their work.
Teaching Notes
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d) What motivates a single mother with two dependent children working full time may
be very different from the needs of a young, single, part-time worker, or the older
employee.
e) Employees have different personal needs and goals theyre hoping to satisfy through
their jobs.
Developing Your Motivating Employees Skill
About the Skill
Because a simple, all-encompassing set of motivational guidelines is not available, the following
suggestions draw on the essence of what we know about motivating employees.
Steps in Practicing the Skill
1 Recognize individual differences. Employees have different needs, attitudes, personality, and other
important individual variables.
2 Match people to jobs. People who lack the necessary skills will be at a disadvantage.
3 Use goals. Employees should have hard, specific goals and feedback on performance and the goals
should be participatively set.
4 Ensure that goals are perceived as attainable. Employees who see goals as unattainable will reduce
their effort.
5 Individualize rewards. Use employee differences to individualize the rewards.
6 Link rewards to performance. Rewards such as pay increases and promotions should be given for the
attainment of employees specific goals.
7 Check the system for equity. Employees should perceive that rewards or outcomes are equal to the
inputs and effort.
8 Dont ignore money. Various pay incentives are important in determining employee motivation.
88. Flextime - ExampleSusan Talbot is the classic morning person.
a) Susans work schedule as a claims adjuster at State Farm Insurance is flexible.
b) It allows him some degree of freedom as to when she comes to work and when she
leaves.
89. Many employees continue to work an eight-hour day, five days a week.
90. A number of scheduling options have been introduced to give management and employees
more flexibility. A compressed workweek is a workweek where employees work longer
hours per day but fewer days per week.
91. How does flextime work?
a) Flextime is a scheduling option that allows employees, within specific parameters, to
decide when to go to work.
b) Flextime is short for flexible work hours.
(1) Employees have to work a specific number of hours a week, but they are free to vary
the hours of work within certain limits.
(2) Each day consists of a common core, usually six hours, with a flexibility band
surrounding the core.
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(3) Some flextime programs allow extra hours to be accumulated and turned into a free
day off each month.
(4) Flextime has become an extremely popular scheduling option; about 60 percent of
firms in a recent study offered employees some form of flextime.
(5) The potential benefits from flextime are numerous.
(a) Improved employee motivation and morale, reduced absenteeism as a result
of enabling employees to better balance work and family responsibilities,
increased wages due to productivity gains, and the ability of the organization
to recruit higher-quality and more-diverse employees.
(6) Flextimes major drawbacks:
(a) It is not applicable to every job.
(b) It works well with job tasks for which an employees interaction with people
outside his or her department is limited.
(c) It is not a viable option when key people must be available during standard
hours.
92. Can employees share jobs?
a) Job sharing is a special type of part-time work.
(1) It allows two or more individuals to split a traditional forty-hour-a-week job.
b) Job sharing is growing in popularity, with 57 percent of large organizations offering it.
c) Job sharing allows the organization to draw upon the talents of more than one
individual for a given job.
(1) Opportunity to acquire skilled workers who might not be available on a full-time
basis.
(2) An option for managers to use to minimize layoffs.
d) Major drawbackfinding compatible pairs of employees who can successfully
coordinate the intricacies of one job.
93. What is telecommuting?
a) Telecommuting capabilities that exist today have made it possible for employees to be
located anywhere on the globe and do their jobs.
b) Companies no longer have to consider locating near their work force.
c) It refers to employees who do their work at home on a computer that is linked to their
office.
d) More than 27 million people work at home in the United Statesand the number is
expected to continue to rise.
e) Telecommuting offers an opportunity for a business in a high-labor-cost area to have
its work done in an area where lower wages prevail.
f) Challenge for employers revolves around training managers in how to establish and
ensure appropriate work quality and on-time completion.
(1) Emphasis will be on the final product, not the means by which it is accomplished.
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g) Work at home may also require managers to rethink their compensation policy.
(1) Will the company pay workers by the hour, on a salary basis, or by the job
performed?
(2) Employees who work more than 40 hours during the work week will be entitled to
overtime pay.
h) Because telecommuting employees are often full time, it will be the organizations
responsibility to ensure the health and safety of the off-premise work site.
(1) Equipment provided by the company that leads to an employee injury or illness is the
responsibility of the organization.
i)
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To check your understanding of outcomes 10.110.4, go to mymanagementlab.com and try the chapter
questions.
UNDERSTANDING THE CHAPTER
1. Most of us have to work for a living, and a job is a central part of our lives. So why do
managers have to worry so much about employee motivation issues?
Answer: Managers need to worry about employee motivation due to the competitive nature of the
workplace and productivity . Organizations need engaged employees for successful and profitable
results.
2. Contrast lower-order and higher-order needs in Maslows needs hierarchy.
Answer: Within every human being, there exists a hierarchy of five needs. Lower-order needs are
physiological needs and safety needs. Higher-order needs are social needs, esteem needs, and selfactualization needs. See Exhibit 10-1.
3. What role would money play in (a) the hierarchy of needs theory, (b) two-factor theory, (c)
equity theory, (d) expectancy theory, and (e) motivating employees with a high nAch? How do
needs affect motivation?
Answer: A need, in our terminology, means some internal state that makes certain outcomes appear
attractive. (a) Money would satisfy the lower needs in Maslow's theory and work toward the higher
needs. Money might be a security need, providing shelter, food, and clothing, or it could be a selfesteem need in giving the individual a sense of self-worth. (b) Money is a hygiene theory. (c) Money
becomes a measure of fairnessIs my raise, salary appropriate to my position? (d) Money is relevant
only to the degree the individual perceives that the monetary reward is appropriate for the amount of
effort put forth. (e) Money could be seen as a way to measure success.
4. What are some of the possible consequences of employees perceiving an inequity between their
inputs and outcomes and those of others?
Answer: There is considerable evidence that employees make comparisons of their job inputs and
outcomes relative to others and that inequities influence the degree of effort that employees exert.
If the ratios are unequal, inequity exists; that is, they view themselves as under-rewarded or overrewarded. When inequities occur, employees attempt to correct them. On the basis of equity theory,
when employees perceive an inequity, they might (1) distort either their own or others
inputs
or outcomes, (2) behave in some way to induce others to change their inputs or outcomes, (3) behave
in some way to change their own inputs or outcomes, (4) choose a different comparison referent,
and/or (5) quit their job. The theory establishes the four propositions relating to inequitable pay.
5. What are some advantages of using pay-for-performance to motivate employee performance?
Are there drawbacks? Explain.
Answer: People do what they do to satisfy some need. They look for a payoff or reward. Pay is an
important variable in motivation; managers need to look at how pay is used to motivate high levels of
employee performance. Pay-for-performance programs are compensation plans that pay employees
on the basis of some performance measure and are probably most compatible with expectancy theory.
Pay-for-performance programs are gaining popularity in organizations. Making some or all of a
workers pay conditional on performance measures focuses his or her attention and effort on that
measure, then reinforces the continuation of that effort with rewards. However, if the employee,
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team, or the organizations performance declines, so too does the reward. Failure to reach the
performance measures can result in the forfeiture of a percentage of salary placed at risk.
6. Many job design experts who have studied the changing nature of work say that people do their
best work when theyre motivated by a sense of purpose rather than by the pursuit of money.
Do you agree? Explain your position. What are the implications for managers?
Answer: Student answers may vary. People are motivated by intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. When
individuals feel that they are making a difference, the money ceases to be the main motivator. The
implications for managers is that they need to uncover what motivates each employee in order to
understand them and offer the appropriate response such as job re-design, praise, rewards, etc.
7. Could managers use any of the motivation theories or approaches to encourage and support
workforce diversity efforts? Explain.
Answer: Most employees are motivated by one of David McClelland's theories. Need for
achievement (nAch). The drive to excel, to achieve in relation to a set of standards, to strive to
succeed. Striving for personal achievement rather than for the rewards of success per se (nAch). The
desire to do something better or more efficiently than it has been done before. They seek situations in
which they can attain personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems, in which they can
receive rapid and unambiguous feedback, and in which they can set moderately challenging goals.
Need for power (nPow). The need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved
otherwise. The need for power (nPow) is the desire to have impact and to be influential. Individuals
high in nPow enjoy being in charge, strive for influence over others, and prefer to be in competitive
and status-oriented situations.
Need for affiliation (nAff). The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. Striving for
friendships, prefer cooperative situations rather than competitive ones, and desire relationships
involving a high degree of mutual understanding.
Other theories like Equity theory would ensure that employees were treated fairly. Equity theory is
heavily dependant on employee perception. Perceptions will vary based on cultural backgrounds. So
managers need to be sensitive to cultural differences Expectancy theory would also meet people's
expectations through communication.
8. Can an individual be too motivated? Discuss.
Answer: Probably not as long as the motivation can be channeled into productive behavior.
Employees, particularly professionals should be given autonomy to follow their interests and allow
them to structure their work in ways they find productive. Reward them with educational
opportunitiestraining, workshops, attending conferencesthat allow them to keep current in their
field and to network with their peers. Also reward them with recognition. They seek situations in
which they can attain personal responsibility for finding solutions to problems, in which they can
receive rapid and unambiguous feedback, and in which they can set moderately challenging goals.
9. Do some additional research on ROWE discussed in the chapter opener. Write up your findings
in a report. Be sure to cite your information.
Answer: answers will vary by student.
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UNDERSTANDING YOURSELF
What are My Dominant Needs?
This instrument was designed to deal with flaws in previous attempts to measure four individual needs:
achievement, affiliation, autonomy, and power. These are defined as follows:
AchievementThe desire to excel and to improve on past performance.
AffiliationThe desire to interact socially and to be accepted by others.
AutonomyThe desire to be self-directed.
PowerThe desire to influence and direct others.
INSTRUMENT This test contains 20 statements that may describe you and the types of things you may
like to do. For each statement, indicate your agreement or disagreement using the following scale:
1 = Strongly disagree
2 = Disagree
3 = Neither agree nor disagree
4 = Agree
5 = Strongly agree
1. I try to perform my best at work.
2. I spent a lot of time talking to other people.
3. I would like a career where I have very little supervision.
4. I would enjoy being in charge of a project.
5. I am a hard worker.
6. I am a people person.
7. I would like a job where I can plan my work schedule myself.
8. I would rather receive orders than give them.
9. It is important to me to do the best job possible.
10. When I have a choice, I try to work in a group instead of by myself.
11. I would like to be my own boss.
12. I seek an active role in the leadership of a group.
13. I push myself to be all that I can be.
14. I prefer to do my work and let others do theirs.
15. I like to work at my own pace on job tasks.
16. I find myself organizing and directing the activities of others.
17. I try very hard to improve on my past performance at work.
18. I try my best to work alone on a work assignment.
19. In my work projects, I try to be my own boss.
20. I strive to be in command when I am working in a group.
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SCORING KEY Add up items 1, 5, 9, 13, and 17. These represent your achievement score. The
affiliation score is made up of items 2, 6, 10, 14, and 18 (reverse score 14 and 18). The autonomy score is
items 3, 7, 11, 15, and 19. The power score is items 4 (reverse score), 8, 12, 16, and 20. Scores for each
will range from 5 to 25.
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Exercises
1. Whats Need Gotta Do With It? Break the class into groups based upon their scores on this
assessment. Have them discuss how they would react to a scenario in which they received a
promotion, but had to move far away from home if they were to accept. How would they react?
Learning Objective(s): To show how individuals with different needs react to similar situations.
Preparation/Time Allotment: This should be about a 15-minute class discussion. Allow another 10
minutes to discuss the results with the entire class.
Advantages/Disadvantages/Potential Problems: This exercise works best if you have individuals that
scored dramatically different on the survey. For example, a high need for affiliation person may not
want the promotion. Their first reaction might be what about my co-workers and family? A high
need for power person is going to wonder whom they will be managing, and a high need for
achievement person, while probably happy to receive the promotion, may ask, What is next?
Discuss these differences with the class and ask them how they would manage these differences.
2. See For Yourself. Have the students administer the survey to a group of their co-workers. After
scoring the survey, have them observe these co-workers at work, looking for examples that fit the
profile. For example, does the high affiliation person prefer meetings, group work, and social
activities? Are the high achievement people the first ones in and the last to leave?
Learning Objective(s): To illustrate through real-workplace examples how needs translate into
observable behavior.
Preparation/Time Allotment: Give the students at least two weeks to observe behaviors. It may take
that long for them to see actual items that relate to the survey. Have them present their findings to
class, or turn in their report as a project.
Advantages/Disadvantages/Potential Problems: Make sure that the people that they are observing
understand the scope of the project so that the students are not intrusive. Also, make sure the students
ensure confidentiality of the survey results. Participants should have access to their own score.
Ensure that any school-based requirements for experimentation have been satisfied and that students
get organizational consent prior to starting this activity.
FYIA (For Your Immediate Action)
La Mexican Kitchen
To: Linda Bustamante, Operations Manager
From: Matt Perkins, Shift Supervisor
Re: Staff Turnover
HELP! Weve been having a difficult time keeping our food servers for any length of time. It seems like I
just get them trained and they leave. Although these positions pay minimum wage, you and I both know a
motivated server can make additional money from tips.
This fictionalized company and message were created for educational purposes only. It is not meant to reflect
positively or negatively on management practices by any company that may share this name.
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CASE APPLICATION
Searching For?
Summary: Google has been in the top 10 list of Best Companies to Work For by Fortune magazine for
three years running and was number one on the list for two of those three years. But make no mistake.
Googles executives decided to offer all these fabulous perks for several reasons: to attract the best
knowledge workers it can in an intensely competitive, cutthroat market; to help employees work long
hours and not have to deal with time-consuming personal chores; to show employees theyre valued; and
to have employees remain Googlers (the name used for employees) for many years. But a number of
Googlers have jumped ship and given up these fantastic benefits to go out on their own.
Discussion Questions
1. Whats it like to work at Google? (Hint: Go to Googles Web site and click on About Google.
Find the section on Jobs at Google and go from there.) Whats your assessment of the
companys work environment?
Answer: student answers will vary based on the web site.
2. Google is doing a lot for its employees, but obviously not enough to retain several of its talented
employees. Using what youve learned from studying the various motivation theories, what
does this situation tell you about employee motivation?
Answer: It is very difficult to help motivate employees and to keep them motivated. The workplace
is very competitive especially for the star performers. Even utilizing the various theories, individuals
still make their own choices, particularly to become entrepreneurs and start their own companies.
3. What do you think is Googles biggest challenge in keeping employees motivated?
Answer: They have some of the best and brightest minds working for them, so it is a challenge to
keep them motivated. The American dream of owning your own company provides stiff competition.
4. If you were managing a team of Google employees, how would you keep them motivated?
Answer: There are a variety of answers for this, but management must be very creative and the
motivation can't just be extrinsic. Managers would need to be in continuous dialogue with the
employees to keep them engaged and to understand their desires and future plans.
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