Hierarchical communication

Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services of the layer just below it.
The passing of data and network information is made possible by an interface
between each pair of adjacent layers.
The messages exchanged between the adjacent layers, to obtain the required services,
are called Interface Control Information (ICI).
Interoperability
The Capability of two or more computers of different vendors to transmit & receive
data and to carry out processes as expected by the user is called Interoperability.
Serial and Parallel Data Transmission
There are two methods of transmitting digital data namely paral
transmissions.
Parallel Data Transmission
In parallel data transmission, all bits of the binary ~
transmitted
simultaneously. For example, to transmit an 8-bit binary number in p~
from one unit to
another, eight transmission lines are required. Each bit req~its
own separate data path.
All bits of a word are transmitted at the same time. This ~so
. t tnsmission can move a
significant amount of data in a given period of time. Its disa . nt ge is the large number of
interconnecting cables between the two units. For l~jp
words, cabling becomes
complex and expensive. This is particularly true i the distnce between the two units is
great. Long multi wire cables are not only expe . , but also require special interfacing to
minimize noise and distortion problems.
Serial Data Transmission
.4 'h"Serial data transmission is the protes19tJransmitting
binary words a bit at a time.
Since the bits time-share the trans}t1lsSionmediffl i only one interconnecting lead is required.
While serial data transmission ...
is rn.u~. simpl and less expensive because of the use of a
single interconnecting line, it is fa.
,slow method of data transmission. Serial data
transmission is useful in systems.,wlte hjg'h speed is not a requirement.
Parallel communicatf'9h.:..i~"tlsed'1'or
short-distance data communications and within a
computer, and serial tra iPl~qn is used for long-distance data communications.
Transmission Mj)des
.
In simplex mde
communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only
one of the two"devic
n a link can transmit; the other can only receive. Commercial radio
broadcasting",i;~~ample.
Simplex lines are also called receive-only, transmit-only or oneway-only lihes." ,.
In;alftdu.Jn~x.mode (HDX), each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
tim~~.~h"e.lJo(me
device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa. The half-duplex
mode .~sed
in cases where there is no need for communication in both directions at the
same time!;the entire capacity of the channel can be utilized for each direction. Citizens band
(CB) ratno is an example where push to talk (PTT) is to be pressed or depressed while
sending and transmitting.
In full-duplex mode (FDX) , both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously. One
common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. The full-duplex
mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The capacity of
the channel must be divided between the two directions.

In full/full duplex mode (FIFDX), transmission is possible in both directions at the same
time but not between the same two stations (i.e. station 1 transmitting to station 2, while
receiving from station 3). F/FDX is possible only on multipoint circuits. Postal system can be
given as a person can be sending a letter to one address and receive a letter from another
address at the same time.

Network Models
Computer networks can be represented with two basic network models: peer-to-peer
client/server and dedicated client/server. The client/server method specifies the way in which two
computers can communicate with software over a network.
Peer-to-peer client/server network
Here, all the computers share their resources, such as hard drives, prin
a
0 on
with all the other computers on the network. Individual resources like diSkS'
-ROM
drives, and even printers are transformed into shared, collective resources at e accessible
from every PC. Unlike client-server networks, where network info
ti
. stored on a
centralized file server PC and made available to tens, hundreds, or th sa s client PCs, the
information stored across peer-to-peer networks is UniqUely~entrah
. Because peer-topeer PCs have their own hard disk drives that are accessisle b
c~puters, each PC acts
as both a client (information requestor) and a server (inform~
p ovider). The peer-to-peer
network is an appropriate choice when there are fewer tlaAJ.01rrers on the network, security
is not an issue and all the users are located in the sa~ generatJarea.
The advantages of peer-to-peer over client-server: ~
No need for a network administrator
Network is fast/inexpensive to setupAtom
In
Each PC can make backup copies cJf RJ
to other PCs for security.
Easiest type of network to bUii.<r, peer -t - er is perfect for both home and office use.
Dedicated client/server netwo
Here, one computer is

si

a server and the rest of the computers are clients.

one server for each applic tnt

xists within an organization. The designated servers
store all the networks s~e
. and applications programs and function only as servers and
are not used as 3l clie~workstation.
Client computers can access the servers and have
shared files ~s~e"!ll
them over the transmission medium. In some client/server
networks, cli~n ~m~rs submit jobs to one of the servers and once they process the jobs,
the results an
k to the client computer.
In ene 1, the dedicated client/server model is preferable to the peer-to-peer
clijnt/~e"
fiel for general purpose data networks.
Ne~r~pologies
~ computer networking, topology refers to the layout of connected devices, i.e. how
the co~ters,
cables, and other components within a data communications network are
interconnected, both physically and logically. The physical topology describes how the
network is actually laid out, and the logical topology describes how the data actually flow
through the network.

Two most basic topologies are point-to-point and multipoint. A point-to-point

topology usually connects two mainframe computers for high-speed digital information. A
multipoint topology connects three or more stations through a single transmission medium
and some examples are star, bus, ring, mesh, hybrid and wireless topology.

Star topology
A star topology is designed with each node (file server, workstations, and peripherals)
connected directly to a central network hub, switch, or concentrator. Data on a star network
passes through the hub, switch, or concentrator before continuing to its destination. The hub,
switch, or concentrator manages and controls all functions of the network. It also acts as a
repeater for the data flow.

~-----------------,-------------------Advantages
Disadvantages
,);11",'expanded wirhcur d,.l'tlptiC>1l

R~<)UlfO!";
more <'al>l~

to the network
Cab]", f"llllr", affo?cg only a <'lIIg]e

A c entral connecting clo?nc;> aBo'

US<!'I'

for a

Easy to rroubleshoor and rsolare

More difficult to implement

>Il)~l~ 1'011\1 of iatll1u

probtem-,

Bus topology
".
~
Bus networks use a common backbone to conneee all~~ic~.
A single cable, (the
backbone) functions as a shared communication medium th~ev.s
attach or tap into with
an interface connector. A device wanting to communicat,e1aith lJrother device on the network
sends a broadcast message onto the wire that all other dev~es see, but only the intended
recipient actually accepts and processes the messa e. The bus topology is the simplest and
most common method of interconnecting com
The two ends of the transmission line
never touch to form a complete loop. A bU~i6
g is also known as multi drop or linear
bus or a horizontal bus.
/'''''~'('

r---------------~------------Disadvantages
Ad va utages

~trYOfk dl:,.nlption 1xhtu Cvllll-"-tr~

.i~

or removed

A bIt"" In tll< cable ".111prevent ,I"

)':'ljr~m~tr0tll .J.Z>C~;'111~
rhenervort
Difficult to troubleshoot.

Ring topology IJ!.

In a ri~net~orK
ometimes called a loop), every device has exactly two neighbours
for communica~~~ purposes. All messages travel through a ring in the same direction (either
"clockWiSe~"A')
..~oynte~ clockwise"). All the stati~ns are. interconnected in tandem (series) to
form ~c . d 107P or Circle. 1ransmissions are unidirectional and must propagate through all
thesta . s I fie loop. Each computer acts like a repeater and the ring topology is similar to
bus ~ta
pologies.

~-------------'-----r-----------Disadvantages
Advantages
Expan s ion to the network can ,<1U...e
nerwork drsrupnon
Rurv ne-twork , ar e- rno derat e lv ....
<.1... ;; to

:!.!l::!..:,.vJ..._..

.._.._ ..

A -:.ul?le bre-ak
._.L'.,.C!!llc!.!ctir!.!:~.!..!no:'."1"'-.\n~.I~k

11\

the c nb le can di'>Hl]

_

Mesh topology
The mesh topology incorporates a unique network design in which each computer on
the network connects to every other, creating a point-to-point connection between every
device on the network. Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh
network can take any of several possible paths from source to destination. A mesh network in
which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. A disadvantage is that, a
mesh network with n nodes must have n(n-l )/2 links and each node must have n-I I/O ports

(links).

Advantages
._

Disadvanra ._aes

Provides redundant path, between

devices

Requires more cable than the (

LA" topologies

TIl<, network can be expanded

Without dlS111pt1OIl
to current uses

Complicated unplemenration

Hybrid topology
~
~.'
This topology (sometimes called mixed topOIOgy)lSilmply combining two or more
of the traditional topologies to form a larger, more
ex topology. Main aim is being able
to share the advantages of differen_t
__
t~oP!-O;_IO~:;;;~if-

Hybrid
wirel.O:
~~eless
topology is one in which few cables are used to connect systems. The
ne
is made up of transmitters that broadcast the packets using radio frequencies. The
network ntains special transmitters called celis, or wireless access points, which extends a
radio s ere in the shape of a bubble around the transmitter. This bubble can extend to
multiplerooms and possibly floors in a building.The pes and network devices have a special
transmitter- receiver, which allows them to receive broadcasts and transmit requested data
back to the access point. The access point is connected to the physical network by a cable,
which allows it, and any wireless clients, to communicate with systems on the wired
network.

Network Classifications
One way to categorize the different types of computer network designs is by their scope
or scale. Common examples of area network types are:
LAN - Local Area Network
WLAN - Wireless Local Area Network
WAN - Wide Area Network
MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
SAN - Storage Area Network, System Area Network, Server Area Network, Small
Area Network
~
CAN - Campus Area Network, Controller Area Network, or sometimes
er rea
Network
PAN - Personal Area Network
DAN - Desk ,\rea Network
Local area network
A local area network (LAN) is a network that conne~ts com~
and devices in a
limited geographical area such as home, school, compu~r
.. rat'iY, office building, or
closely positioned group of buildings. LANs use a network ~al.
system to provide twoway communications at bit rates in the range of 10 ~.s
~
00 Mbps. In addition to
operating in a limited space, LANs are also typically owneowcontrolled, and managed by a
single person or (""anization. They also tend t
se certain connectivity technologies,
primarily Ethernet :1" I Token Ring.
Advantages of LA:":
Share resources efficiently
A~\
Individual workstation might s.urvi~e n~rk
failure if it doesn't rely upon others

r" ~

Component l" (.~ILltion

i~.(p"en..
d..
e.ntofs~jtim evolution
Support hct.:r.' ~~cl1eousar,\~o)lware
Access to 01' '. LANs
W;,~s I
High transl. 1'~ltCS~. I .errolrates
Metropolitan area Ill'!"
A MAN is ()I":.nize,
r a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several
blocks of building" ' 'l'llti, cities. Its geographic scope falls between a WAN and LAN. A
MAN might b\a ,,:'1'" , network like the cable television network or it usually interconnects
a number of local: ' .ctworks (LANs) using a high-capacity backbone technology, such as
fiber-optic'lf~b
1 I orovides up-link services to wide area networks and the Internet.
MANswrpi~!uy (';' '''''e at speeds of 1.5 Mbps to 10 Mbps and range from five miles to a
fe~~u~.
dmilcs i" ""gth. Examples of MANs are FOOl (fiber distributed data interface)
and'
[Casyncl""~' 'c: transfer mode).
Wide a
netwo: '.
Wide aren : ' .rks are the oldest type of data communications network that provide
relatively slow-sr .
()"g-distance transmission of data, voice and video information over
relatively large ar ,,; ,IY dispersed geographical areas, such as country or entire continent.
WANs interconncr
-rs in different locations. A WAN differs from a LAN in several
important ways. i""
',\ ANs (like the Internet) are not owned by anyone organization but
rather exist under
'ei ive or distributed ownership and management. WANs tend to use
technology like j\,
'r.une Relay and X.25 for connectivity over the longer distances.

or

I'

", \

,
Global area network:-A GAN provides connections between countries around the entire
globe. Internet is a good example and is essentially a network comprised of other networks
that interconnect virtually every country in the world. GANs operate from 1.5 Mbps to 100
Gbps and cover thousands of miles.
Campus Area Network: - a network spanning multiple LANs but smaller than a MAN, such
as on a university or local business campus.
Storage Area Network: - connects servers to data storage devices through a technology like
Fibre Channel.
System Area Network: - Links high-performance computers with high-speed conn
a cluster configuration. Also known as Cluster Area Network.
Building backbone: - It is a network connection that normally carries tr IC
een
departmental LANs within a single company. It consists of a switch o~
provide
connectivity to other networks such as campus backbones, enterprise
ckb es, MANs,
WANsetc
~
Camus backbone: - It is a network connection used to carry tra c t and from LANs
located in various buildings on campus. It normally us
ptical
er cables for the
transmission media between buildings and operates at relatfvely . h tfhnsmission rates.
Enterprise networks: - It includes some or all of th,e a~e'
tworks and components
connected in a cohesive and manageable fashion.
~
"""/
The Internet Protocol (IP)
W
"IP", the "Internet Protocol", is the ne ork layer protocol associated with the
popular "TCPIIP" network software. IP is the
of-the world-wide network commonly
known as the Internet. More correctly the I
_j a connection of smaller networks (an
inter network) and IP is the protocol used r
etween those networks.
IP addresses
~.
Version 4 IP addresses a~ 3~its long~e
address consists of two parts. A network
number and a host number wit~in ha .' etwork. To allow maximum flexibility the network
and host numbers are of differeo\)e'R! s~ described in the subsections which follow.
An IP address is tra ~n.MI.wrlften as four decimal numbers separated by dots with
each number representin
e of the IP address.
Class A addressiS
A clas as the most significant bit O. The next seven bits contain the
last 24 bits the host number. There are thus 126 possible class A
networks, ea
up to about 16,000,000 hosts.
Class Bas
)( c'_
address has the two most significant bits 10. The next fourteen bits contain
the t.w~umber
and the last 16 bits the host number. There are thus 16384 possible class
B ne
s each containing 65354 hosts.
Class C dresses
jJf class-C address has the three most significant bits 110. The next 21 bits contain the
network number and the last eight bits the host number. There are thus more than 2000000
possible class C networks each containing 254 hosts.
Class 0 addresses are reserved for multicasting. Class E addresses are reserved for
future use. They should not be used for host addresses.

1'1

Multicast addresses
It is often desirable to send some types of message to many different hosts
simultaneously. The remaining IP addresses (i.e. those which start with 111) are used for
such messages. As a special case, the address 255.255.255.255 is a broadcast address so that
packets with that destination address are received by all hosts within the network.

Subnetting
Within an TP network (i.e. that groups of hosts which have the same net number in
their IP address). it is still necessary to be able to route between the hosts. For convenience,
particularly in cl;ISS ;\ and class B networks, it is often needed to split the networ
into
smaller parts and .hen .oute between those parts much as the routing is done at a .
el
between networks.
Accordingly many IP networks are "subnetted". That is, there ia
artition
made in the IP nilmbcr in that the host number is split in two parts, a su et mber and a
host number. TIl\.' par';' inn is made at a convenient point given the t~
f the desired
network. Effect i\'('! y. ,: 1 C boundary between the host and net number is
ved to the right,
but only with in the I' \\ ork. As far as hosts outside the ne~. rk are
cerned there is no
subnetting within oth. networks.
It .
#I

Routing

"

'I,

Routing refers to the process of choosing a pat~v~~hich

to send packets, and

router refers to tile ('i"""lIter making the ChO

......
l.C.
..
~e. e distintuish hosts from routers; host
computers can ~'c c .,-gured to act as routers
ut we will assume, unless otherwise
specified, that host l '~"Ilters do not perform.t
'. ter's function of transferring packets
from one network to; (:''ier.
~..
Address Resolution lrorocol (ARP)
i'"
ARP is a pro1!'c<l1used qy the Intern~f'rotocol
(IP) specifically IPv4, to map IP
network addresses to' "llardwa(e addresses ue'd by a data link layer. The protocol operates

:::~:~~a~:~~"

I,

':: as

:ti;'lliP irrface

betweentheOSI network layer and OSI

The term add, .~ resolut\<)I1,refelsto the process of findmg an address of a computer

in a network. T:c ad ,-'si is,~~j~~solvcd"
using a protocol in which a piece of information is
sent by a client nrocc -: execUting on the local computer to a server process executing on a
remote compi: -r. T' iqf6rmation. received by the server allows the server to uniquely
identify the nc: -rk
'em for which the address was required and therefore to provide the
required address. 11
(dress resolution procedure is completed when the client receives a
response fr611',', , SC r containing the required address. ARP does routing by using routing
al~rit~l1ls~
h
AnApl) '\'qu ' is broadcast.
unicast.
~AnAF
' 'L'rl'
mapping
between 32 bit Internet address and 48 bit Ethernet address.
A RP r (' . '"

Reverse Ad(h"~ H
The R\ 'P r
such as disklr :-;\\'01"
determine the ("\ I'
Protocol '. btl' n \
address the q' ..:I ,

"Ition Protocol

(RARP)

col is a network-specific standard protocol. Some network hosts,

.itions, do not know their own IP address when they are booted. To
address, they use a mechanism similar to ARP (Address Resolution
'wn!warc :1(l,lrcss of the host is the known parameter, and the IP
neter.

In RARP, a packet similar to the ARP packet is constructed, the only differences
being that the sender protocol address field is left blank (as well as the target addresses) and
the opcode field is changed to represent a RARP request. The packet is broadcast onto the
network and the database server fills in the blank fields and sends the response.
RARP finds the logical address for a machinethat only knows its physical address.
The RARP request packets are broadcast.
The RARP reply packets are unicast.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
The TransmissionControl Protocol (TCP) is one of the main transport layer
used with IP. It is a connection oriented protocol based on the connectionless
Because it is the lowest layer which has end-to-end communication,it needs to
such as lost packets. In this respect it is similar to the data-link layer w~
errors on an individual link.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a datagram tra
which uses the
underlying IP protocol for its network layer. It is used when
e is a need to transmit short
packets through a network where there is no stream o~~
besent as in TCP. It is
consequently a much simpler protocol and therefore muc
ie to handle. It is also less
reliable in that there are no sequencenumbers and other~
{/ overy techniques available.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMT is the protocol used by TCPIIP networks
for transferring email between systems. It is a
nsfer agent (MTA) as distinct from a
mail user agent (MUA) which is used by re
to read and send mail. A MUA will use
a MTA to actually transfer the mail to tha.co
host on which the intended recipient will
use a (possibly different)MUAto ydoand res n~ to the mail.

SocketInterface

"

Socket interfaces allo~ y

pte your own applications to supplement those
supplied by TCP(IP..Most of ~~e a di!J6nala~plicati~nscom~unicate wit~ either !C~ or
UDP. Some applications a
ttterrmcommumcate directly WIthIP. To write applications
that uses the socket intel'{1.ic
CP/IP.
Socket
. ~ocke,~ a\).,ft ~
ace b~tween an application process ~d ~ransport layer. The
application proce~c~rrsend/recelve messages to/from another application process (local or
remote) via/~~t.
Sockets are duplex, which means that data can be transmitted and
received si ultapeously. Sockets allow you to send to, and receive from, the socket as if you
an.wr
nd reading from any other network device.

Do:Sin

arne System

. main Name System (DNS) is a distributed database system for managing host
names 1\9. their associated Internet Protocol (lP) addresses. With DNS, you can use simple
names, such as www.jkltoys.com, to locate a host, rather than using the IP addresses, for
example, 192.168.12.88in IPv4.
A single server might be responsible only for knowing the host names and IP
addresses for a small part of a zone, but DNS servers can work together to map all domain
names to their IP addresses. DNS servers that work together allow computers to
communicateacross the Internet.

10

DNS data is lroken up into a hierarchy of domains. Servers are responsible to know
only a sma II portion (' I' data, such as a single sub domain. The portion of a domain for which

the server is direct!- responsible is called a zone. A DNS server that has complete host
information and dat: lor a zone is authoritative for the zone. An authoritative server can
answer queries abou hosts in its zone, using its own resource records. The query process
depends on a number of factors. Understanding DNS queries explains the paths that a client
can use to resolve a (""'ry.

Resolver

:!"d

nam ('

All :':'i)licati
cal'.'.' the rc

Resolver

Dl'S server I'

R,', ,','se 1001

COl

rver
program on a host accesses the domain system through aD

.er.

oaddrg.
.~
~.
~,

'ts DNS server, called name server.

irns IP address to resolver which passes the IP
s are also possible, i.e. find the hostn:ive

r4'i~;

;1/

,~
.)

11

ication.

ad ess.

,
Data Communication and Computer Network
Exchange of digital information between two digital devices is data communication.
Data communications can be summarized as the transmission, reception, and processing of
digital information.
Requirements of Data Communications
At least Two Devices ready to communicate
A Transmission Medium
A set of Rules & Procedure for proper communication (Protocol)
Standard Data Representation
Transmission of bits either Serial or Parallel
Bit synchronisation using Start/stop bits in case of Asynchronous Transmission
In Synchronous Transmission the agreed pattern of Flag
Basic com ponents
A data communications system has five components they are Message, Sender,
Receiver, Transmission medium and Protocol.
Protocol
A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices.
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
International standard organization (ISO) established a committee in 1977 to develop
architecture for computer communication and the OS I model is the result of this effort. In
1984, the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was approved as an
international standard for communications architecture.
The term "open" denotes the ability to connect any two systems which conform to the
reference model and associated standards. The OSI model describes how information or data
makes its way from application programs through a network medium to another application
program located on another network.
The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information between
computers over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems. The
seven layers are:
Application
To translate, encrypt, and
compress data

Presentation
Session

To establish, manage, and

terminate sessions

Network

To move packets from sour

to destination; to provide
internetworking

To provide reliable process-toprocess message delivery and

error recovery

To organize bits into frames;

to provide hop-to-hop delivery

To allow access to network

resources

Data link
Physical

To transmit bits over a medil

to provide mechanical and
al~trjr:ll

cnorihr:::atif"'\.nc