Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges

to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists

Author(s): Amber Haque
Source: Journal of Religion and Health, Vol. 43, No. 4 (Winter, 2004), pp. 357-377
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27512819
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Journal of Religion and Health, Vol. 43, No. 4, Winter 2004 (? 2004)

from

Psychology

Contributions

Perspective:
of Early
and

Islamic

Muslim

Scholars
to

Challenges

Muslim

Contemporary
Psychologists
AMBERHAQUE

or
wrote
nature
it Ilm-al Nafsiat
about human
and called
extensively
Early Muslims
seem to be the original
In many
their works
ideas for many
modern
cases,
day
is interesting
What
however
theories
and practices.
is that a lot of what
the early
psychological
covers major
wrote was blended
with
Islamic
and religious
scholars
ideas. This paper
philosophy

ABSTRACT:

self-knowledge.

contributions
of prominent
to psychology
and outlines
the challenges
faced
scholars
early Muslim
on
to the Western
in adapting
theories.
It also offers a few recommendations
by today's Muslims
the indigenization
of psychology
for Muslim
in seeking
societies
interested
the Islamic
perspective
on human
behaviors.

KEY

WORDS:

chologists;

Islamic

indeginous

psychology;

early

Muslim

scholars;

history

of psychology;

Muslim

psy

psychology.

Islam is a major world religion and there are growing numbers

in
of Muslims
in
the west,
North
America
where
the
Muslim
esti
particularly
population
4 and 6 million
mates
and Hussain,
range between
(Haddad,
1991; Hussain
seen
in
The
rise
the
Muslim
in the last
has
been
1996).
sharpest
population
of
and
to
decades
continues
the
of
grow steadily.
couple
growth
Although
or
is not higher
Muslims
to
other
ethnic
in
interest
compared
religious groups,
Islam and Muslims
has risen significantly
after the September
11th incidents
in America.
on Muslims
Besides
information
from the media,
the social science
is now replete with
literature
the socio-political
of Arab/Muslim
cul
aspects
tures. A meager
amount
on the psychological
of writings
is also available
issues

relevant

2002; Reich

for this minority

community
(Haque,
and Paloutzian,
the increase
2001). With

Amber Haque, Department

and Shah,
2004; Murken
in
of Muslim
population

of Psychology, UAE University, AL Ain, United Arab Emirates,

Malaysia.
357 ? 2004 Blanton-Peale

Institute

358

Journal of Religion and Health

in this minority
and interest of social scientists
America
it has be
community,
on issues related
come imperative
that the Islamic worldview
to psychology
is
in the mainstream
literature. An inquiry into the intellectual
introduced
tradi
tion of Muslim

about human

beliefs

nature

for persons
in the helping
be revealing
in practice,
clients
Muslim
teaching

of treatment would
and methodology
are
who
professions
likely to encounter
or research. While many Muslims
are

heavily influenced by the Qur'an (Muslim holy book) and sayings of Prophet
Muhammad,
contributed

some are also

in the realm

influenced by the works of early Muslim

scholars who
of natural
sciences.
makes
and social
What
such con
are
on
or
based
Islamic philosophy
the concept of
they
can go a long way as a part of
of Islamic perspectives

is that
tributions
unique
Unity of God. Knowledge
clinicians
for mainstream
and researchers.
This
cultural
training
sensitivity
of early Muslim
scholars
to
the contributions
(universal figures)
paper explores
western
to
and
the
dilemmas
Muslim
by
posed
highlights
psychology
psychology
and clients followed by some general
recommendations.
professionals
The term "early"
era after the death
lization

in the title of this paper

of Prophet Muhammad

the first significant Muslim

civi
(632 AD). The rise of Islamic
from 7th century AD lasted up to the

of Muslims

and culture

denotes

starting
for purposes
of brevity
Is
and also because
century
in
the 14th
sciences
and philosophy
gave way to other schools starting
to psychology
Muslim
until
the
this paper highlights
contributions
century,
death. Early Muslim
scholars
10th century or about 400 years after Prophet's
in the area of human
the term "psy
wrote
psychology,
although,
extensively
were
a part of
such
at
time
and
endeavors
did
not
exist
that
mostly
chology"
early
lamic

philosophical
or soul) was
man

AD However,

19th

nature.

In the writings
of Muslim
writings.
individual
used to denote
personality
a broad range
Nafs
encompasses

the term Nafs

(self
scholars,
and the term fitrah for hu

of topics
the qalb
including
irada
and
the
(will).1
(intellect)
Many
early Muslim
(heart),
(spirit),
aql
or indirectly
to the study of the "self.
contributed
scholars directly
under which Muslim
If we examine
the historical
scholarship
background
we
arose
which
under
the
umbrella
of philosophy,
will
it
find
that
developed,
areas
in
most
sim
of
human
almost
all
Philosophy,
enquiry.
encompassed
the ruh

It
of all things, both divine and human.2
plistic terms, refers to the knowledge
was during
became
the
Alexandria
and
that
the 8th and 9th centuries
Syria
center of philosophy
influenced mainly
thought and also to some
by the Greek
a caliph from the
extent by Indian and Persian
(813-933),
thought. Al-Mamun
into
in getting
translated
Greek works
interest
showed
Abbassid
dynasty,
a philosophical
Baitul Hikmah
that stimu
academy
on philosophical
is
scholars
in and discussions
among Muslim
commentaries
in
of
Greek
translations
works,
sues, resulting
philosophical
were
areas of knowledge.
at
Muslims
in many
treatises
and some original
verses
reasons
that
the
for
to
of
field
the
tracted
Qur'anic
including
philosophy

Arabic.

He

lated

interest

exhort

man

after;

the hadith3

established

to think

about

existence,

of the Prophet

nature,

emphasizing

qualities
values

of God, and
of knowledge4

the here
and

also

Amber

359

Hague

who had prior attachment

with philosophy.
The initial
to reason
in order to understand
the nature
of things was
led to the two major schools,
i.e., Mutabilit?s
(rationalists)5
or
the
and Asharites
and many
other
smaller
(traditionalists
orthodox)6
schools that are beyond the scope of our discussion.
Al-Mamun
of course, was a

due

to the

converts

efforts of Muslims
that
called Kalam

staunch

supporter

of the Mutazilite

school

that

favored

religion.
things including
a distinction
here to make
It is also important
between
as the two are not necessarily
mic philosophy
the same.
refers to the works of those Muslim
generally
philosophy

in all

rationalism
Muslim

and

Isla

term Muslim
thinkers who were
The

highly influenced by Greek thought whether or not they liked it. It includes
and other
metaphysics
but of different
schools
The

not only of the early scholars

concepts
philosophical
of thought
that emerged within
Islam over the years.
of Muslim
characteristic
is
that
it blended
philosophy
foreign
a
with
Islamic
in
in the Hellenistic
thought
resulting
change

unique

philosophies
philosophy
Christian

to the Greeks
opposed
Muslims
dogmas,
religious
actually
wrote
in areas
Muslim
philosophers
itself.

losophy.
tween religion

As

who

had

revolted

from

the

reconciled
religion with
phi
such as: (a) Relationship
be
(c) Proofs of God's existence,

and philosophy,
(b) First Cause,
of Creation
and (e) Theory
in the
and Evolution,
of Soul. While
Muslim
concerned
with
itself
is
beginning,
philosophy
mainly
theological
its second phase
led to the development
of mysticism.
In the third
sues,
is characterized
the Muslim
scholars
by philosophy
proper,
phase, which
to
as
as psy
contributed
the
natural
sciences
As
far
well.7
significantly
see
we
is
the
of
contributions
Muslim
scholars
at
each
concerned,
chology
(d) Theory

the nature
and extent of their contributions
both varied and
although
term
narrower
The
Islamic
is
in
and draws
overlapped.
philosophy
approach
from Qur'an
ideas mainly
and Hadith.
It is related
to the external
(Shariya)
as well as the hidden meaning
of the Qur'an
of its verses.
aspects
(Haqiqah)
stage,

an endeavor
to get to this Haqiqah,
is actually
which
is
the sole reality
and the only truth as well as the ultimate
goal of Islamic
It is well known
that almost all early Muslim
scholars
philosophy.
including
Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd
were made
of atheism
(be
against whom
charges
cause of their Aristotelian
of the world
found
co-eternal)
conception
being
Islamic

philosophy

from the Islamic

sources.
inspiration
primarily
The significant
and continuous
over the
of Muslim
contributions
scholars
centuries
show that the Occident
inherited
Islamic discoveries
and thought
more
than the Greek
It was cultural
and intellectual
thought.
globalization
into the West
world
for over 1,000 years. As we
imported from the Muslim
are
in
there
words
the
know,
many
English
language
today that are derived
from Arabic,
for instance,
algebra,
admiral,
cipher, amalgam,
alcohol,
alcove,
of Arabs on Western
the influence
culture.
coffee, etc., showing
Islamic sciences
started to decline
in the 14th century mainly
because
of the

closing of Ijtihad (free interpretation) that led to freezing of the knowledge

360

Journal

was

from what

already

Muslims

whatever

ought

of this
Proponents
was best understood

known.
to know

that
theory
suggested
at the time of revela
Traditionalists
believed
that new

of the Prophet.
tion and by the companions
a practice
to
would
haram
considered
lead
innovation,
knowledge
in Islam. However,
between
there is a Hadith
good
distinguishing
innovation.

and bad

Islamic

Recent

and Health

of Religion

scholars

have

clarified

that

(forbidden)
innovation
in

innovation

is prohibited
in the area of religion and not in the area of sciences. While
came to a halt for several
of Muslims
contributions
there
scientific
centuries,
were some philosophical
contributions
between
14th
and
by Islamic thinkers
Sheikh
Ahmad
19th centuries,
Mohammad
e.g., Shah Waliullah,
Sirhind,
Islam

etc. Other factors leading to the

from Arabia,
Iqbal from India, Abd al Wahhab
are attributed
of Islamic sciences
to the colonization
and civilization
downfall
in adoption
of Western
of the Muslim
world resulting
culture by the elites. A

blind imitation of the West

own
not
e.g.,

resulted in young Muslims

losing faith in their

Pulled
from two different
directions
and cultures.
or
master
Some
either
civilization.
Muslim
comprehend

civilization
fully

Faruqi

(1982)

also

blame

the

secular

education

system

they
and

could

scholars,
secular

upbringing combined with a lack of vision that led to the intellectual crisis
the Muslims.
among
to explore
it is necessary
of Muslim
the contributions
One might
ask why
are
for
relevant
scholars who lived centuries
ago and how such contributions
time. There are in fact, several benefits from this endeavor.
To
the present
of the rich
oblivious
legacy of their ancestors
generally
were generally
based on Islamic principles
and relevant
of all and in majority
of the cases,
and places. Most
important
was
and
to
Divine
thus
believed
injunctions
knowledge
guided by

are
day's Muslims
whose
contributions
for all times
Islamic

their
be free
the

from human

early Muslim

errors.
scholars

we also find that it was

of psychology,
and
theories
many
originated
psychological
a lot is written
about their works, not much
is

In the area
who

today. While
prevalent
available
the English
in
language.
readily
on the description
nature
of self and human
accounts
The written
given by
as
can
as
800
until year 1100
AD
Muslim
found
from
scholars
be
early
early
is more
of a survey or
that this paper
to emphasize
AD.9 The author wishes
an
these
of
the
contributions
of
scholars and
outline rather than
study
in-depth
on
a
as
works
of these
research
the
act
for
further
should
catalyst
original
practices

on Muslim
to
contributions
that the literature
It should be noted
on
The author has relied primarily
is really sparse and scattered.
psychology
re
written
the books on Muslim/Islamic
by various
monographs
philosophy,
and translations
of relevant materials
from Arabic books furnished
searches
by
certain
the
various
students. While
author's postgraduate
sources,
researching
scholars.

citations?a
have
been
in this paper may
proper
copied without
phrases
own.
of
and
The
birth
death of
the
author's
that
is
year
shortcoming
entirely
on
dates
have
relied
the
in
I
is
different
scholars
these
places.
given differently
Leaman
Nasr
and
of Islamic Philosophy
(1996).
by
given in the History

Amber

361

Hague

Al Ash'ath Bin Qais Al-Kindi (801-866)

as the first Muslim
is considered
from Baghdad
(Latin, Alchendius)
more
titles
books
and short trea
wrote
239
He
than
including
philosopher.
are:
to
On
First
and
Those
related
tises.
Dreams,
Philosophy,
Sleep
psychology
"Sorrow" as "a spiritual
of Sorrow.
Kindi
and the Eradication
explained
or by
(Nafsani)
by loss of loved ones or personal
belongings,
grief caused

Al Kindi

failure in obtaining what one lusts after." He then added, "If causes of pain are
recom
the cures can be found (Hamarnah,
1984, p. 362)." Kindi
discernable,
of what
is
that if we do not tolerate
mended
losing or dislike being deprived
in the world of the intellect.
In it
dear to us, then we should seek after riches
our precious
we should treasure
and cherished
gains where
they can never be
is owned by our senses
that which
could easily be taken
dispossessed...for
we
us
sorrow
not
is
within
He
said
that
from
us."
away
bring it upon ourselves.
to
discussed
of
combat
functions
and
He used cognitive
depression
strategies
in
human
He
reminded
that
the
the soul and intellectual
beings.
operations
of
Commentators
souls through the act of the will develop a good constitution.
works

Kindi's
partly

have

from Aristotle,

indicated

that

e.g. his writings

he drew his observations

on Dreams
and Intellect

and writings
are taken from

Aristotelian and Platonic ideas. Kindi writes in his epistle On the Soul that it
a synopsis of the larger works of both Aristotle
and Plato.10 He also
and
lower
worlds.
the upper world
the
the
While
between
upper
distinguished
of uncreated
like
the
nature
and
the
consists
intellect,
soul, the lower
beings
like Body, Creation, matter
of created beings
and Form that
world comprises
are finite. He mentioned
that God cannot be understood
that
by intellect
is basically

actually

led to "negative

theology".

Ali Ibn Sahl Rabban At-Tabari (838-870)

a Persian
which
development,
a medical
basically

At-Tabari,

in the field of child

and a Muslim
convert, was a pioneer
in
book
is
his
al
Firdaus
he elucidated
Firdaus
Hikmah.
text that is divided
into 7 sections
and 30 treatises
(360
ancient
discusses
Indian texts in this book and refers to the

Tabari
chapters).
of Sushtra
contributions

in relation
and Chanakya
1984). He also emphasized
(Hamarnah,
psychotherapy
to be smart and witty
therapy and urged the physicians
feel better. People frequently
feel sick due to delusive
but the competent
doctor can treat them by
explained,

to medicine
including
the need for psycho
to make
their patients
at-Tabari
imagination,
He
"wise counseling".

relates
the story of a practitioner
who would
ask his patient
"did you eat
or watermelon"
season
of
the
such
fruits.
Such
intuitive
grapes
ques
during
tions would win the rapport and confidence
of the patient
and would
lead to a
outcome.
ties between
At-Tabari
therapeutic
positive
strong
emphasized
medicine.
and
psychology

362

Journal

Abu Zaid Al-Balkhi

and Health

of Religion

(850-934)

Abu Zaid al-Balkhi is probably the first cognitive and medical psychologist
was

neuroses
between
to
differentiate
and psychoses,
to
in
and
show
neurotic
detail how rational
and spiritual
disorders,
classify
can be used to treat each one of his classified
Al
disorders.
cognitive
therapies
neuroses
Balkhi
into four emotional
classified
disorders:
fear and anxiety,
sadness
and depression,
and obsessions.
He also com
anger and aggression,

who

to clearly

able

with

their interaction
in
disorders
and showed
as
a
He
that
person
psychosomatic
suggested
just
healthy
some drugs and First Aid medicines
for unexpected
nearby
keeps
physical
he should also keep healthy
and feelings
in his mind for
emergencies,
thoughts
pares

physical

psychological
disorders.

causing

outbursts.

emotional

Al-Balkhi

said that

it is the balance

between
cause
imbalance
will
body
brings
a
al-Balkhi
said
that
the
treatment
of
sickness.
Furthermore,
body follows
with
to the imbalance,
and reciprocal
e.g., fe
respect
opposite
approaches
chill?heat.
This approach
is caDed "al-ilaj bi al-did" which
ver?cold
surface,
inhibition"
introduced
is similar
in
to the term "reciprocal
by Joseph Wolpe
into three kinds: everyday
1969. Al-Balkhi
classified
normal huzn
depression
or sadness,
is today known as normal
which
endogenous
depression,
depres

unexpected
the mind

and

sion

reactive

and

body while

reactive

that

about

depression.

Endogenous

depression

Abu Bakr Mohammad

originated

health

and

the

originated
depression
outside
the body.

within

the

Ibn Zakariya Al-Razi (864-932)

as Rhazes
in the West,
Al-Razi
known
promoted
psychotherapy,
from
comments
out that hopeful
al-Tabari.
He
like
his
mentor,
pointed
just
and
made
them
feel
doctors
better,
promoted
encouraged
speedier
patients,
that an unexpected
has a
outburst
believed
recovery. Al-Razi
high emotional
on
and
disor
effect
curative
psychological,
psychosomatic
organic
quick

A Persian

medicine
and also
of prognosis
and psychosomatic
He was a master
on
measure
a
wrote
to
how
treatise
Al-Razi
although
anatomy.
intelligence,
or al
of this work could not be found. His Kitab al-Hawi
translation
English
ever
in Islamic medicine
and he
written
is the longest work
Hawi
fit-Tibb
ders.11

was

as a medical

recognized

this

compendium,
scholars with his

In
in the West
up to the 18th century.
authority
medical
and Arab
Razi
of Greek
compares
opinions
own and unlike
of his time he crit
certain
other scholars

Greek
scholars.
and Galen,
the celebrated
of Hippocrates
a book on hospital
include Mujarabbat,
of al-Razi
works
a book on medicinal
al-Tibb al-Mansuri,
art, and al-Tibb
healing
experiences,
ills
and
to
treat
the
moral
he
discusses
where
ways
al-Ruhani,
psychological
on
wrote
medical
that
sound
of the human
depends
practice
spirit. He
as
a
as
its
brain
the
and
soul
substance
and treated
thinking
independent
icized

the works

Some

of the

other

Amber

363

Hague

that
He also wrote
instrument.
reason for better mental
health.

Abu Nasr Mohammad

Al Farabi,
He wrote

also known
his

treatise

City. Al Farabi

Model

religious

compulsions

can be

overcome

by

Ibn Al-Farakh (Al-Farabi) (870-950)

or Abynazar
as Alpharabius,
was Turkish.
Avenasser,
on Social Psychology,
most
renowned
of which
is his
stated that an isolated
individual
could not achieve
all

the aid of other individuals.

the perfections
It is the innate
by himself, without
man
or
men
to join another human being
of every
other
in the labor
disposition
to perform.
to achieve what he can of that perfection,
he ought
Therefore,
to stay in the neighborhood
of others and associate
with
every man needs
of Dreams?Chapter
24 in the Book of
them.12 He also wrote On the Cause
of
the
of
the
Ideal
and
made
distinction
between
dream
people
City
Opinions
causes
a
nature
of
the
Al
and
Farabi
wrote
and
also
dreams.13
interpretation
on the Meanings
and the therapeutic
treatise
of the Intellect
effects of music
on the soul.14 Like other Muslim
of his time, al-Farabi
wrote
philosophers
on the Greeks,
on
commentaries
and
refutations
the
treatises,
independent
on meta
of both philosophers
of his treatises
and theologians.
Many
are
crown
on the
of
his
considered
the
intellectual
Treatise
e.g.,
works,
physics
on
Aims of Aristotle's
Bezels
of
The
Book
the
One and
Wisdom,
Metaphysics,
on Wisdom,
etc.
the Unity,
remarks
Explanatory

works

Abul Hasan Ali Abbas Al-majusi

(D. 995)

as "Haly Abbas" was Persian.

in Europe,
known
fol
His ancestors
Al-Majusi
star
and
lowed the Zoroastrian
the
religion
(majus)
worship
during
early Is
or
lamic
wrote
Al-Kitab
He
Al-Malaki
"The
(al-Kamil)
period.
Royal
is one of the great classical works
which
of Islamic medicine
and
Notebook,"
has

its frame alongside

The Canon
of Avicenna
right
was
an
into
times.
modern
He
through
phy
appointed
sician of King Adud-ad-Dawlah
when he wrote
this book. In this book that was
translated
twice and called Liber Regius
into Latin
(later called "The Com
Art
of
writes
about
the
entire
health field including
Medicine"),
plete
Majusi
mental
and the brain. Majusi
diseases
described
the anatomy,
and
physiology
been

diseases
dria,

able to maintain
the Middle
Ages

of the brain
coma, hot and

He
hemiplegia.
natural healing
last resort.

The

cine?the

first

practice

in 644

and

including
sleeping
cold meningitis,

sickness,

loss of memory,

hypochon
and
sickness,
diseases
and
emphasized
preserving
by preventing
or drugs that should come as a
rather than medical
treatment
book comprises
of 20 treatises
entire field of medi
covering
covers theory (399 chapters)
10 treatises
and the last 10 covers
true belief in Allah
is evident
in the worship
chapters. Majusi's
vertigo
health

epilepsy,

love

364

Journal

of Religion

and Health

this compendium.
and styles of expression
A lot is also covered on
throughout
the moral
of the medical
pro
doctor-patient
aspects
especially
relationship,
to note the details
It is also interesting
and importance
of research
fessional.
for any good book which
is not much
different
to the modern-day
methodology
in the West.
research

Ikhwan

The Bretheren

Al-Safa:

of Purity

(10th

century A.D.)

a secret, originated
in Basra,
kept their identities
or
or
53 epistles
Rasa'il
and
52
containing
spiritual
became well known by the end of the 10th century.
knowledge
philosophical
are generally
into mathematical
and natural
divided
Their works
sciences,
their
These
scholars
and
drew
theology.
metaphysics,
knowledge
psychology,
sources
and the Gospels,
earlier Greek
the Torah
from diverse
including
group of scholars
Southern
Iraq. Their

This

who

and other "Divine Books".

nature,
astronomy,
Consequently,
out a
These
scholars
tried to work
is often called "syncretic".
as
that
believed
there
that would
the
historical
doctrine
religions
they
replace
men
all
in religion. However,
recommended
that
should
is no compulsion
they
for a civilized
that laws are necessary
follow a religion,
they meant
by which

philosophers,
their writing

revelation
the Qur'an
is the final
and
that
they believed
wrote
In
their
these
is the Prophet
scholars
about
of God.
epistles,
the soul into the
of thinking.
soul, the brain, and the process
They divided
the vegetative
soul
soul. While
and human
(rational)
animal,
vegetative,
on nutrition,
the animal
soul is concerned
works
and reproduction,
growth

Yet
society.
Muhammad

and emotion).
soul is
The rational
sensation
(perception
and talking.
the faculty
of thinking
and possesses
They
functions
like
brain as the most
considered
organ where
important
higher
was
it
is
the
that
heart
the
belief
and
take
prevailing
thought
place;
perception
that the thinking
that is the master
organ. They viewed
process begins with
to the
senses that send the messages
fine nerves
the
the five external
through

with

and

movement

restricted

to man

occur in different
of
locations. Their description
actual processing
on
from
of
the
fall
soul
earth
and
the
individual
of
life
the metaphysical
origin
soul is most
the world
to the earth as well as their reunion with
the heavens
of
this
but
outside
the
paper.
scope
fascinating

brain where

Abu Ali Ahmad B. Muhammad B. Ya'kub Ibn Miskawayh

Ibn Miskawayh

was

a thinker
he

on a wide variety
of topics including
on a system
of ethics,
for his works
as
known
also
of
("Purity
Dispositions")

who wrote

is well-known

However,
the Taharat
al-araq
especially,
of Morals").
Tahdhib
("Cultivation
al-Akhlaq
talked
Ibn
Lesser
("The
Miskawayh
Victory"),
psychology.

(941-1030)

In his
about

book
the proof

al-Fauz

al-Asgar
of the existence

Amber

365

Hague

of God, of prophethood
and of the soul. Regarding
of virtues,
he
development
ideas with a touch of Sufism and consid
Platonic
and Aristotelian
combined
the aspect of soul representing
i.e. reason
ered virtue as perfecting
humanity,
that we need to control
that distinguishes
humans from animals. He suggests
our emotions
and develop
traits to restraint
ourselves
from faults. His argu
as he reminds
on the futility of the fear of death is interesting,
ments
that like
reason

cannot be taken away. The concept

and morality
of
was
to
closely related
morality
by Ibn Miskawayh
preached
problems with the
as "self reinforcement"
is now known
introduced
what
soul. Ibn Miskawayh
cost. Ibn Miskawayh
narrated
that a Muslim,
and response
who feels guilty
about
punish
money

itself

the

soul

doing something
pleasurable
himself
by psychological,
to the poor,

fasting,

to his

al-nafs al-ammarah,
or spiritual ways
physical

should learn to
as paying

such

etc.

Abu Ali Al-Husayn B. Abd Allah Ibn Sina (980-1037)

in the West was from Bukhara.
known as Avecenna
He was known
a
as
a
and
but
he
also
in the
contributed
physician,
primarily
philosopher
in his time. In the field of psychology,
advancement
of all sciences
Ibn Sina
Ibn Sina,

wrote

about mind,
its existence,
the mind-body
sensation,
per
relationship,
in
common level,
his famous book ash Shifa (Healing). At the most
ception, etc.
the influence
of the mind on the body can be seen in voluntary movements,
i.e.,
to move
whenever
the mind wishes
the body, the body obeys. The second level
on the body is from emotions
of the influence
of mind
and the will. Say for
if a plank of wood is placed as a bridge over a chasm, one can hardly
instance,
one only pictures
oneself
in a possible
fall
creep over it without
falling because
so vividly
that the "natural power of limbs accord with
it." Strong
emotions
can actually
the temperament
of the individual
and lead to death by
destroy
a
functions.
On
other
the
hand,
vegetative
influencing
strong soul could create
as
on
in another
conditions
this
well?based
he accepts
person
phenomenon,
the reality of hypnosis
into
al-Amil). He divided human perceptions
(alWahm
senses:
sensus
or
the five external
and five internal
communis
seat
the
of
(a)
sense data into percepts,
all senses that integrates
the
(b)
imaginative
faculty
conserves
which
the perceptual
which
(c) the sense of imagination,
images,
acts upon these
and separating
them
in
images by combining
(by intellect
or instinct
of practical
(d) Wahm
intellect,
like good and bad, love and hate, etc. and it forms the
qualities
or not influenced
basis of one's character
whether
(e) intentions
by reason,
in memory
all these notions.
He wrote
about the po
(ma'ni) that conserves
tential
intellect
and active
intellect
and that
(within man)
(outside man)
cannot be mechanically
but
involves
intuition
at every
cognition
produced
to him, ordinary human mind
a
is like a mirror upon which
stage. According
succession
of ideas reflects
from the active intellect.
Before
the acquisition
of

and
humans)
that perceives

is therefore

the

seat

366

Journal

of Religion

and Health

from the active

intellect
the mirror was rusty but
the mirror
is polished
to direct
and it remains
it to the sun
so that it could readily
reflect light. Ibn Sina also gave psy
(active
of certain
somatic
He considered
illnesses.
explanations
chological
philoso
a
as
soul
of
"the
reach
Ibn Sina always
linked
way
making
perfection".
phizing

knowledge
when we

that

emanates

think,
intellect)

the

and psychological
illnesses
He
called melancholia
together.
a
of
in
which
the
mood
disorder
person may become
(depression)
type
suspi
certain
of
he
cious and develop
said heralded
the tran
types
phobias. Anger
to mania.
sition of melancholia
He explained
inside the head
that humidity
physical

can

to mood
contribute
disorders.
This happens
when
of breath
the amount
the breath, which
leads to increased moisture
increases
changes. Happiness
inside the brain but if this moisture
its limits the brain will lose
goes beyond
to
mental
He also used
control over its rational
disorders.
leading
thought
to
treat
his
Ibn
wrote
methods
Sina
about
also
patients.15
psychological
and
symptoms
weak memory.

treatment

of

love

sickness

Abu Hamid Muhammad Al-Ghazali

(Ishq),

nightmare,

epilepsy,

and

(1058-1111)

was born in Tus, Khurasan,

and later died in the same place. He
Al-Ghazali
a
was
he was a renowned
jurist, and mystic. While
philosopher,
theologian,
in Baghdad,
and retired in
he left Baghdad
scholar and achieved
great respect
in the holy
lands and questioned
Damascus.
his senses
Ghazali
traveled
He
is
the
of
the latter
that
could
deceive.
considered
architect
they
knowing
an
came
an end
al
to
that
with
It
is
of
said
Islam.
Ghazali,
age
development
schools were not
the voices of different
age began.16 After Ghazali,
was achieved.
a fresh measure
Some of his
of unity and harmony
Din
Al
ad
of
the
Ulum
works
(Revival
Sciences),
include, Ihya
Religious
great
Tahafut
al-Fhalasifa
Savior
from
min
ad-Dalal
(the
Error),
Munqid
of Felicity),
Ya
as-Saadah
of the Philosophy),
(Destruction
(Alchemy
Kimiya
and a new
stilled but

Ayyuhal walad (OYoung Man), Mishkat al-Anwar (theNiche of the Lights). In

about 70 books.
all, he wrote
on discovering
the "self,
its
centered
of human nature
Ghazali's
description
causes
its
He
described
the
and
of
and
ultimate
purpose,
misery
happiness.
all signify a
and Aql, which
of self by four terms: Qalb, Ruh, Nafs,
concept
Self has
the term Qalb for self in all his writings.
entity. He prefers
spiritual
an inherent yearning
it strives to realize and it is endowed
for an ideal, which
the self has motor
it. For fulfilling bodily needs
to help realize
qualities
and impulses.
of propensities
Motor motives
sensory motives.
comprise
are
and
two
of
urges
anger.
hunger,
Appetite
types, appetite
Propensities
and revenge.
takes form in rage, indignation,
thirst and sexual craving. Anger
nerves
to
the organs
and moves
and tissues
in the muscles,
resides
Impulse

with

and

fulfill

the propensities.

Amber

367

Hague

include five external,

i.e., sight, hearing,
Sensory motives
(apprehension)
sense
and
five
internal
(Hiss
motives,
i.e., common
smell, and touch
taste,
sensuous
to
carried
the
brain
while
Mushtarik)?it
impressions
synthesizes
mem to retain
to them,
(Takhayyul)?enables
imagination
giving meaning
relevant
reflection
(Tafakkur)?brings
together
experience,
image from
or dissociates
them as it considers
and associates
fit; it has no power
thoughts
in the mind,
recollection
is not already present
new, which
anything
Tadhakkur
the outer form of objects as in memory;
(Tadhakkur)?remembers
received
the meaning,
and memory
recollects
(Hafiza)?impressions
through
senses have no special
The internal
the senses that are stored in the memory.
in the different
of the brain. For example,
organs but are located
regions
to create

in the frontal
in the hinder
is located
lobe, and
lobe, imagination
memory
in the middle
inner senses help the person
folds of the brain. These
reflection
In Ihya, he as
to learn from past experiences
and foresee future
situations.
senses with man.
In Mizan
al
serts that animals
share all the five internal
a
not
that
animals
do
he
clarifies
his
later
possess
work,
Amal,
well-developed
in terms of pictorial
ideas in a simple
think mostly
association
and dissociation
of abstract
of complex
two additional
in reflection.
The self carries
which
ideas involved
qualities,
man
to attain
from animals
spiritual
perfection.
distinguishes
enabling man
are Aql (intellect)
is the fundamental
and Irada (will). Intellect
These qualities
and form concepts
enables man to generalize
rational
and gain
faculty, which

reflective
way and

power. Animals
are incapable

in man
In man,
the will
Will
is different from animal.
is condi
knowledge.
in animal;
it is conditioned
and
tioned by the intellect while
anger
by
appetite.
the body. The Qalb (heart) controls and
All these powers control and regulate
rules over them. The heart has six powers:
anger,
appre
appetite,
impulse,
on the other three and
and will. The last three depends
intellect,
hension,
humans
have
all six, animals have
differentiates
humans from animals.
Only
first three.
or acquired.
to Ghazali,
is either
innate
According
knowledge
Acquired
is of two kinds: phenomenal
and spiritual
(material world)
(God,
knowledge
can
be
soul, etc.). Knowledge
imitation,
logical reasoning,
acquired
through
in mam's nature: The
There are four elements
and/or intuition.
contemplation
and reason),
the pig (lust and gluttony),
the dog (anger) and the
The last three rebels against
the first and conse
(brute character).
in different
different
quently
people have such powers
proportions.
divides Nafs
into three categories
Ghazali
based on the Qur'an: Nafs Am
one to freely
marah
that exhorts
in gratifying
and
(12:53)
indulge
passions
to do evil. Nafs Lawammah
that directs man
conscience
(75:2)?the
instigates
or wrong,
towards right
and Nafs Mutmainnah
self that reaches
(89:27)?a
sage
devil

(intellect

to the king
in his
peace. The soul in the body is compared
are
The
members
of
one's
and
like
artisans
faculties
the
and
kingdom.
body
and intellect
workers
is like a wise vizier, while desire is a wicked
and
servant,
the ultimate

anger like the police in the city. If the king avails himself of his vizier in his

368

Journal of Religion and Health

and turns away from the counsel of wicked

administration
servant and keeps
the servant
and the police in their proper places
then the affairs of the state
are set right.
of the soul become
the powers
if it keeps
balanced
Similarly,
the intellect
dominate
desire. A perfect
soul
anger under control and makes
sensuous
a
has to pass through
several
no
is
like
has
(man
i.e.,
stages,
moth,
and beats again and again the candle),
(lower animal),
memory
imaginative
instinctive
rational
animal
(transcends
stage and apprehends
(higher animal),
the scope of his senses) and divine
(that apprehends
objects beyond
reality of
spiritual
things).
He explained
that diseases
are more dangerous
diseases

are of two kinds, physical

and spiritual.
Spiritual
and result from ignorance
and deviation
from
are: self-centeredness,
God. The
different
diseases
to
addiction
spiritual
fame and status,
cowardice,
wealth,
lust, doubt (waswas),
cruelty,
ignorance,
avarice.
Ghazali
used
the therapy
of
envy,
deceit,
malevolence,
calumny,
use
in
of
the
e.g.,
i.e.,
opposite,
pursuing
opposites,
imagination
ignorance/
as an integration
etc. He described
of spiritual
learning, hate/love,
personality
to God
that closeness
is equivalent
forces. Ghazali
to
believed
to
God
leads
from
whereas
distance
abnormality.
normality
man occupies
a position midway
For Ghazali,
animals
between
and angels
can
and his distinguishing
is knowledge.
He
either rise of the level of
quality
or fall to the levels of animals
the angels with the help of knowledge
by letting
and

bodily

that knowledge
lust dominate
of urn al
him. He also emphasized
on every person and asked people
or incumbent
to do
kifayah
can
or
of
conduct
from
Nafs
self.
Good
within
Tazkiya
purification
only develop
of natural
and does not need total destruction
propensities.
his anger and
Batin
is Fard

Abu Bakr Mohammed Bin Yahya Al-Saigh Ibn Bajjah (1095-1138)

or Avempace
was from Spain. He
Ibn Bajjah
on physics.
on Recognition
of
In his essay
most
it
is
that
the
ability
plained
important
on sensations
and
However,
imaginations.

his psychological
studies
the Active
he ex
Intelligence
of man and wrote many
essays
he concluded
that knowledge
is the
which
cannot be acquired
Intelligence,
by senses alone but by Active
of
with
his
He
discussion
the
soul
of nature.
begins
intelligence
governing
are
of
matter
and form and intelligence
that bodies
the definition
composed
based

is obtained
knowledge
through
part of man?sound
important
one
and
charac
to
build
attain
which
alone
enables
prosperity
intelligence,
on the unity of the rational
soul as the principle
of the indi
ter. He writes
is the most

freedom

yet, by virtue
identity,
one of those
lights
one can
is that when

should

be

ligence

and

vidual
"becomes

to seek

of
that

its

contact

gives
think and

knowledge
spiritual
the Divine.
thus with

with

the Active

to God."

glory
act rationally

and make

contact

His
and
with

Intelligence
of
definition
the

aim

Active

of life
Intel

Amber

369

Hague

Ibn Al-Ayn Zarbi (D. 1153)

a city southeast
to
in Ayn Zarbi
Zarbi moved
of Sicilia,
(Anazarbos),
was
art. On top of
where he
for his healing
for education
recognized
Baghdad
as in astronomy,
he was also acknowledged
astrology,
logic,
being a physician,
seven treatises
and natural
Ibn Zarbi wrote
mathematics
sciences.
of which
art al-Kafi fit-Tibb describes
only two are extant. His book on healing
physical
Born

illnesses

and mental

infirmities

mental

and
the

mental
confusion,
amnesia,
tant to note that he never
sions

On

describes

on brain
and
chapter
for intellectual
loss,
etc. It is impor
epilepsy,

his

basis

physical
restlessness,
lethargy,
to influences
referred
of evil

of mental

influences

treatments.

their

author

illness?his
of the time.

approach

remained

objective

in his discus
spirits
and free of cultural

Abu Bakar Muhammad Bin Abdul Malik Ibn Tufayl (1110-1185)

Ibn Tufayl or Abubacer
to the Almohad
Caliph

came

from Spain,
Abu Yaqub Yusuf

served
who

as a court physician
and qazi
more
took pride in assembling

than any other monarch

in the Muslim West.
scholars and thinkers
Ibn Tufayl
wrote two medical
treatises
and several works on natural philosophy
including
of the Soul. His philosophical
tale gave a unique
Treatment
concept of man as
Son of the Awake),
which
shows that an indi
(The Living,
Hayy bin Yaqzam
even if he lived on an
vidual has enough mystic
and philosophical
powers,
island, to reach the ultimate
so. This book was translated

to do
provided he has the desired
aptitude
as Philosophicus
into Latin by Pococke
Autodi
to write Robinson
dactus that inspired Daniel
Defoe
Crusoe. The allegory
by
Ibn Tufayl is actually based on the "Floating Man" thought experiment
written
in the castle of Fardajan
(near Hamadhan)
by Ibn Sina while he was prisoned
and refers to the Active
Intellect
His Truth
through which God communicated
In
to human
his
Ibn
to
tries
show
not
that
beings.
allegory,
Tufayl
only lan
even
culture
and
for
be
the
of a
guage,
unnecessary
religion may
development
cause
even
in
such
hindrance
He
dis
may
perfect mind?they
development.
truth

between
and religion by saying that although
tinguishes
philosophy
they take
to the same truth, philosophy
is not meant
on the other
for everybody.
Religion
to understand
of God through
the existence
hand, takes an exoteric approach
and
the
of
and
into
each other is
symbols
transgressing
religion
philosophy
bound to fail. This argument
of course, will not be acceptable
to many
scholars.

Abu'l Walid Muhamad Bin Ahmad Ibn Rushd (1126-1198)

Ibn Rushd
maintained

or Averroes
that

was

thought

from Spain
is passive,

but established
in Morocco.
He
himself
and abstraction
is active.
is
There

370

Journal

of Religion

and Health

existence

of faculty of the mind, which

is designed
to receive
forms,
intelligible
to as the pas
the active
This faculty or disposition
intellect.
is referred
or the imagination,
sive intellect
and since it is partially
constituted
by the
an
if
to
it.
Ibn
with
For
is
it
individual
understand
Rushd,
perishes
body,
in some way.
the active
intellect must be connected with his mind
something,
from

cause of the forms in the imagination,

and is
as
it
for them
their proper
the form of human
function
specifies
of abstract
that there are
idea and contemplation.
He argues
and production
the producing
three types of intellect.
intel
intellect,
They are the receiving

The active

is the efficient
in that
beings

intellect

are eternal,
The first two of these intellects
intellect.
lect, and the produced
in one sense, and eternal
in another
and corruptible
but the third is generable
sense. He believed
that we cannot use sensation
alone as the object of our
to detach us sufficiently
from the
but must
also employ
imagination
thought,
sense

In Fasl al Maqal
to be possible.
for objectivity
(The Decisive
data,
of
of
The
nature
three-fold
Ibn
Rushd
described
Treatise)
learning.
hierarchy
to
man
to
assent.
their
them
levels with
One
of
is on different
respect
path
comes to as
comes to assent
dialectical
(Jadali). Another
argument
through
comes
assent
to
The third
sent through
demonstration
(Burhan).
through
a
that the reason why we received
rhetorical
(Khatabi). He believes
argument
scripture with both
lies in the diversity
innate predisposition

and the
(zahir) meaning
apparent
and
of peoples' natural
capacities
with regard to assent. The reason

texts whose
in scripture
of those who
attention
which

reconciles

apparent
are well

meaning
grounded

contradict
in science

inner meaning
the difference
why we have
each
to the

other

(Batin)
of their
received
is to draw

interpretation,

them.

Fakhr Al-Din Muhammad

Umar Al Razi (1149/50-1209)

some
to him, human
soul differs in nature;
Al-Razi was from Persia. According
are
Some
kind and tender and some
are noble, some are mean
and debased.
to rule and
some do not like the body and some desire
dominating;
despotic,
and disposition
but by
achieve
position.
They never deviate from their nature
manners
in his
Al
Razi
habits.
their
and
and
caution
may
change
they
training
as
the different
al Nafs Wa'l Ruh analyzes
types of pleasures
book, Kitab
relations with each
their comparative
and explains
intellectual
man
and
animals
does not
for
both
of sensuous
pleasure
In
of
bliss
of
human
the distinctive
constitute
fact, al Razi
perfection.
goal
that
it consists
reveal
would
of
that a careful
asserts
pleasure
scrutiny
a
man
the
For
of
in
the elimination
is, the
instance,
hungrier
pain.
essentially
of
the
of eating. Moreover,
of pleasure
is his enjoyment
gratification
greater
or
When
these
of the animal.
desire
to the need
is proportionate
pleasure
into
turns
or desires
the pleasure
are satisfied
needs
actually
fulfilled,
but in pain. In
excess of food or sex results not in more pleasure,
revulsion,
sensuous

other.

The

and

nature

Amber

371

Hague

for bodily pleasure

amount
of
to a repudiation
in
to
order
himself
with
the
satisfaction
occupy
humanity.
but rather to achieve
of his bodily pleasures,
intellectual
and
apprehensions
on
and
Divine
Presence
the
the
Divine
needs
Human
gaze
Lights.
contemplate
are endless,
and according
to Al Razi,
their satisfaction
is by
and desires
accom
the
matter
of
this
not
definition
world
is
Thus,
important
impossible.
the excessive

addition,

Man

quest
is not created

constant
through
and avoiding
abandoning
than the
noble and perfect
is
and perfection
of a man
and excellent manners
and
plished

Muhyid-Din Muhammad

and fulfillment
but rather
improvement
through
them. He concludes
that the mental
is
pleasure
sensual pleasure
and suggests
that the excellence
of the science, knowledge,
only realized by means
not by eating, drinking,
and mating.

Ibn Ali (IbnArabi) (1164-1240)

Ibn Arabi was born inMurcia

(Spain), studied in Lisbob and then moved to

where he met his early spiritual masters.

He wrote a lot but only about
are extant. There
seems to be an uncertainty
on the exact
150 of his works
were
most
It is believed
number of treatises he wrote.
of his works
that
written
to be difficult and
while he was in Mecca
and in Damascus?his
style is known
Seville

ambiguous.

In the area

perception,

the nature

on the theory of soul,

of psychology,
Ibn Arabi wrote
of desire,
and dreams.
His Sufi inter
imaginations
is that it is an instrument
of the heart
where
esoteric knowledge
is
pretation
Heart
revealed.
is not eh cone-shaped
of
flesh
in
but
the
chest
it
is
piece
as well as spiritually
it physically
"connected with
but also different
from it."
is the symbol for the rational aspect of Man but not same as intellect?it
Heart
The heart has an "inner eye" that can
the
evil
of the animal
soul and needs of
Reality. However,
perceive
thoughts
can easily blind this "inner eye." Like Aristotle,
the material
world
Ibn Arabi
in Man?body,
three elements
soul, and the spirit and classified
recognized
the human
soul into three aspects,
animal, and rational. However,
vegetative,
he did not equate the rational
soul with the intellect. Human
soul for him is a
mode of the Universal
Soul and spirit a mode of Universal
Reason.
The spirit
is also the rational
for seeking
true knowledge.
meant
While
the
principle
is part

of the

"Universal

Reason."

soul seeks food for the organism,

the animal
soul is a subtle vapor
vegetative
in the physical
heart. The rational
souls which
is eternal
is a pure spirit born
as a result of conflict between
free of sins but sins accumulate
and
rational
animal
soul. Intellect
is one of the powers of the rational
soul that functions
during

its association

with

the body.

The

rational

soul

is absolutely

indepen

dent of the body and can exist independently as it did before joining it and will
or imagination
it as in death. He explains
that Khayal
is
leaving
even
in
are
an
in
that
dreams
of
association
active,
sleep resulting
always
the individual
soul may also reveal
images desired by the individual.
However,
itself in dreams,
the symbols
be interpreted
that must
although
correctly.
exist

after

372

Journal

western

Contemporary
Any

student

philosophy
the Greek
originally

psychology

and

the dilemma

of Religion

ofmuslim

and Health

psychologists

knows
that psychology
branched
off from
psychology
term
in the late 19th century. The
itself derived from
psychology
root word "psych" or soul and "logos" meaning
love. So, psychology
in the 14th century,
studied
soul as its subject matter.
Earlier,
the study of spiritual
referred to a branch of pneumatology,
beings
of modern

psychologia
and substances

was coined
the term anthropologia
and in the 16th century,
the study of human mind and somatolog?a,
off into psychologia,
that branched
the influence
of empiricism
and
the study of human body. In the 18th century,
was
in
but
it
1879
the
for
scientific
that
the
rationalism
way
paved
psychology,
was
established
in
The
lab's
founder
first psychology
Germany.
laboratory
Wundt
Wilhelm
studied
consciousness,
i.e., what goes on in our minds.
Very
soon this view was challenged
can
that psychology
stated

by the American
scientific
become

who
John Watson
psychologist
if
it
studied
observable
only

ofWatson's
behaviorism
remained
The influence
behavior.
extremely
powerful
con
as espoused
the 1960s, especially
by Skinner
through his op?rant
revolution
took
the 1960s and 70s, the cognitive
During
ditioning
procedures.

until

events
like per
measurements
of cognitive
place leading to the technological
to
accurate
etc.
Other
scientific
progress
memory,
dreams,
leading
ception,
as well
like the heart rate and blood pressure
of bodily processes
measurement
In
brain
also
as neurological
in
influenced
the
short,
activity
psychology.
as a result of influences
an independent
from
became
discipline
psychology
above
and
Freud's
psychodynamic
perspective),
(e.g.,
psychiatry
physiology,
who succeeded
in eliminating
of the positivists
metaphysical
all, the influence
sciences.
and human
from the natural
elements
and spiritual
the moral
of secularization
This process
grossly
neglected
to practice
within man
and left it up to the individual
religion.
phenomena
of theories
that are
led to the development
of the social sciences
Secularization
This concept
is
and leave little or no room for human
volition.17
deterministic
room
there is substantial
contrary to the Islamic theory of human nature where
in secular education
and under
trained
social scientists
for free will. Muslim
frame of mind also embraced Western
of the scientific
psychology.
zeal to be
have an anxious
(1979) points out that "Muslim psychologists
that led them to
of the sciences...
umbrella
under the prestigious
introduced
unsuitable
for application
and practices
the theories
(at least in
accept blindly
to
of the
the
due
absence
states
that
also
Badri
countries"
Muslim
(p. 3).
the influence

Badri

from Western
humans
in studying
psychology
perspective,
aspect
spiritual
are
results
of
full
and journals
textbooks
contradictory
(p. 16).
in the Western
inherent
of the concepts
It is indeed true that many
psy
the
and thus present
and approach
in their philosophy
chology are atheistic
are
behaviors
unless
human
for
Muslim
dilemma
psychologists
biggest
examined

from

an

Islamic

framework

(Achoui,

1998; Ansari,

1992; Haque,

Amber

373

Hague

have often been

that Muslim
1998, 2002, 2004). Badri believes
psychologists
coun
of Western
in Muslim
defenders
and preachers
the biggest
psychology
the fact that most Western
theories of human nature
tries. This is true despite
are viewed
as contradictory,
and confusing
by Western
psycholo
incomplete
a
on
us
at
comments
few
Let
look
themselves.
contemporary
psychology
gists
to the identity
of psychology,
Kimble
by Western
Referring
psychologists.
an
more
has
After
that:
writes
833)
p.
(1984,
identity problem.
"Psychology
is even debate of our subject mat
of official existence...there
than a century
at
ter... Staats and Koch agree that psychology's
condition
results,
splintered
from
the
existence
of
least in part, and probably most
sharply
importantly,
the epistemological
about
of psychology.
underpinnings
polarized
opinion
Jordan
(1995) criticizes
that, 'There can be
Similarly,
by writing
psychology
no doubt

of professors
canard that

it; contemporary
Years of arduous

scientific

American

about

of the sterile.

is the sterilest

psychology

labor and the assiduous

of hundreds

enterprise

has

of students
thousands
a
is
science"
has
"psychology
and

yielded
precisely
nothing...the
outlived
its explanatory?away
long
facts must be faced honestly"
and discouraging
usefulness:
the unpleasant
(p.
and behaviorism
3). Norager
(1998) points out that experimental
psychology
of science, but as soon as psychology
extend
have
lived up to the standards
two
of
the
and
these
realms,
past
beyond
"repressed
positivistic
philosophy
returns."
immediately
we
of these statements,
lived up to its professional

metaphysics
In view

can

see

has not
psychology
individuals
understand
to live in a balanced
and

that modern

goals of helping
of life, and how
the purpose and meaning
themselves,
manner.
constructive
makes
Modern
grave assumptions
psychology
are observable
man behaviors
by the senses and therefore
subject
quite

that hu
to quanti
while
the transcendental
in man.
fication and measurement,
aspect
ignoring
cannot
be
in
measured
and
materialistic
Humanity
always
mechanical,
the natural
studies
human
reductionistic
ways. Unlike
sciences,
psychology
behavior
and cognitive
which
include
norms,
processes,
beliefs,
attitudes,
and religious
influences
based on transcendental
and
customs,
experiences
value systems. Not studying
these factors will give only partial picture
of the
individual.
Polkinghorne
terms of its:

character

Systemic
Unfinished
opmental
Meaning
accept
Due

quality,

or contextual
i.e., human

history,
that is not directly
evidence
of a different

to these

Muslim

(1984)

reasons,

psychologists.

writes

that

the human

relations,
realm is in a state
observable,
nature.

which

realm

of flux
denotes

is unique

and has

a devel

that we

have

a serious
contemporary
presents
psychology
Because
of it's grounding
in the secular

in

to

to
challenge
worldview,

374

Journal

and Health

of Religion

cannot be accepted
in its entirety
present-day
psychology
by Muslim
psychol
human behavior will lead Muslim
ogists. An effort to understand
psychologists
to adhere
to the Islamic perspectives
of human
nature
and this will mean
whose works were based on
taking them back into the history of their ancestors
in the Islamic perspective
need to
levels to bring back their own
At the theoretical
need to
level, Muslim
indigenous
psychology.
psychologists
on
a
their
in
worldview
and
and
clarify
identify
knowledge
general
develop
Islamic

work

framework.

both

at

the

interested
Psychologists
theoretical
and practical

into the nature

and purpose
of knowledge.
This would
entail
insight
core
beliefs
Muslim
and
the
distinction
between
clarifying
understanding
secularism
and Islam. They also need to redefine
the subject matter
of psy

deeper

from Islamic perspective

the Tawhidic
chology
using
paradigm?this
mean
"Nafs" (soul), all over again, from a Muslim
studying
religious
tive. They also need to develop
and expand
the theoretical
framework
the realm of Islamic psychology.
At a more
topics that come within
involve
to modern
materials
of
level, this would
collecting
early
to psychology
scholars
relevant
translations
from
including
Arabic,

would
perspec
for all
practical
Muslim

French,
and Urdu
into English
an
for general
Turkish,
Perhaps
readership.
in
such
interested
should
be
works
identified.
organization
University
grants,
and other private
endowments
funds should be sought for financial
support of
this activity.
of psychologists
interested
to coop
They need to form a network

Persian,

erate

in this venture.

Muslim

must

learn, develop and then teach

in all its comprehensiveness.
stan
psychology
They need to develop
initiate
scales for the Muslim
dardized
studies
and Is
empirical
population,
lamic ways
of treating
crisis counseling,
problems
psychological
addressing
school
and
marital
counseling,
counseling
therapy.
family
psychologists

Islamic

Conclusion
to increasing
in under
multiculturalism
in the West
and keen
interest
it
is
essential
to
the
Muslim
the
Islamic
per
communities,
explore
standing
on
nature.
to
scholars'
field
human
contributions
Muslim
the
Early
spectives
are introduced
in this paper. The dilemmas
and challenges
of psychology
faced
are
also
clients
and
Muslim
and
covered
recommendations
by
professionals

Due

studies.
It is hoped
that this
for follow-up
given
as indigenous
researchers
mainstream
psychologies
over western
cultures.
for indigenous
psychology

interest

will

have

obvious

be

shared

by

advantages

Notes
1.Nafs
paper).

is the soul and is divided into three kinds (see a description ofNafs by Al-Ghazali in this
The

term

fitrah

is also

used

interchangeably

and

refers

to human

nature.

However,

Amber Hague

are

there

375

between

differences

nafs

and fitrah

that

are

the

beyond

of this

scope

paper.

For

detailed description offitrah, seeMohamed (1998). Qalb refers to the human psyche that is the
the
It is like a spiritual
with
of human
actions.
substance
synonymous
as
brain
the bodily functions
is the master
of the body?the
simply
regulates
It is the seat of wisdom
and intellect.
Ruh gives
life to
but not as the primary
agent.
above the angels. Agi generally
refers
that can exalt his status
human
and the dignity
beings
or thinking
of the nafs.
with
the other qualities
to reason
but is used
interchangeably
see
on the definition
of philosophy
from Islamic
2. For an interesting
perspective,
reading
and O.Leaman,
London:
In History
edited
S.H.Nasr,
by SH Nasr
of Islamic
Philosophy,
prime

spiritual
a mediate

determiner
self and

1996, 21-26.
Routledge,
3. Refers
to the traditions

and deeds

of the Prophet

as recounted

by his Companions.

are

Hadith

of two kinds: hadith gudsi or sacred hadith in which God Himself is directing through the
as complementary
in
and hadith
noble hadith
and is considered
revelation,
sharif"or
Prophet
own sayings
term Sunnah
also refers to
used
and deeds. The commonly
the form of Prophet's
of the Prophet.
the deeds
of the self is incumbent
4. The Prophet
and conquest
said that an understanding
upon a Muslim
knows God meaning
that
the greater
oneself
and is considered
jihad, and the one who knows
states
true knowledge
of the self would
with
the Creator.
Another
hadith
lead one to closeness
is also
The Prophet
is the lost property
of the believer."
of knowledge
that,
"Every portion
and the blood
of the
of Judgment,
the ink of the scholars
to have
said, "On the Day
than the blood
will be weighed?and
the ink of the scholars
will weigh more
religious martyrs
the Islamic
As the early Muslim
took these hadith
sciences
of the martyrs".
scholars
seriously,
after the death
of the Prophet.
years
only a hundred
drastically
developed
a lecture
in the mosque
in
like this. While
5. The story on the origin of Mutazilites
goes
giving
a great
as the first
scholar
Imam Hasan
and considered
(d. 110 AH),
by many
Baghdad,
was asked whether
a Muslim
who committed
sins remained
the Muslim
Muslim
mystic
great
known

or becomes

an unbeliever.

preempted
then Wasil

his
Ata

Hasan's

Imam

teacher

by saying
from
separated

secede).
(those who
6. Concerned
with
the rationalistic
over reason.
revelation
7. A brief
Among

list of the early

the significant

student

Wasil

the person
is neither
Imam Hasan
and opened
that

thought

contributions
contributions

of the Mutazilites,

of Muslims
of Muslims

bin Ata
there and he
(d.131 AH) was
a Muslim
nor an unbeliever.
Since
school
called Mutazili
up his new
the Ashari

is also recorded
are: Ibn Firnas

school

in a book
(died

gives

by Hofmann
888)?attributed

priority

to

(2000).
with

the first flying machine, Al Khwarizmi (died 846)?attributed with algebra and algorithm, Al
was used in European
universities
for centuries,
Ibn Sina
in European
the early
19th century,
Al
universities
until
camera
and mathe
(died 1131)?poet
(965-1039)?invented
obscura,
Al-Khayyam
Haytham
a great
Ibn Rushd
matician
the Indian
who reformed
(1126-1198)?left
calendar,
impact on
in areas
and jurisprudence,
Ibn Al-Nafis
West
of philosophy
blood
(died 1288)?discovered
and the
Ibn Battuta
who
reached
Timbuktu,
circulation,
Peking
(1304-1368)?globetrotter
of sociology
and modern
Ibn Khaldun
other
(1332-1406)?father
historiography.
Volga.
Many
Muslim
and revolutionists,
reformers
scholars,
leaders,
Sufis,
thinkers,
writers,
scientists,
and conquerors,
and statesmen,
administrators
soldiers,
historians,
generals,
geographers,
are listed with
in a book by Ahmad
and explorers
their contributions
(1984).
Razi

(864-935)?his

(98-1037)?medical

medical
treatise

treatise

used

in a hadith
term ijtihad means
in which
effort and is referred
the Prophet
asked one of his
that were
Muaz
criteria will he administer
the regions
under his control.
by what
companions
Muaz
And
then what,
said the Prophet.
the
Muaz
And
said Sunnah.
then,
replied Qur'an.
to which Muaz
asked
the Prophet
Prophet
again
replied?ijtihad?and
approved.
a
9. One of the earliest
is that of Abu Bakr Muhammad
works
who was
Ibn Sireen
(654-728),
of dreams
Ta'bir al-Ru'ya
renowned
and wrote
and Muntakhab
al-kalam
fi tabir
interpreter
on dreams
is divided
al-ahlam.
book
into 25 sections
with
of
His
the etiquette
starting
8. The

to the interpretation
of reciting
dreams
of the Qur'an
certain
Surahs
in one's
interpreting
to seek assistance
dream.
for a layperson
It is important
from a Muslim
scholar
(an Alim) who
a proper understanding
in the interpretation
of dreams
with
con
could guide
of the cultural
for psychology
to know that Muslim
be
clients would
text, etc. It is also important
practitioners
more
of dream
of Islamic
than Freudian
perspective
accepting
interpretation
perspective,
on sexual
is based primarily
which
and aggressive
instincts.
translations
of his works
English

376 Journal of Religion and Health

are readily
available
three parts. Muslim

countries.
hadith
Certain
indicate
that dreams
of
consist
today inMuslim
also recognized
scholars
three different
kinds
of dreams:
false dreams,
and true dreams.
and his theory
Al-Farabi
of
(See M. Wali-ur-Rahman,
dreams,
patho-genetic
10 (1936)
Culture
is Abu Uthman
Islamic
Another
scholar
137-151).
dreams,
early Muslim
is credited with more
who
Amr
Al-Jahiz
than 200 works
of which
Ibn Bahr Al-Basri
(766-868)
are on the social organization
of ants, animal
commu
of his works
only 30 are extant. Most
nication

and psychology.
F. al-Ahwani,
Introduction
by Ahmad,
Cairo,
al-Ula,
Falasafah
Ihya, 1948, p. 46;
and 293-318.

Kitab

10. See

and

ila

al-Kindi

al-Kindi,

al-Mutasim
bi-Allah
fi al
Rida's
pp. 272-273
ed., Vol.1,

Abu

of anger combined
with
fear to treat Prince Mansur,
emotion
the governor
of ar
a rheumatic
and/or psychosomatic
condition
of pain in his joints and back, which
or moving
No physical
the Amir from
of medicine
standing
upright
freely.
prevented
therapy
can cure
to use aVilaj
decided
Al-Razi
told Prince
it, so al-Razi
al-nafs
(psychotherapy).
and a mule.
the fastest
horse
He took Mansur
to a Turkish
Mansur
that he needs
hot bath
the horse
and mule were
saddled.
The prince
loaded the horse with his
the city where
outside
food and drinks,
of his physician's
escape. Unaware
ready for a planned
things,
plot,
private
used

11. He

Rayy,

the

from

in
bath unaccompanied
As he fully relaxed
by any of his servants.
out a large dagger
and shouted
at Prince
pulled
suddenly
angrily
him of the insolences
of his soldiers who brought
Al-Razi
Mansur,
by force to treat
reminding
and threatened
to kill the prince who had none of his
him. He put up a frightening
expression
in an outburst
emotions
of mixed
of rage and fear, leaped to
to protect him. The prince,
guards
the prince's
he wrote
to the prince
horse.
his feet and ran out to flee with
Later,
congratu
and explaining
to
His Highness
provoked
why he had intentionally
lating him on his recovery
the prince
the steamy

the hot

entered

al-Razi

bath,

emotion.

this
12. A

big explosive
detailed
list

of Farabi's

University
(Pittsburg
and
social psychology
His

book Muqaddimah
the Bedouins.

works

Press,

1962).

is available
Another

much
sociology,
although
is a classic on the social

An

in Al-Farabi:

Muslim
later,

scholar

who

Annotated
contributed

Bibliography,
in the area

is Ibn Khaldun

psychology

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10 (1936),
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that Farabi's
definition
14. It should be noted
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from
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...he would
to the patient
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sick man
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When
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so I may
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was
for slaughter.
also laid on the ground
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the patient
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the patient
him, he said, the cow is too lean and not ready
pretending
approached
be fed properly
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healthy
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gained
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strength,
patient
cured.
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completely

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his time, Islam had been developing
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view
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existed
authentic
yet each one claimed
before
the time of Al-Ghazali
scholars
that peaked
turmoil
and differences
among Muslim

16. Until

(1058-1111).
root word
saeculum
the present
the Latin
from
age.
meaning
or contemporary
to rescuing
times.
Secularization
refers
this world
or a turning
control
of
and metaphysical
from the world
away from
religious
beyond
are many
in
There
must
secular
and western.
man. A distinction
between
also be made
people
non
in their
outlook.
to different
Even
and are not secular
the west
religions
belonging
has to offer. West
also is
that secularism
to all the concepts
persons may not agree
religious

17. The

Thus,
man

not

word

secular

"secular"

totally

is derived

connotes

synonymous

with

secularism,

an

error

commonly

made

in academic

circles,

Amber

377

Hague

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Nasr
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(1988) an eminent
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philosopher
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not because
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is still seen as devoid
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horizon,
science,
says, "...the world
in most
the man
he who views
the contemporary
but because
such horizon
present,
landscape
of existence
from
views
the
therefore
all things
and
who
lives at the rim of the wheel
of the axis or the
to the spokes
and completely
oblivious
He remains
indifferent
periphery.
ever accessible
to him through
them."
remains
nevertheless
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