The UN in the 1990s: Success or Failure?

Key Conflicts:
Rwanda
Persian Gulf War
Srebrenica
Cambodia
Somalia
Sierra Leone
Kosovo
Somalia
Background:
Civil war broke out in 1991
1992 1995
UN Missions:
United Nations Operation in Somalia I (UNOSOM I, April 1992) meant
to oversee the ceasefire
United Nations Operation in Somalia II (March 1993 to 1995)
Aided by: Organisation for African Unity, the League of Arab States,
Organisation of the Islamic Conference
Unified Task Force (led by the US) in November 1992 which eventually
became UNOSOM II)
Did it fail?
"The intervention in Somalia was not an abject failure; an estimated
100,000 lives were saved. But its mismanagement should be an object
lesson for peacekeepers on other such missions."
Why did it fail?
Parties were not willing: Despite the UN's efforts, all over Somalia the
ceasefire was ignored, fighting continued, and continued to increase,
putting the relief operations at great risk.

Failure of the UNSC: In August 1992 the Security Council endorsed

sending of another 3,000 troops to the region to protect relief efforts.
However, most of these troops were never sent.

US self-interest after Battle of Mogadishu: On October 7 in a nationwide

television address, President Clinton "effectively ended the US
proactive policy in Somalia" and "called for the withdrawal of all US
forces no later than March 31, 1994." (with Belgium, France and
Sweden)

Rwanda
UN Missions:
United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNSC, 5th October 1993
to March 1996)
Resolution 912
Generally regarded as a failure
Intended to assist in the implementation of the Arusha Accords (August
4, 1993)
UNAMIR 2 (17th May 1994) the arrival of nearly 5,500 troops and
personnel although they only arrived in June
Operation Turquoise (French) but the killings had already swept past
the safe zones
Background:
Rwandan Civil War began in October 1990 as the Rwandan Patriotic
Front invaded into northern Rwanda mostly Tutsis against Hutus
(Rwandan Armed Forces)
The French backed the government (blocked RPF advances) in contrast
to the Belgium government which cut off all support to the government
regime.
Was it a failure?
Establish long-lasting peace: Paul Kagame maintained his regime (RPF
leader)
Prevent killings
Reasons for Failure:
Lack of resources: Although they became aware of the Hutu Power
movement, and despite requests from the UNAMIR commander
Dallaire, the UN denied requests to raid the arms supply (intended for
the mass extermination of Tutsis) + received little support from the
administrative head of UNAMIR
Even after the conflict broke out, as the powers were reluctant to invest
more resources, the UNAMIR mission were severely understaffed.
Examples:
UNSC voted to reduce UNAMIR forces to 260 from an intended 2500.
UNSC threatened to withdraw by early May if there was no ceasefire
New Zealand delayed this

Neither side (government forces + Kagame) were interested in a

ceasefire
Chapter 6 rendered it powerless to intervene
Belgians withdrew on 12th April 1994 after losing 10 soldiers + US and
other powers were keen on withdrawal due to previous loses in Somalia
Who was at fault?
Kofi Annan
US/UK/Other superpowers
NOT New Zealand (rotational chair of the UNSC) was great and delayed
the withdrawal of UNAMIR
NOT Dallaire, the Canadian Lieutenant General

Persian Gulf War

Timeline:
Iraqs invasion of Kuwait on 2nd August 1990 (Saddam Hussein for the
aim of acquiring large oi reserves to cancel a large debt Iraq owed
Kuwait)
3rd August: UNSC called for Iraq to withdraw from Kuwait
8th August: Iraq formally annexed to Kuwait
October 1990: a consensus emerged between the US and the USSR
that the use of military force against Iraq should be authorised.
15th January 1991: Resolution 678 (Cuba and Yemen voted against,
China abstained) authorised use of force (because the US placed
economic pressure on all of them + China who would normally vote
against was under sanctions from Tiananmen and wanted to relieve
these tensions )
17th Jan 28th Feb 1991: Operation Desert Storm
Ceasefire on 24th February
UN Missions:
UNIKOM (9th April 1991) meant to monitor the demilitarised zone
along the Iraq-Kuwait border
Operations Desert Shield
Desert Storm was a rapid success (encouraged unrealistic Western
expectations about the ability of air power to shape the behaviour of a
recalcitrant opponent.
US was inclined to participate but it was inclined to want command and
control of the operation. Closed-door negotiations with P5: effective in Gulf
War, but questions collective security
US Motivations
Economic interests: Oil
Saddam Hussein was developing chemical + biological + nuclear
capabilities = security threat
Israel: Only ten days later did Saddam invoke the Palestinian cause
Srebrenica (July 1995)
Background:
Killing of Muslim Bosniaks during the Bosnian War
UN Missions:
United Nations Protection Force peacekeeping force formed in
February 1992
16th April 1993: declared the town a UN safe area to be free from any
armed attack or any other hostile act But then refused to authorize
enough troops to defend,

Whose fault was it?

The Dutch: In 2013 and 2014, the Netherlands was found liable in its
own supreme court and in the Hague district court of failing in its duty
to prevent more than 300 of the deaths.
The Dutch government, however, feared that its troops might be taken
hostage and, at least on one occasion, strongly opposed air strikes. The
report says that the Dutch could have been more forthright in reporting
immediately after the incident what evidence they had that a massacre
was taking place.

Superpowers/UNSC: By spring 1995, the Contact Group the US, UK,

France, Germany and Russia appeared to abandon the 1993
resolution against rewarding ethnic cleansing, as it sought to partition
Bosnia between a Serb statelet and a Muslim-Croat federation.
Example: The refusal of Security Council members, including the United
States, to authorize enough troops to do the job. Mr. Boutros-Ghali
wanted 34,000; the Security Council authorized only 7,400.
Srebrenica was then under the guardianship of 110 Dutch
peacekeepers, who were no match for the Serbs who suddenly
surrounded and attacked the town. The United Nations report says that
the Dutch commander had asked for NATO air support on several
occasions but was turned down until, finally, he was provided with two
air patrols that dropped two bombs and left.
The study also faulted French and British commanders leading United
Nations troops for their reluctance to call on NATO.

Cambodia
UN Missions:
United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia in 1992-1993 first
time the UN took over the administration of an independent state +
administered elections etc.
Goals:
o Restore peace and civil government after decades of civil war
and Cold War machinations
o Trial of senior Khmer Rouge leaders
Limitations: failed to disarm the Khmer Rouge which allowed it to
continue imposing political violence
Kosovo
Background:
28th February 1998 11th June 1999
UNSC Resolution 1244: placed Kosovo placed under transitional UN
administration + authorised Kosovo Force (KFOR), a NATO-led
peacekeeping force
USA, UK, and France recognised the declaration of independence, and
the People's Republic of China has expressed concern, while Russia
considers it illegal.
NATO Involvement:

The NATO bombing campaign has remained controversial, as it did not

gain the approval of the UN Security Council and because it caused at
least 488 Yugoslav civilian deaths