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Table of Contents
1.
2.
3.
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
Continuity:..................................................................................................................................... 8
2.2
Momentum: .................................................................................................................................. 8
2.3
Energy: ........................................................................................................................................ 10
4.
7.
8.
9.
9.2
9.3
9.4
Transitional ................................................................................................................................. 68
9.5
9.6
9.7
1. Mathematical background:
1.1 vector relations:
Vector summation:
Vector Products:
Scalar Product
Vector Product
Position Vector
General Vector
Cylindrical
Position Vector
Transformation
Spherical
Position Vector
Transformation
The gradient of the scalar field P at a given point in space is defined as a vector.
a. Its magnitude is the maximum rate of change of P per unit length of the coordinate space at
the given point.
b. Its direction is that of the maximum rate of change of P at the given point.
Directional derivative in s direction
Cartesian gradient
Cylindrical gradient
Spherical gradient
Cartesian gradient
Cylindrical gradient
Spherical gradient
Cartesian gradient
Cylindrical gradient
Spherical gradient
Stokes Theorem
Divergence theorem
Gradient theorem
2. Fundamental Equations:
2.1 Continuity:
Model: control volume
Volume
Mass
Mass
rate
Mass
flux
Divergence theorem:
Sub in divergence theorem
Final Form
Substantial derivative form
2.2 Momentum:
Model: control volume
Newton II
Body Force
8
Pressure
Force
Gradient theorem
Linearity time differential
Divergence theorem
Final form
Steady state,
inviscis,
No body forces
2.3 Energy:
Model: control volume
Thermodynamics I
Rate of volumetric heating
Total heat transferred into control
volume
Rate of work done on fluid inside
C.V. due to pressure force on S
The rate of heat added to the fluid plus the rat of work done on the fluid is equal to the rate of
change of total energy of the fluid as it flows through the control volume
10
Integral form
Differential form
Calorically perfect gas
Ideal gas
Steady state,
inviscis,
No body forces
11
3. Flow parameters:
3.1 streamlines
Streamline: a curve whose tangent at any point is in the direction of the velocity vector at that point
dy v
dx u
12
Angular velocity of BC
Z direction angular velocity is the average
of AB angular velocity and BC angular
velocity
3d angular velocity vector
Vorticity: 2
V
Irrotational condition
3.3 circulation
Consider a closed curve C in a flow field. Let V and ds
be the velocity and directed line segment at a point
on C. the circulation is defined as:
13
Consider a 2d stream
v
x
15
2
x2 2 x2
x2
x2
Shear diffusion
u1 2u1
t x22
0 x D
16
x
U
2 D
2
D
U
Re
2t
du1
dx2
4. Fundamental flow:
4.1Bernoulli
general
Along the streamline
Cp
p p
q
Dynamic pressure
1
U 2
2
V
Cp 1
V
Velocity form
4.3Laplace equation
Incompressible flow
Existence of velocity
potential or
irrotational
We combine both
these conditions
Laplacian
Harmonic functions
Laplacian in
Cartesian
coordinates
Laplacian in
cylindrical
coordinates
Laplacian in
spherical
coordinates
The stream function
also satisfies the
Laplacian
17
V 0
V 0
V
Boundary condition 1
g ( x) V x
f y const
result
18
Circulation
Laplace
incompressibility
irrotational flow
we can define a velocity potential
V 0
V 0
V
19
elemental
mass flow
across the
surface
element
the total
mass flow
across the
surface of
the cylinder
m V dS Vr rd L
volume rate
Volume rate
per unit
length
Radial
velocity
Boundary condition 1
Circulation
Laplace
20
l remains constant,
Doublet Strength
Doublet stream function
Doublet radius
21
Circulation
Velocity as a function of circulation
Strength of vortex
Vortex potential
Streamline function
22
Stream Function
Velocity vector
0 rstag
V cos
2 V
V0
2 r
V sin 0
stag 0,
Stagnation point
23
Stream Function
Velocity vector
Stagnation point
Hard to find
24
Surface is denotated by the letter s, the sub letters u,l denote upper and lower edges of the airfoil
25
TE
LE
LE
TE
LE
LE
Dynamic pressure
Lift,Drag,Normal, Axial, moment
coefficient for wing span area S,
and chord length l
Pressure, skin friction coefficient
CL
L
D
N
A
M
CD
CN
CA
CM
q S
q S
q S
q S
q Sl
Cp
Cn
1
V2
2
Ca
P P
cf
q
q
1 c
cP , L cP ,u dx
c 0
dyu
dyL
1 c
1 c
c
c
dx
cP,u cP,L dy
P ,u
P,L
c 0
dx
dx
c 0
CM ,LE
c
dy
dy
1 c
c cP, L dx cP,u u cP, L L dx
2 0 P ,u
0
c
dx
dx
26
drag
Lift
Stream Function
27
Velocity vector
Stagnation point
Stream Functions
28
Stagnation point
Surface Velocity
Pressure coefficient
Drag coefficient
Lift coefficient
Lift
1
V 2 SCl
2
1
L ' V
2
29
Circulation
L ' V
Edge view of a source sheet: let s be the distance measured along the source sheet
s source strength per unit length along s or volume flow rate per unit depth
We consider point P(x,y) located at a distance r from sheet section ds, the section ds of strength ds
induces a small potential d at point P.
Induced potential
ds
d
ln r
2
30
ln r
ds
2
a
x, y
We wish to find the proper source strength parameter to properly model flow over an arbitrary body,
we approximate the source sheet with panels, and solve for the strength parameter. We approximate
the source strength constant per panel like 1 , 2 ,..., n for panels 1 through n. the flow over the
body is then calculated through a superposition of uniform flow and source sheet on the body surface
let
31
j
ln rpj ds j
2 j
j
ln rpj ds j
j 1 2 j
P j
j 1
x x y y
2
rpj
j
ln rij ds j
j 1 2 j
xi , yi
x x y y
2
rij
Boundary condition
V,n Vn 0
V,n V ni V cos i
Vn
Vn
xi , yi
ni
i
2
V cos i
j
ln rij ds j
j 1 2 j ni
n
i
2
j i
j
ln rij ds j 0
j 1 2 j ni
n
j i
Using this condition, we can solve the above system of equations for all the strength parameters,
using these parameters we can sub in to solve for the stream solution
n
Tangential velocity at the control point of the ith
j
V
ln rij ds j
j
j 1 2
Vi V ,s Vs V sin i
V
C pi 1 i
V
S
j 1
32
s ln r ds
ij
Vn
Distance
i
2
rij
1 rij
ln rij
ni
rij ni
2 xi x j
dxi
dy
2 yi y j i
dni
dni
x j yi y j
2
xi x j cos i yi y j sin i
ln rij
2
2
ni
xi x j yi y j
33
j
ln rij ds j
j 1 2 j ni
n
j i
x x y y
2
6. Theoretical Solutions
6.1 Vortex Sheet
Consider a vortex sheet made up vortex
filaments.
We can define s as a length variable,
We define
34
ds
2 r
ds
d
dV
x, y
1
2
ds
ds
a
v2 dn u1ds v1dn u2 ds
u1 u2 ds v1 v2 dn
ds
ds u1 u2 ds v1 v2 dn
lim ds u1 u2 ds
dn 0
u1 u2
The idea:
Replace an airfoil surface with a vortex sheet of variable strength s
Calculate the induced velocity field from the vortex sheet when added to the uniform velocity
of V
ds
a
35
characterize the circulation based on the position of stagnation points. If we can place the stagnation
point 2 at the trailing edge point than the circulation can accurately be calculated analytically.
There are infinite possible trailing edge shapes, two are shown below:
The following reasoning is applied to prove that all possible trailing edge shapes result in Vu Vl . If the
trailing edge ends at a finite angle, this results in two velocities in two different directions, which is
impossible. The only possible solution is that Vu Vl 0 . If the trailing edge ends in a cusp, than nonzero velocity is possible however using Bernoulli we can show that
Pa
1
1
Vu 2 Pa VL 2 Vu VL
2
2
36
2 V ds
C2
1 2
D
0
Dt
Kalvin states that the circulation is
conserved.
The circulation starts at 0
As the flow is started, a powerful counter
vortex called the starting vortex is formed
downstream such the circulation is
preserved as zero. This also explains the
kutta condition because the flow is forced to
figure 8 around both vortices 3,4 which
tends to the Kutta flow type.
37
Our purpose is to calculate the variation of s such that the camber line because a streamline of the
flow which satisfies the Kutta condition TE 0 , such we can calculate the circulation around the
airfoil, and use Kutta Jakowski to calculate the lift.
Consider a vortex sheet placed on the camber
line of an airfoil with freestream velocity V
and angle of attack . The distance measured
along the camber line is denoted by s, the
camber line is given by z z x . We can
show the component of velocity normal to the
camber line induced by the vortex sheet
w ' w ' s .
If we place the vortex sheet on the chord line,
such that x with Kutta condition
V,n w ' s 0
dz
dx
dz
V sin arc tan
dx
V,n
dz
V,n V
dx
w' s w x
dw
38
d
,
2 x
w x
d
2 x
We sub in the freestream velocity normal component, and the normal component of the velocity due to
vorticity to show the condition that the camber line will be the stream line:
dz c d
V ,n w ' s 0 V
0
dx 0 2 x
c d
dz
V
dx 0 2 x
We have achieved the fundamental equation of thin airfoil theory which is just a condition for which the
camber line is a stream line over a sheet of vortices on the chord line.
We start solving this equation by simplification called the symmetric airfoil in which the camber line is
parallel to the chord line such that
dz
0 in which case the thin airfoil theory fundamental equation
dx
d
2 x
1 cos
c
x 1 cos 0 1
2
2
c
d sin d
sin d
V
cos cos 0
1 cos
sin
lim 2V
1 cos
sin
Le ' hopital
2V
sin
0
cos
Such using the Kutta Joukowski theorem we can calculate the lift generated on the symmetric airfoil.
We first calculate the total circulation:
d
c
39
c
1 cos
2
c
sin d
2 0
c
2V 1 cos d cV
2 0
L ' V cV2
cV2
L'
cl
2
q s 1 V 2 c 1
2
s c 1
dcl
2
d
Which matches the experimental data
The total moment about the leading edge due to the entire vortex sheet can be shown
M 'LE dL V d
c
We use the same transformation and integration and achieve the following results
M 'LE q c 2
M 'LE
q Sc
2 cm ,le l
4
cl 2
c
cm,c/4 cm,le l 0
4
cm,le
Such we have found the center of pressure, or the point in which the moments are zero at a quarter of
the chord length.
40
V
dx 0 2 x
1 cos
c
x 1 cos 0 1
2
2
c
d sin d
sin d
dz
V
cos cos 0
dx
2V A0
1 cos
An sin n
sin
n 1
We substitute the solution term back into the integral equation to solve for the coefficients.
A0
1 cos
1
sin n sin
dz
d An
d
cos cos 0
0 cos cos0
dx
The integrals can be solved, and the equation can be simplified to the following equation:
dz
A0 An cos n0
dx
n 1
c
x 1 cos 0
2
dz
as the function f , we apply the Fourier
dx
f B0 Bn cos n
n 1
B0
Bn
f d
f cos n d
1
dz
d A0
dx
2 dz
An cos n 0 d 0
0 dx
A0
41
dz
d
dx
Such we have effectively solved the thin airfoil problem with the flow line over the general camber line
as an infinite series of sinusoidal terms in the form of a Fourier series which incidentally solves the Kutta
condition.
1
dz
d A0
0 dx
2 dz
An cos n 0 d 0
0 dx
A0
2V A0
dz
d
dx
1 cos
An sin n
sin
n 1
We can now determine the aerodynamic parameters needed to calculate the forces and moments.
The total circulation due to the entire vortex sheet
c
dx sin d
1 cos
2V A0
An sin n sin d 2V A0 1 cos d An sin n sin d
0
0
0
sin
n 1
n 1
/ 2 n 1
1
cos
0
0 sin n sin d 0 n 1
cV A0 1
2
L ' V cV2 A0 1
2
L'
cl
2 A0 A1
1
q c 1
2
1 dz
cl 2 cos 0 1 d 0
0 dx
dcl
2
d
From this result we can calculate the zero lift angle of attack:
42
y mx b
dc
cl l L 0
d
cl 2 L 0
1 dz
cl 2 cos 0 1 d 0
0 dx
1 dz
L 0 cos 0 1 d 0
0 dx
Such we can see that the integral term represents the zero lift angle of attack
The moment coefficient is given as
cm,le
A2
A0 A1
2
2
c
l A1 A2
4 2
cm,le
A2 A1
4
c c c
M 'LE
xcp
m ,le 1 A1 A2
L'
cl
4 cl
Cm ,c /4
43
M ac
M 'c /4
L'
cxac 1/ 4
q Sc q S
q Sc
dcmc/4
dcl
xac 0.25
d
d
d
dcmc/4
dcl
a0
m0
d
d
dcm ,ac
xac
m0
0.25
a0
0 a0 xac 0.25 m0
6.7 Lifting flows over arbitrary bodies: the vortex panel numerical method
We want to approximate the vortex panel sheet wrapped around an arbitrary shape with a series of
straight vortex sheet panels of finite length. The vortex strength per unit length, is constant per panel
but vary between panels.
44
We wish to solve for the vortex strength per unit length of each panel such that the body can be
modeled as a stream line of flow that satisfies the Kutta condition. To ensure non penetration condition
the normal component of velocity at all the control points should be zero. As before we model point
1
pj j ds j j pj ds j
2 j
2 j
y yj
xx
j
pj arctan
j
pj ds j
j 1 2 j
P j
j 1
yi y j
x x
j
i
ij arctan
j
ij ds j
j 1 2 j
n
xi , yi j
j 1
Vtot n 0
V,n V cos i
Vn
non-penetration condition
xi , yi
n j
n j
n j
d
s
j 1 2 ij j
j
j
ij ds j
j 1 2 j n j
n
Vn
j
ij ds j
j 1 2 j n j
Super-position
Vtot ,n V ,n Vn V cos i
V cos i
Ji, j
V cos i
j
ij ds j 0
j 1 2 j n j
n
ij ds j
n j
j
j
Ji, j 0
j 1 2
n
45
The Kutta condition is dependent on the trailing edge panel geometry. Considering the trailing edge
panels small at panels i and i-1, the condition is given by
i i 1
Which imposes a canceling of vortex strength at the trailing edge.
Note: it is important to pick a control point, to not evaluate and solve such that the system is not overdetermined given n+1 equations and n variables.
Such we can determine the local velocities on the outside of the airfoil such that:
a Va , b Vb , ..., n Vn
We obtain circulation, and lift using the following analysis
Let s j be the length of panel j,
The circulation due to panel j
j jsj
j j s j
j 1
j 1
L ' V j s j
j 1
46
47
48
The flow of air over the finite wing is three dimensional such that at the wing tips, high pressure air
rushs around the tip to the low pressure region above and such causes air in the wing span direction.
Such the streamlines above and below the wings are pushed sideways, and a wing tip vortex is created
downstream.
49
cd
D f Dp
q S
Di
q S
CD cd CD,i
CD ,i
50
Consider a directed sement of filament dl. The radius vector from dl to an arbitrary point p in space is r.
the induced velocity at p as a result of the vortex from segment dl is given by:
Biot-Savart Law
dV
dl r
4 r 3
We want to apply a map of curved vortex filaments to calculate finite wing circulation, and velocity we
start by calculating an infinite straight vortex filament using Biot-Savarts Law.
Suppose a straight vortex filament of
strength . The velocity induced at
point P, by the entire vortex filament is
dl r
3
4
4
r
dV
sin
dl
r2
Given height h
We show the following transformation:
h
sin
h
l
tan
r
h
d
sin 2
sin
V
dl
sin d
4 r 2
4 h 0
V
2 h
dl
51
Consider a given span wise location y1 where the local chord is c. the local geometric angle of attack is
. The lift per unit span at this location is given by L ' y1 . We consider the lift per unit span at a
different location with different geometric characteristics L ' y2 which will therefore be different from
L ' y1 . Such we propose that the lift per unit span of the wing is distributed as a function of y along
the wing L ' L ' y and such according to Kutta Joukowski so is the circulation y
L ' y
.
V
The lift distribution is influenced by local chord length, airfoil thickness, local camber, geometric twist,
washout, wash in, and aerodynamic twist. The determination of the lift distribution is a central problem
in finite wing theory.
A bound vortex of strength or a vortex filament bound to a fixed location will experience a force
L V according to Kutta-Joukowski.
52
We consider replacing a finite wing of span b with a bound vortex extending from
b
b
y . Using
2
2
Helmholtzs second vortex law, we continuous the vortex filament as two free vortices trailing
downstream from the wing tips to infinity. This vortex filament consisting of two bound vortices and
two free vortices is called a horseshoe vortex.
We consider a single horseshoe vortex, including the downwash w induced along the bound vortex from
b
b
y . We see that the trailing vortices both contribute to the induced velocity along the bound
2
2
vortex and both contributions in the downward direction. If the origin is taken at the center of the
bound vortex, then the velocity at any point y along the bound vortex induced by the trailing semiinfinite vortices is taken from biot savarts law.
53
w y
4 b / 2 y 4 b / 2 y 4 b / 2 2 y 2
b /2 side trailing vortex
The solution to this problem was a superposition of a large number of horseshoe vortices each with a
different length of the bound vortex, with all the bound vortices coincident along a single line called the
lifting line. This is shown in the picture above, the first horseshoe vortex of strength d1 spans from
point A to F, the second horseshoe vortex of strength d 2 spans from point B to point E and d 3 spans
from point C to point D. the strength is summed as a superposition of horseshoe vortex strengths. The
strength of each trailing vortex is equal to the change in circulation along the lifting line.
54
If we extrapolate and fill in an infinite amount of horseshoe vortices on the span of the finite wings, we
achieve a continuous distribution of y along the lifting line with the value of circulation at the origin
0 . The trailing vortices have become a continuous vortex sheet, parallel to V . The total strength of
the sheet integrated across the span is zero because it consists of pairs of trailing vortices of equal
strength but in opposite directions.
If we take a small segment of the lifting line dy ,
The circulation at y is
d
d
dy
dy
d
dy dy
dw
4 y0 y
d
dy
1
dy
w y0
b
/2
4
y0 y
b /2
w y0 w y0 V w y0
V
V
i y0 arctan
d
dy
b /2
1
dy
i y0
b
/2
V 4
y0 y
55
a0 eff y0 L 0 2 eff y0 L 0
cl
1
V2c y0 cl y0 V y0
2
2 y0
cl y0
V c y0
y y0
L ' y0
cl y0 2 eff y0 L 0
y0
L 0
eff y0
2 y0
V
c
y
cl y0
V c y0
geo eff i
d
dy
b /2
y0
1
dy
geo y0
L 0
b
/2
V c y0
V 4
y0 y
This represents the fundamental equation of Prandtl lifting line theory, which allows the calculation of
the circulation given the angle of attack distribution. Such we can calculate the following aerodynamic
characteristics:
Kutta Joukowski
L ' y0 V y0
Total lift
b /2
b /2
L ' y0 dy V
b /2
Lift coefficient
CL
Di
CD
y0 dy
L
2 b /2
y0 dy
q S V S b /2
b /2
b / 2
b /2
small angle
L'i i
Di' dy
b /2
b /2
L'i i y0 dy V
b /2
b /2
y0 i y0 dy
D
2 b /2
y0 i y0 dy
q S V S b /2
y 0
2y
1
b
L ' y0 V 0
2y
1
b
b
2 b
L ' V 0 1
0
2
b 2
56
downwash
Integration substitution
Downwash solution
2
d d
y
2 y 4 0
0 1 2
dy dy
b b
y2
1 4 2
b
b /2
y
w y0 02
dy
b b /2
y2
y0 y 1 4 2
b
b
b
y cos dy sin d
2
2
0
cos
w y0
d
2 0
2 b
cos cos 0
w 0
Induced angle of attack
Lift
Integration substitution
Lift solution
Circulation at the center point
Circulation at the center point in terms of
the lift coefficient
Induced angle of attack (explicit)
Aspect Ratio
Induced angle of attack in terms of aspect
ratio
i y0
0
2bV
2
2y
1 dy
b /2
b
b
b
y cos dy sin d
2
2
b
b
L V 0 sin 2 d V 0
0
2
4
4L
0
V b
2V SC
2V bC
0 L L
b
AR
sC L
i y0 2
b
2
b
AR
S
C
i y0 L
AR
L V 0
C D ,i
0
2b
w y0
2
i
V S
2
b/ 2 y dy Vi S 0
C D ,i
b i 0
V S
C D ,i
CL2
AR
57
b /2
b/ 2
sin 2 d
b/ 2
b / 2
b i 0
2V S
2y
1 dy
b
Consider a wing with no geometric twist, and no aerodynamic twist. We have seen that the induced
angle of attack is constant along the span. Such the effective angle of attack in constant along the span.
We can show
local lift coefficient
cl a0 eff L0 2 eff L0
L ' y q ccl
Chord length
c y
L ' y
cl q
2y
V 0 1
b
cl q
By applying the transformation y cos to the elliptical circulation distribution, the transformed
2bV An sin n
n 1
d
dy
y0
1
dy
geo y0
L 0
b
/2
V c y0
V 4
y0 y
b /2
We wish to satisfy Prandtl fundamental lifting line equation such we start by differentiating
Differentiating
N
d d d
d
58
2b
geo y0
c 0
An sin n L0
n 1
N
2b
A sin n
c
geo y0
n 1
nA cos n
cos cos 0
L 0
n 1
nAn
n 1
sin n0
sin 0
This equation shows a system of N unknowns for all the coefficients and geometric constants at given
cross sections of the wing span. If N cross sections are chosen, than a system of N equations with N
unknowns is achievable and the Fourier coefficients can be determined.
Lift coefficient
2 b /2
2b 2 N
CL
b /2
y dy
A
n 1
n 0
sin n sin d
i y0
1
4 V
N
i nAn
n 1
/ 2 n 1
sin n sin d
0
n 1
0
b2
CL A1
A1 AR
S
2 b /2
2b 2 N
C D ,i
y
d
y
i
An sin n i y sin d
V S b / 2
S 0 n 1
V S
C D ,i
b /2
b / 2
d / dy dy ... 1
sin n
sin
y0 y
An sin n nAn
n 1
n 1
nA
n 1
sin n
sin d
sin
m k
0
sin m sin k
0
/ 2 m k
2
N
N
An
2
2
CD ,i AR nAn ARA1 1 n
n 1 A1
n 1
2
C
CD ,i L 1
AR
A
n n
n 1 A1
N
e 1
C D ,i
CL2
eAR
59
n 0
cos n
d
cos cos 0
Note that
0 0.2
such the aspect ratio has a much higher influence on the drag ratio than the
6 AR 22
delta term
C D ,i
CL2
1
AR
60
Such the larger the aspect ratio, the less drag is felt and the more lift is generated.
We can show how the lift line of a finite wing is always less than an airfoil using the following analysis:
dCL
a0
d i
CL a0 i L 0
C
CL a0 L L 0
AR
a0
dCL
a
a
d
1 0 1
AR
0.05, 0.25
61
9. Boundary Layer
9.1 boundary layer assumptions
consider the viscous flow over a flat plate. The fluid satisfies the no-slip and wall temperature boundary
conditions:
V (wall) 0
. The fluid above the boundary layer has properties equal to the free stream
T(wall) Tw
: u 0.99 V
, inside the boundary layer, both the velocity
T : T 0.99T
Pr 1 T
Pr 1 T
Pr 1 T
Pr
w y 0
y w
y w
T
T
qw k
q y 0 k
y w
y w
Displacement thickness
y1
* 1
0
y1
62
u
dy
eue
y1
m udy eue *
0
Displacement thickness is the distance by which an external flow streamline is displaced by the presence
of the boundary layer
Iterative solution idea:
1. carry out an inviscid solution for the body shape ab, evaluate e , ue , Te along curve ab
2. using these values to solve the boundary layer equations
3. obtain a displacement thickness term * , and calculate an effective body given by a curve ac
4. carry out an inviscid solution for the effective body ac, and evaluate new e , ue , Te terms along
this curve.
5. Reiterate steps 3,4 until the solution converges on finite values
Note: the results pertain to flow over the actual body surface ab
Momentum thickness
y1
u u
1 dy
eue ue
y1
63
dm udy
A dm u u 2 dy
B dmue u dy ue
B A u ue u dy
y1
u u
u dy
eue 2
y1
eue u ue u dy
2
y1
u u
1 dy
eue ue
Such the free stream momentum height functions as an index proportional to the decrement in
momentum due to boundary layer effects.
du
dv
1 p
1 v u
v
2
dx
dx M x Re y x y
We consider a long flat plate, very thin with respect to the body scale
64
We understand that x O 1 ,
u v
0
x
y
y O
du
dv
1 p
1 v u
v
2
dx
dx M x Re y x y
1 v u
1
O 1 O 2
Re y x y
du
dv
1 p
1
2u
u v
dx
dx M 2 x Re y 2
If we reproduce the same analysis in the y direction:
v
v
1 p
1 v u
v
2
x
y M y Re x x y
1 p
1
O O
O 2 O O
2
M y
1 p
p
0
0
2
M y
y
Such we have achieved that the pressure is only a function of x and constant throughout the
height of the boundary layer.
We achieve the following boundary layer equations:
continuity
u v
x
Momentum x direction
du
dv
1 p
1
2u
v
dx
dx M 2 x Re y 2
Momentum y direction
p
0
y
Energy conservation
u
pe
h
h T
u v k
u
x
y y y
x
y
65
Ideal gas
Enthalpy
p RT
h c pT
Boundary conditions
Wall: y 0 u 0 v 0 T Tw
Boundary: y u ue
Unknowns: u , v, , h
variables
T Te
Known: p pe x , , k
We solve the boundary layer to obtain the velocity and temperature at the wall of the body, and
such we can solve the shear and heat transfer distributions:
y w
T
qw k
y w
heat transfer
u
dy
x
Bernulli
p U 2
const
2
dU
1 dp
U
dx
dx
dU
u u u
2u
dy U
2
x y x
dx
y
U / x 0
y
U
y
( x)
2 x
( x) 2 x / U
2Ux f ( )
u( x, y)
U
Uf ( ) v( x, y)
( f f )
y
x
2x
66
Substitution of
similarity
variable and
velocity
components
into the
momentum in
the x direction
Boundary
conditions
2 Uf ( )
Uf ( ) Uf ( ) Uf ( )
dU U
dy
f
)
x
x
y
dx 2 x
y 2
2 Uf ( )
U
( f f )
2x
y 2
f f 0
Uf ( )
No slip: u ( x, 0) 0 f (0) 0
Wall non penetration: v( x, 0) 0 f (0) 0
Free stream velocity: u ( x, ) U f () 1
results
vx
U
* 1.721
vx
U
0.664
vx
U
Falkner-Skan generalization:
Considering a wedge at
angle of attack
,
2
x
ue x U
L
2m
m 1
U 0 (m 1) x
2 L L
2 U 0 L x
U ( x) ( x) f ( )
m 1 L
u
u
2u
v
c 2 mx 2 m1 2
x
y
y
f ff 1 ( f )2 0
67
( m 1)/2
( m 1)/2
f ( )
Results table
9.4 Transitional
The Reynolds number can be given as Re
inertial forces vL vL
viscous forces
u
0
y w
condition is given as
68
69