NDT&E International 38 (2005) 643653

www.elsevier.com/locate/ndteint

Application of neuro-fuzzy techniques in oil pipeline

ultrasonic nondestructive testing
Hossein Ravanbod*
Electronic Research Center, Sharif University of Technology, P.O. Box 11365-8639, Tehran, Iran
Received 25 May 2004; revised 7 March 2005; accepted 11 March 2005
Available online 13 May 2005

Abstract
This paper presents a novel approach to the problem of nondestructive pipeline testing using ultrasonic imaging. The identification of the
flaw type and its dimensions are the most important problems in the pipeline inspection. Unlike typical methods, a decision based neural
network is used for the detection of flaws. We train a generalized regression neural network to determine the dimensions of the corrosions and
generate the whole image of both the internal and external walls of the oil pipeline. As an improvement to the detection algorithm, we
introduce fuzzy decision-based neural network algorithms for the detection and classification of the corrosions. The simulation and
experimental systems results show that these new methods outperform the existing methods.
q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Nondestructive testing; Ultrasonic scan; Signal processing; Image acquisition; Neural networks; Fuzzy logic

1. Introduction
Corrosion is a widespread problem in pipelines. The use
of nondestructive testing techniques for pipeline characterization is particularly essential, where access to the pipeline
is limited [1] and [2]. Ultrasonic flaw detection systems are
employed to detect various types of flaws and measure their
size [2] and [3]. Some research works reported on pipeline
characterization using ultrasonic methods are primarily
based on the measurement of the acoustic velocity,
attenuation, or spectroscopic properties [2] and [4].
Conventional analog signal processing methods may be
used to improve the signal to noise ratio [5]. However, there
are limitations in using band-pass or low-pass filters in
analog processing when the noise spectral density function
occupies the same band as the echoed signal from the
pipeline.
New digital processing methods, which is initially
developed for simulation purposes, consist of split spectrum
processing [6], synchronous averaging [7] and pulse
compression [8]. These new methods improve the
* Corresponding author. Tel.: C98 21 600 5517; fax: C98 21 603 0318.
E-mail address: ravanbod@sharif.edu.

0963-8695/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.ndteint.2005.03.001

functionality of such methods. But, the digital signal

processing of flaw detection is generalized by the simultaneous implementation of finite impulse response (FIR)
and synchronous averaging (SA) [9] and [10] on a system.
FIR and SA filters, however, have some limitations,
when:
(I) The pictured environment is too noisy, so there is a
need for a high sampling rate (this reduces the
processing speed), or
(II) The signal to noise ratio is too low.
Unlike the conventional methods, the approach taken in
this article is to use a decision based neural network (DBNN)
for the detection of flaws [12]. A cost function is defined to
represent the similarity in a more realistic manner. The
gradient of the cost function is calculated and the gradient
descent method is used to upgrade the weight parameters of
each node [19]. A generalized regression neural network
(GRNN) is used and trained to determine the dimensions of
the corrosions and generate the whole image of the internal
and external walls of the oil pipeline [12] and [13]. As an
improvement to the detection algorithm, fuzzy logic is
adopted in a neuro-fuzzy network (FDNN) [12] and [19].
The structure of such a network is identical to a neural
network, while the main factors of difference are the fuzzy
variables and fuzzy computations [15] and [16].

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H. Ravanbod / NDT&E International 38 (2005) 643653

In Section 2, the schematic diagram of the ultrasonic scan

system and image acquisition parameters are introduced. It
should be mentioned that this system measures the
environmental information (Pressure, temperature, etc.) in
pipeline and the flaw information (location and angular
position). This information is used at the external processing
level (outside of pipe). In this paper, the length and the depth
of flaws are exclusively considered.
Internal processing, measurement strategies, analog and
digital processing on the data acquisition system, are
introduced in Section 3. Section 4 deals with reconstruction
and image processing discussions that are considered as the
external processing level. In this section, a classical signal
processing method is introduced to determine the type of
flaws and their dimensions, where FDNN [18] is considered
for flaw identification, as well. A comparative study is also
given at the end of Section 4. The experimental results are
compared and discussed in Section 5 and the paper is
concluded in Section 6.

2. Ultrasonic scan and image processing system

A simple schematic diagram of the ultrasonic image
acquisition and preprocessing system is shown in Fig. 1. The
system consists of different blocks as follows: the
measurement sections, ultrasonic sensors, signal processing
section, and data compression [1] and [2].
The transducer is stimulated via an electrical pulse. As a
result, a mechanical impulse is transmitted to the fluid
environment and enters the pipe wall. Reflected waveforms
from the inside and outside of the pipe wall are injected to
the receiver. Following amplification and filtering, a
logarithmic amplifier adjusts dynamic range of the signal.
Then, a final amplifier detects the signal and passes it on to
the digital section.
Ultrasonic
Sensor
Pre-Amplifier

Fire
Signal

Dispersion &
Noise Filters

Logarithmic
Amplifier

Window

Sampler

Pulse
Detection

Pulse
Locator

Classifier

Packet
Builder

Low Noise
Amplifier

Noise
Filter

Logarithmic
Amplifier

Final
Amplifier

Detector

Threshold
Comparator

Fig. 2. Analog processing section.

In the digital section, a time window reduces the effects

of noise on the system. Then, the location of the received
pulse from the flaw location is detected and this information
is classified [2] and [3]. The flaws characteristic information is built in packets and saved [2] and [3].
At the external processing level (outside of pipe), the
saved information is decoded and an image is extracted.
Regarding the environmental status, some modifications
are applied to the image. Signal processing tools are used for
reducing the noise and smoothing the image. The type of
flaw (dent, metal loss, pitting, etc.) is detected and classified,
and then the dimensions of the flaw are calculated. Finally, a
report about the type of the flaw and its location and
dimensions is prepared [1] and [2].

3. Image acquisition
Ultrasonic data simply consists of stand-off (distance
between internal pipe surface and probe) and wall thickness.
The processing will be implemented in two levels: on-line
(inside pipe) processing, which is implemented in the flaw
detector in order to compress and reduce recorded data; and
off-line (outside pipe) data processing, which is
implemented out of the flaw detector in order to complete
scan process [1] and [2].
During the internal processing, two operations are
performed: analog processing and digital processing.
3.1. Analog processing
A schematic diagram of the analog processing section is
shown in Fig. 2. First, the received signal from the probe is
amplified by the low noise amplifier and then it enters the
noise filter. This filter blocks noise to the system, while

Image Acquisition (Inside Pipeline)

Decoding

Image
Extraction

Image
Correction

Dimensions
Measurement

Automatic
Classification

Smoothing &
Noise Reduction

Image Processing (Outside Pipeline)

Fig. 1. Ultrasonic image acquisition and processing block diagram.

Window

Serial to
Parallel

Window

Memory

Pulse
Locator

Classifier

Packet
Builder

Group
Combiner

Data
Compression

Fig. 3. Digital processing section.

Data
Storing

H. Ravanbod / NDT&E International 38 (2005) 643653

Table 1
Measurement parameters
Wall thickness
Stand-off thickness
Ultrasonic probe:
H5K Krautkramer
Pulse repetition frequency (PRF)
Wall thickness resolution
Accuracy of corrosion depth
evaluation
Longitudinal resolution
Minimum defect diameter
Minimum defect depth

645

Decompression

Decoding

2 cm
2 cm
Nominal frequencyZ5 MHz
Element size0diameterZ10 mm
300 Hz
0.2 mm
G0.5 mm
3.3 mm
10.0 mm
1.0 mm

transmitting pulse energy. To reduce the dynamic range of

the input signal, a logarithmic amplifier is used, in which the
gain is high for weak signals and low for high amplitude
signals. Afterwards, there is another amplifier (final
amplifier) whose output is led to a comparator for signal
detection and noise reduction. The output of this section
enters the digital section [2,9] and [11].
3.2. Digital processing
Fig. 3 shows a block diagram of the digital processing
section. At the first step a window is applied to the signal to
receive a signal at an expected time to avoid noise and
unwanted signals. Afterwards, the location of the extracted
pulse on a pulse locator block, regarding its time, is used for
the detection of flawed or unflawed wall. The result is fed
into the classifier section. If a flawed wall is detected, all of
its related information is saved. At the time that information
is fed into the pulse locator, if the wall is detected as a
flawed wall, data is saved on a temporary memory, using a
serial to parallel converter [10]. The packet builder saves
and organizes this information in a proper memory. Then
the information that includes flaw information and location
is compressed and saved in a memory.
3.3. Image acquisition parameters

Preliminary
Image
Extraction

SO / WT
Computation

Smoothing
& Noise
Reduction

Automatic
Classification

Data
Isolation

Image
Correction

Presentation
&
Feature List

MAOP
Computation

Fig. 4. External image processing schematic diagram.

4.1. Preliminary image processing and flaw classification

Fig. 4 shows a schematic diagram of the external
processing blocks, which are used for reconstructing the
pipeline map. Moreover, other data about the distance and
angular position is added to the flaw dimensions data. For
image enhancement, the effects of sensor movement and
variable speed of the system are compensated [9] and [11].
Afterwards, the noise effect is reduced and a logarithmic
amplifier is used to improve the accuracy. Finally, the
maximum available operational pressure (MAOP) is
calculated in the external processing [1] and [2].
In general, the flaws in the pipe can be categorized in four
groups as: internal, external, inside of pipe and both internal
and external. Besides, these flaw groups are divided into six
additional types that are: metal loss, deep, dent, weld point,
lamination, inclusion and T-junction. The majority (more
than 95%) of flaws are deep and metal loss types [1],
henceforth, these two types of flaws are considered in this
paper. By using Stand off (So) and Wall thickness (Wt)
concepts [1] and [2], the two mentioned types of flaws can
be categorized as defined in Table 2.

The values of simulation and measurement parameters

are listed in Table 1 [11].
These values are used in signal processing simulation
and algorithms (Sections 4 and 5).

4.2. Signal processing

4. Image processing and feature extraction

Table 2
Flaws categorization in pipelines

At the external processing level, the gathered information during internal processing is resorted to obtain the
form and location of the flaws in the pipeline [1] and [2]. At
first, the classical method of flaw detection algorithm is
reviewed, where simulation is based on a typical practical
flaw type. Afterwards, neuro-fuzzy algorithms are
implemented to reduce the computational complexity.

Flaws type

Stand-off and wall thickness

Internal flaw

So (flaw)OSo (intact pipe)

Wt (flaw)!Wt (intact pipe)
So (flaw)ZSo (intact pipe)
Wt (flaw)!Wt (intact pipe)
So (flaw)OSo (intact pipe)
Wt (flaw)/Wt (intact pipe)

For the purpose of system construction for industrial

implementation, a simulation is conducted by using

Internal flaw
Internal/external flaw

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H. Ravanbod / NDT&E International 38 (2005) 643653

Start

Sampling

Filtering

Probe
Stepping

Signal
Processing
Data
Storing

No

The end of
Wall ?

Yes

Interpolation

Image
Drawing

End

Fig. 7. The flow chart of the simulation algorithm.

Fig. 5. The spectrums of probe that is used in simulation. (a) Frequency

response. (b) Impulse response (Reproduced with the courtesy of
Kravtkramer Inc.).

Matlab/Simulink software. The pipeline walls are simulated

in this system and all segments of the probe are stimulated
by pulses with the definite excitation frequency. The probe
is simulated with a 7!10 matrix, which is widely used in
the simulations. All elements of this matrix are excited
simultaneously. The reflected signals, received by the
probes, are processed in the simulation and thus the flaw
is detected. The transfer function of the probe used in the
simulation is the H5K probe (from Krautkramer Inc.), they
are shown in Fig. 5(a) and (b) [11].
The image reconstruction consists of the wall thickness
and stand-off extraction, internal and external pipe
walls extraction together with suitable gray level assignment. In the simulations, the probe moves over the whole

pipe wall at the defined sampling steps, as shown in Fig. 6.

[1,2,9] and [11].
At each sampling time, the program performs filtering
and signal processing, and the net data of each probe step,
related to the corrosion, is stored. The probe stepping
continues until it reaches the end of the pipe wall. Finally,
the program interpolates the stored data and depicts the
image of the whole pipe wall corrosion [2] and [11]. The
appropriate flow chart is shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 8. shows a deep type flaw and its estimation is
shown in Fig. 9. As it is shown in these figures, the system
has shown a good performance to detect this type of flaw.
Another metal loss flaw, which is common in the
pipelines, is shown in Fig. 10, and the estimated flaw is

Sampling Step

Probe

Corrosion Surface

Fig. 6. Transaction of the probe facing corrosion.

Fig. 8. Supposed deep type flaw, main surface.

H. Ravanbod / NDT&E International 38 (2005) 643653

647

Fig. 12. Supposed shallow type flaw, main surface.

Fig. 9. Estimated surface of deep type flaw.

4.3. Neural network application for detection

and classification of the corrosion

shown in Fig. 11. In this type of flaw, the system has

acceptable resolution for detecting the flaws.
Also, Fig. 12 shows shallow type flaw. The detected
image is shown in Fig. 13, which is quite acceptable for the
purpose of flaw detection.

A neural network (NN) can be used to detect and classify

the corrosions in the oil pipe walls [12,13] and [14].
In general, there are three steps in achieving this purpose.
First, a proper network structure should be chosen.
However, it may be necessary to modify the chosen
structure during the second step (training process). Second,
training the network with the training patterns starts, see
Fig. 14(a). In this process, many classified patterns are
applied to the network. The network balances its internal
weights, so that it not only classifies the training patterns
correctly, but also classifies the similar patterns that may be
introduced to the network after that (testing step). In this
way, the network learns the classification. Third, a few new
patterns (not exactly the same as the training patterns, but
similar to) are introduced to the network Fig. 14(b). The
network should classify the new patterns in the way that is
expected. If its not the case, the network must be trained
more, or another structure must be selected for the
application.

Fig. 11. Estimated metal loss type flaw, main surface.

Fig. 13. Estimated shallow type flaw, main surface.

Fig. 10. Supposed metal loss type of flaw.

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H. Ravanbod / NDT&E International 38 (2005) 643653

(a) Training Output

Desired Output
Adjustable Weights

Training Input

System Output

Error

Adjusted Weights

(b)
Testing Input

System Output

Fig. 14. (a) Training process. (b) Testing process.

4.3.1. Decision-based neural network for corrosion

classification
In this section, a Decision Based Neural Network
(DBNN) is used for the detection of flaws. In such networks,
there are several nodes. Like every input pattern, each unit
of the network is represented by a few parameters. A cost
function is defined to represent the similarity in a more
realistic manner. Among the networks nodes whichever
minimizes the cost function with respect to a specific input
shows the class which the input pattern belongs to. During
the training step, there may be misclassification for most of
the training patterns. During this period, the training
patterns are classified either correctly or incorrectly, each
matrix unit is balanced in a way that it satisfies our
classification purposes. The gradient of the cost function is
calculated, and the gradient descent method is used to
upgrade the weight parameters of each node [18].
In the simulation program, the network classified the
corrosions. Fig. 15 is correctly classified as a dent. Fig. 16,
Figs. 17 and 18 are also correctly classified as deep,
medium and shallow, respectively.
4.3.2. General regression neural network for corrosion
detection
In this section, another Feed forward Neural Network is
used. Its a Generalized Regression Neural Network
(GRNN), which is trained to determine the dimensions of
the corrosions, and generate the whole image of the internal
and external oil pipe walls [14]and [15]. It is a kind of
Radial Basis Neural Network (RBNN) with nonparametric
estimators based on Gaussian functions. This network is

Fig. 15. Dent.

Fig. 16. Deep.

Fig. 17. Medium.

capable of estimating any kind of nonlinear functions with

the least repetition of training patterns, and the highest rate
of convergence.
In such estimation, at each sampling step of the probe, we
use all the data of the whole probe to determine the depth of
the corrosion instead of the middle point of the probe. As a
result, the bothersome effects like scattering will be
compensated. Furthermore, the probe functions as an
adaptive filter for any noise.
In a simulation, there are corrosions as the inputs to the
network and the estimated images of the corrosions as the
outputs. The results are shown in the following Figs. 1921
for different corrosions.
4.4. Fuzzy decision neural networkapplication
for corrosion detection and classification
As an improvement to the detection algorithm, fuzzy
logic is adopted in a neuro-fuzzy network. The structure of

Fig. 18. Shallow.

H. Ravanbod / NDT&E International 38 (2005) 643653

Fig. 19. An actual corrosion and its estimation by the neural network (the
corrosion has been shown to the network as a training pattern).

649

Fig. 22. Penalty function in FDNN and DBNN.

a training pattern, and u denotes all the involved weight

vectors. A measurement of misclassification can be
introduced as follows:
d Z KFi X m ; ui C Fj X m ; uj

(1)

where F(X,ui) is the discriminant function for the class Ui.

Two scenarios are of interest:

Fig. 20. Another actual corrosion and its estimation by the neural network
(the corrosion is introduced to the network as a training pattern).

such a network is identical to a neural network. But the main

factor of difference is fuzzy variables and fuzzy computations [16] and [17]. However, if the whole fuzzy system is
considered as a network, the purpose is to adjust the
variables of this network in a way that it correctly maps the
system inputs to the desired outputs. The same as before,
different algorithms can be used for training. Among them,
error back-propagation, which is based on the gradient
method, is preferred because it has a high convergence rate,
and it is systematically convenient in practice and
performance.
Here a Fuzzy Decision-based Neural Network (FDNN) is
used. This allows soft or fuzzy decision, as opposed to
the hard (yes or no) decision [18,20,21] and [22]. To provide
a smooth gradient for learning, the error function should
represent a real estimation of penalty. Suppose that (X(m)) is

When d is positive, then the associated pattern can be

misclassified to the challenger Uj.
When d is negative, then the pattern can be correctly
classified to Ui.
In both cases, the larger the magnitude of d, the greater is
the error. If d were only a small negative value, then the
correct choice Ui would win over the challenger Uji only by
a narrow margin. In this case, unlike DBNN, it may still be
advisable to invoke the learning process so as to enhance the
vigilance. A penalty function, which is interesting in
classification is:

 
Kd
ld Z 1 1 C exp
x

(2)

Fig. 22 shows the penalty function.

4.5. Fuzzy decision learning rule
Suppose that the mth training pattern (X(m)) is known to
lead asymptotically to a minimum error in class Ui and that
the
leading
challenger
is
denoted
by
J Z arg maxjsi FX m ; uj . The reinforced Learning rule is
used as follows:
0
m
uimC1 Z um
; ui
i C hl dDFX

(3)

and in the anti-reinforced Learning:

0
m
; uj
ujmC1 Z um
j C hl dDFX

Fig. 21. An actual corrosion and its estimation by the neural network (the
corrosion is introduced to the network as a training pattern).

(4)

where l 0 (d) is the derivative of the penalty function

evaluated at d, see [19].

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H. Ravanbod / NDT&E International 38 (2005) 643653

5. Results and comparison

5.1. Results with simulation
In the simulation program, the dimensions of several
corrosions are estimated. The cumulative error of the output
estimated depth is calculated in percent, for different input
testing corrosions with no noise. The result is shown in Fig. 23.
The simulation results confirm that FDNN is more
effective than DBNN when the training patterns are not
separable. Indeed, in Fig. 24 different noisy cases are shown.
These results are different, but are reliable enough to be used
in analysis.
FDNN yields a very smoother decision boundary.
Training a FDNN is more complicated in comparison to
DBNN. Therefore, it should be taken more into consideration. Theoretically speaking, DBNN is biased, whilst
FDNN is less biased. Therefore, a learning method with
adjustable window size z should be considered. More
precisely, in the beginning phase, the window size should be
large enough so that the decision boundary can move
rapidly to a correct neighborhood. In order to reduce bias,
the window size should gradually be decreased.
As the simulation confirms, a neuro-fuzzy system has
more potential flexibility in learning: FDNN learns

Fig. 25. A corrosion, which could be classified as either deep or medium.

Fig. 26. A corrosion that could be classified as either dent or shallow.

the underlying rule more efficiently to make the desirable

decisions in the inseparable pattern cases as shown in
Figs. 23 and 24. These are the patterns, which could be
classified in more than one group. Fig. 25 shows a corrosion
that is similar to both deep and medium classes. Fig. 26
shows corrosion, which is similar to both dent and
shallow.
5.2. Results with real flaws

Fig. 23. Cumulative error for the training patterns.

In this section, typical oil pipes flaws are photographed

by the using of PowerShot45 Canon digital camera.
Afterwards, this information in 3 dimensional matrix
forms is processed by the classical signal processing method
of Section 4.2 and the neuron-fuzzy methods of Sections 4.3
and 4.4. The photographing and processing are performed

Fig. 24. Cumulative error for different amounts of S/N.

Fig. 27. A shallow type flaw.

H. Ravanbod / NDT&E International 38 (2005) 643653

651

Fig. 28. Estimation using signal processing system.

Fig. 31. Estimation using signal processing.

Fig. 29. Estimation using the neuro-fuzzy system.

Fig. 32. Estimation using neuro-fuzzy system.

on three common types of flaws in oil pipes: deep, medium

and shallow type. The results show that the neuro-fuzzy
methods have a better performance than the classical
processing methods in the detection of shape and dimensions of flaw.
The results are shown in the following figures:

Fig. 30 shows a medium type flaw, and its estimations by the

signal processing and the neuro-fuzzy systems are shown in
Figs. 31 and 32, respectively.
Fig. 33 shows a deep type flaw and its estimations by the
signal processing and neuro-fuzzy systems are shown in
Figs. 34 and 35, respectively.

Fig. 27 shows a shallow type flaw, and its estimations by the

signal processing and the neuro-fuzzy systems are shown in
Figs. 28 and 29, respectively.

N.B.: Fig. 27, Figs. 30 and 33 (original images) have

taken at resolution of 2!2 cm2.
It should be noted that, in our application, the neurofuzzy signal processing provides a prominent contrast

Fig. 30. A medium type flaw.

Fig. 33. A deep type flaw.

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H. Ravanbod / NDT&E International 38 (2005) 643653

Acknowledgements

Fig. 34. Estimation using signal processing system.

This Research is funded by Pipeline and Communications Bureau of National Iranian Oil Company and
is supported by the Chancellor of Sharif University of
Technology (SUT), the Research Deputy Chancellor
of SUT, and the Director of the Electronic Research
Center.
The author would like to thank Dr Sh. Ghaemmaghami,
Mr S. Haghbin, Dr H.R. Amindavar and Dr M.R. Movahedi
for their valuable comments.
The author would also like to thank and express his
appreciation for the comments and efforts by the anonymous
reviewers and the associate editor that enhanced the quality
of this paper.

References

Fig. 35. Estimation using neuro-fuzzy system.

between corroded and undamaged regions in pipeline;

hence, we obtain a clear distinctive boundary of the
corroded region.

6. Conclusion
In this paper, we have introduced an ultrasonic scan
system and the pertinent calculations of the system
parameters, for the purpose of nondestructive testing of oil
pipes. We have investigated also the technical characteristics of subsystems to be used and implemented in an
industrial smart ultrasonic flaw detector system. Different
sections of an ultrasonic system, including ultrasonic,
environmental and positional parameters sensors have
been presented. We have introduced and described in detail
the internal processing, which involves a set of operations
inside the pipe. We have also presented thorough feature
extraction and complementary processing sections of the
ultrasonic scan system, such as noise reduction, enhancement, and smoothing that is applied to images. Using neural
network techniques, we have conducted the software
simulations to classify the processed images of pipe walls.
Decision-based; i.e. DBNN and FDNN, are also employed
to enhance the boundaries between the corroded and
undamaged regions in the pipeline image.

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Hossein Ravanbod was born in TehranIran.

He received his BS, MSc and PhD in Electrical
Engineering in 1982, 1983 and 1987, respectively, from the Electronic Institute of University of Paris XI (Orsay), France. He was with
the Comasec Company (ParisFrance) as
deputy director of research affairs from 1988
to 1993. Since 1993 he has been an assistant
professor at the Electronic Research Center,
Sharif University of Technology (Tehran
Iran). He has been involved in the research and
development of Electronic Testing Equipment (Intelligent Pig) for
nondestructive testing of oil pipelines, funded by Pipeline and Communications Bureau of National Iranian Oil Company. His research interests lie
in applications of signal processing in nondestructive testing, image
processing, fuzzy logic, neural network and mathematical morphology and
fault tolerance. Dr Ravanbod is also deputy director of research affairs in
the Electronic Research center of Sharif University of Technology.