Subsonic Airfoils!

W.H. Mason

Configuration Aerodynamics Class

Most people dont realize that mankind can be divided into
two great classes: those who take airfoil selection seriously,
and those who dont.

Peter Garrison, Flying, Sept. 2002

Typical Subsonic Methods: Panel Methods!

For subsonic inviscid flow, the flowfield can be found by
solving an integral equation for the potential on the surface

This is done assuming a distribution of singularities along
the surface, and finding the strengths of the singularities

The airfoil is represented by a series of (typically) straight
line segments between nodes, and the nonpenetration
boundary condition is typically satisfied at control points

Some version of a Kutta condition is required to close the
system of equations.

node
N -1

N
N+1

panel

See my Applied Computation Aero page for the derivation

Comparison of Panel Method Pressure Distribution

with Exact Conformal Transformation Results!
-2.50
PANEL
-2.00

Exact Conformal Mapping

-1.50
-1.00

Cp
-0.50
0.00
0.50
1.00
-0.2

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

1.2

x/c

XFOILs inviscid calculations use a panel method

The conformal mapping solution is from Antony Jameson

Convergence with increasing numbers of panels!

0.980

NACA 0012 Airfoil, = 8

0.975
CL

0.970
0.965
0.960
0.955
0.950
0

20

40

60
80
No. of Panels

100

120

How to examine convergence: Lift!

CL

0.980
0.975
0.970
0.965
0.960
0.955
0.950
0

NACA 0012 Airfoil, = 8

0.01

0.02

0.03
0.04
1/n

0.05

0.06

Convergence with Panels: Moment!

-0.240
NACA 0012 Airfoil, = 8

-0.242
-0.244

Cm
-0.246
-0.248
-0.250
0

0.01

0.02

0.03

1/n

0.04

0.05

0.06

Convergence with Panels: Drag!

0.012
0.010

NACA 0012 Airfoil, = 8

0.008
CD 0.006
0.004
0.002
0.000
0

0.01

0.02

0.03 0.04
1/n

0.05

0.06

Pressures: 20 and 60 panels!

-5.00
NACA 0012 airfoil, = 8

-4.00

20 panels
60 panels

-3.00
-2.00
CP
-1.00
0.00
1.00
0.0

0.2

0.4

x/c

0.6

0.8

1.0

Pressures: 60 and 100 panels!

-5.00
NACA 0012 airfoil, = 8

-4.00

60 panels
100 panels

-3.00
-2.00

CP
-1.00
0.00
1.00
0.0

0.2

0.4

x/c

0.6

0.8

1.0

Comparison with WT Data: Lift

- recall: panel methods are inviscid! -!
2.50

2.00
NACA 4412
1.50

CL
1.00

NACA 0012

0.50
CL, NACA 0012 - PANEL
CL, NACA 0012 - exp. data

0.00

CL, NACA 4412 - PANEL

CL, NACA 4412 - exp. data

-0.50
-5.0

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

Comparison with Data: Pitching Moment

- about the quarter chord -!
0.10
NACA 0012

0.05
-0.00

Cm

-0.05
c/4
-0.10
-0.15
NACA 4412

-0.20

Cm, NACA 0012 - PANEL

Cm, NACA 4412 - PANEL
Cm, NACA 0012 - exp. data
Cm, NACA 4412 - exp. data

-0.25
-0.30

-5.0

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

For Completeness: Drag Data

Effect of Camber!
2.00
Re = 6 million
1.50

1.00

CL
0.50

NACA 4412
NACA 0012

0.00
data from Abbott and von Doehhoff
-0.50
0.004

0.006

0.008

0.010

0.012

CD

0.014

0.016

0.018

A Sidebar: Can you use thin airfoil theory?

Camber Effects: compared to WT Data
Camber effect on Alpha Zero Lift

Camber effect on Cm0

1.00

0.020

0.00

0.000

-0.020
-1.00

WT Data

Alpha
zero lift

WT Data

m0
-0.040

-2.00
-0.060
-3.00

Thin Airfoil
Theory

-0.080

-4.00

-0.100
NACA 4 digit series airfoils

-5.00
-1.0

Thin Airfoil
Theory

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

percent camber

NACA 4 digit series airfoils

4.0

5.0

-0.120
-1.0

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

percent camber

WT Data From Hemke, Elementary Applied Aerodynamics

Thin airfoil theory from Houghton and Carpenter, pg 252

4.0

5.0

WT Data
used in
Comparison

From Hemke, Elementary

Applied Aerodynamics

Redo our previous comparisons

How Well Does Linear Theory Work?
Pretty Well!
3.00
2.50
2.00

CL, NACA 0012 - PANEL

CL, NACA 4412 - PANEL
CL, NACA 4412 - exp. data
CL, NACA 0012 - exp. data
CL 4412 LT
CL 0012 LT

CL 1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
-0.50
-5.0

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

And the Pitching Moment

Cm, NACA 0012 - PANEL
Cm, NACA 4412 - PANEL
Cm (NACA 0012)
Cm (NACA 4412)
Cm 4412 LT
ICm 0012 LT

0.02
0.00
-0.02
-0.04

Cm -0.06
-0.08
-0.10
-0.12
-0.14
-5.0

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

Comparison of inviscid prediction with WT

Pressure Distribution!
-1.2
data from NACA R-646
-0.8
-0.4
Cp
-0.0
Predictions from PANEL

0.4

= 1.875
M = .191
Re = 720,000
transition free

0.8
1.2

0.0

0.2

NACA 4412 airfoil

0.4

x/c

0.6

0.8

1.0

Note viscous relief (loss) of full

pressure recovery at the trailing edge

1.2

XFOIL: the code for subsonic airfoils!

Panel Methods: Inviscid!

Couple with a BL analysis to include
viscous effects

The single element viscous subsonic airfoil
analysis method of choice: XFOIL

by Prof. Mark Drela at MIT

Link available from my software site

Airfoil pressures: What to look for!

-2.00
Expansion/recovery around leading edge
(minimum pressure or max velocity,
first appearance of sonic flow)

-1.50

Rapidly accelerating flow,

favorable pressure gradient

-1.00

upper surface pressure recovery

(adverse pressure gradient)

CP
-0.50
lower surface
0.00

Trailing edge pressure recovery

Leading edge stagnation point

0.50

NACA 0012 airfoil, = 4

1.00
-0.1

0.1

0.3

0.5
x/c

0.7

0.9

1.1

Effect of Angle of Attack!

-5.00
NACA 0012 airfoil
Inviscid calculation from PANEL
-4.00
= 0

-3.00

=4

CP

=8

-2.00

-1.00

0.00

1.00
-0.1

0.1

0.3

0.5
x/c

0.7

0.9

1.1

Thickness Effects
Comparison of NACA 4-Digit Airfoils
0006, 0012, 0018 !
-0.30

NACA 0006 (max t/c = 6%)

NACA 0012 (max t/c = 12%)
NACA 0018 (max t/c = 18%)

-0.20
-0.10
y/c -0.00
0.10
0.20
0.30
-0.1

0.1

0.3

0.5
x/c

0.7

0.9

1.1

4-digit series fixes LE radius in relation to t/cmax,

Modified 4-Digit allow you to control separately

Thickness Effects on Airfoil Pressures

Zero Lift Case!
-1.00
Inviscid calculation from PANEL
-0.50
CP
0.00

0.50

1.00
-0.1

NACA 0006, = 0
NACA 0012, = 0
NACA 0018, = 0
0.1

0.3

0.5
x/c

0.7

0.9

1.1

Thickness Effects on Airfoil Pressures, CL = 0.48!

-3.00
Inviscid calculation from PANEL
-2.50
NACA 0006, = 4
NACA 0012, = 4

-2.00

NACA 0018, = 4
-1.50
CP
-1.00
-0.50
0.00
0.50
1.00
-0.1

0.1

0.3

0.5
x/c

0.7

0.9

1.1

Small LE Radius leads to high acceleration around the LE

Camber Effects
Comparison of NACA 4-Digit Airfoils
the 0012 and 4412!
0.30
0.20
0.10
y/c -0.00
-0.10
NACA 0012 (max t/c = 12%)
NACA 4412 foil (max t/c = 12%)

-0.20
-0.30
-0.1

0.1

0.3

0.5
x/c

0.7

0.9

1.1

Highly Cambered Airfoil Pressure Distribution

- NACA 4412 -!
-2.00
Inviscid calculation from PANEL
-1.50

NACA 4412, = 0
NACA 4412, = 4

-1.00
CP
-0.50

0.00

0.50
Note: For a comparison of cambered and uncambered
presuure distributions at the same lift, see Fig. 18.
1.00
-0.1

0.1

0.3

0.5
x/c

0.7

0.9

1.1

Camber Effects on Airfoil Pressures, CL = 0.48!

-2.00
Inviscid calculation from PANEL
-1.50

NACA 0012, = 4
NACA 4412, = 0

-1.00

-0.50
CP
0.00

0.50

1.00
-0.1

0.1

0.3

0.5
x/c

0.7

0.9

1.1

Camber Effects on Airfoil Pressures, CL = 0.96!

-4.00
Inviscid calculations from PANEL
NACA 0012, = 8
NACA 4412, = 4

-3.00

-2.00
CP
-1.00

0.00

1.00
-0.1

0.1

0.3

0.5
x/c

0.7

0.9

1.1

Camber Effects on Airfoil Pressures, CL = 1.43!

-6.00
Inviscid calculations from PANEL
-5.00
NACA 0012, = 12
NACA 4412, = 8

-4.00
-3.00
CP

-2.00
-1.00
0.00
1.00
-0.1

0.1

0.3

0.5
x/c

0.7

0.9

1.1

For Completeness: Drag Data

Effect of Camber!
2.00
Re = 6 million
1.50

1.00

CL
0.50

NACA 4412
NACA 0012

0.00
data from Abbott and von Doehhoff
-0.50
0.004

0.006

0.008

0.010

0.012

CD

0.014

0.016

0.018

NACA 6712 Airfoil

- Heavy Aft Camber Geometry -!
0.15

y/c 0.05
-0.05
-0.1

0.1

0.3

0.5
x/c

0.7

0.9

1.1

NACA 6712 Airfoil

- Heavy Aft Camber, Pressure Distribution -!
-2.00
Inviscid calculations from PANEL
-1.50

= -.6 (CL = 1.0)

-1.00
-0.50
CP
0.00
0.50
NACA 6712
1.00
-0.1

0.1

0.3

0.5
x/c

0.7

0.9

1.1

Whitcomb GA(W)-1 Airfoil!

0.15
0.10
0.05
y/c 0.00
-0.05
-0.10
-1.00

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6
0.8
Inviscid calculations from PANEL
x/c

1.0

-0.50
Cp
0.00

0.50

GA(W)-1
Note nearly
parallel upper and
= 0
lowersurfaces
at the trailing edge

1.00
0.0

0.2

0.4

x/c

0.6

0.8

1.0

Liebecks Hi-Lift Airfoil: Geometry and Lift

- note shape of pressure recovery -!

From R.T. Jones, Wing Theory

Liebecks Hi-Lift Airfoil: Drag!

From Bertin,

Aerodynamics for Engineers

Camberline Design: DesCam!

(Z-Z0)/C - DesCam
Z/C - from Abbott & vonDoenhoff

0.12

Design Chord
Loading

0.10
0.08
Z/C

2.00
1.50
CP
1.00

0.06
0.50

0.04

0.00

0.02
0.00
0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6
X/C

0.8

-0.50
1.0

Airfoil Selection!

Issues:

Cruise CL, and CLmax, dont forget Cm0

-large LE radius?

-Near parallel trailing edge closure

Profile Drag: Laminar flow?


Tailor pressure distribution

Thickness for low weight and internal volume

Tails: often symmetric, 6 series foils picked

Study Abbott and von Doenhoff (both) as a start

To Conclude!

You have the tools to do single element airfoil design