Offshore Structures :

Pengenalan Umum
OFFSHORE PLATFORM
Basic Type
Jacket
Gravity
TLP
SPAR
Lingkungan
water depth at location
soil, at seabottom and in-depth
wind speed, air temperature
waves, tide and storm surge, current
ice (fixed, floes, icebergs)
earthquakes (if necessary)
Konstruksi
Code
API-RP2A
DnV
NPD
DoE
AWS
AISC
Sertifikasi dan Survey Garansi
Det norske Veritas (DnV)
Lloyds Register of Shipping (LRS)
American Bureau of Shipping (ABS)
Bureau Veritas (BV)
Germanischer Lloyd (GL)
OFFSHORE DEVELOPMENT OF OIL AND GAS FIELD

As soon as exploitation is decided and approved, there are four main technical
activities, prior to production:
engineering and design
fabrication and installation of the production facility
drilling of production wells, taking 2 - 3 months/well
providing the off loading system (pipelines, tankers, etc.).
Jacket Based Platform for Shallow Water
Jacket and Gravity Based Platform for Deep Water

JACKET AND PILE FOUNDATION

Jackets, the tower-like braced tubular structures, generally perform two functions:
They provide the substructure for the production facility (topside), keeping it
stable above the waves.
They support laterally and protect the 26-30 inch well conductors and the
pipeline riser.
Pile Foundation
Pile-through-leg
Skirt Pile
Vertical skirt piles
Pile Bearing Resistance
Corrosion Protection
TOPSIDE

well control
support for well work-over equipment
separation of gas, oil and non-transportable components in the raw product, e.g.
water, parafines/waxes and sand
support for pumps/compressors required to transport the product ashore
power generation
accommodation for operating and maintenance staff.
Jacket-Based Topsides

Structural Design for Modularized Gravity-based Topsides

EQUIPMENTS AND LIVING QUARTER MODULES
Equipment modules have form rectangular boxes
Floor are steel plate
Living Quarter are sleeping room with door and window
Three types of structural concepts, all avoiding interior columns, can be distinguished:
conventional trusses in the walls.

 stiffened plate walls (so called stressed skin or deck house type).
heavy base frame (with wind bracings in the walls).
CONSTRUCTION

The design of offshore structures has to consider various requirements of construction

relating to:
1. fabrication.
2. weight.
3. load-out.
4. sea transport.
5. offshore installation.
6. module installation.
7. hook-up.
8. commissioning.

Construction of Jackets and Topsides

Lift Installed Jackets

Launch Installed Jackets
Topsides for a Gravity-Based Structure (GBS)
Jacket Topsides
Offshore Lifting

Crane Vessel
Sling-arrangement, Slings and Shackles
Sea Transport and Sea Fastening
Load-out

For load-out three basic methods are applied:

 skidding
platform trailers
shearlegs
Platform Removal
STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
In-place Phase

Survival state, under wave/current/wind attack with 50 or 100 years

recurrence period.
Operational state, under wave/current/wind attack with 1 or 5 years
recurrence period, under full operation.
Fatigue assessment.
Accidental.
Construction Phase

Load-out
Sea transport
Upending of jackets
Lifting.
COST ASPECTS
Capital Expenditure (CAPEX)

project management and design

material and equipment procurement
fabrication

 transport and installation

hook-up and commissioning.
Operational Expenditure (OPEX)
DEEP WATER DEVELOPMENTS
CONCLUDING SUMMARY

The lecture starts with the presentation of the importance of offshore hydrocarbon exploitation, the basic steps in the development process (from seismic
exploration to platform removal) and the introduction of the major structural
concepts (jacket-based, GBS-based, TLP, floating).
The major codes are identified.
For the fixed platform concepts (jacket and GBS), the different execution
phases are briefly explained: design, fabrication and installation. Special
attention is given to the principles of topside design.
A basic introduction to cost aspects is presented.
Finally terms are introduced within a glossary.

Lecture 15A.2: Loads (I) : Introduction

and Environmental Loads
The loads for which an offshore structure must be designed can be classified into the
following categories:
1. Permanent (dead) loads.
2. Operating (live) loads.
3. Environmental loads including earthquakes.
4. Construction - installation loads.
5. Accidental loads.
ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS
Wind Loads
Wave Loads

Wave theories
Wave Statistics
Wave forces on structural members
Current Loads
Earthquake Loads
Ice and Snow Loads
Loads due to Temperature Variations
Marine Growth
Tides
Sea Floor Movements
CONCLUDING SUMMARY

Environmental loads form a major category of loads which control many

aspects of platform design.

 The main environmental loads are due to wind, waves, current, earthquakes, ice
and snow, temperature variations, marine growth, tides and seafloor
movements.
Widely accepted rules of practice, listed as [1] - [13], provide guideline values
for most environmental loads.
For major structures, specification of environmental design loads requires
specific studies.
Some environmental loads can be highly uncertain.
The definition of certain environmental loads depends upon the type of analysis
used in the design.

Lecture 15A.3: Loads (II) - Other Loads

The categories of loads described herein are the following:
1. Permanent (dead) loads
2. Operating (live) loads
3. Fabrication and installation loads
4. Accidental loads
PERMANENT (DEAD) LOADS

a. Weight of the structure in air, including the weight of grout and ballast, if necessary.
b. Weights of equipment, attachments or associated structures which are permanently
mounted on the platform.
c. Hydrostatic forces on the various members below the waterline. These forces
include buoyancy and hydrostatic pressures.
OPERATING (LIVE) LOADS

a. The weight of all non-permanent equipment (e.g. drilling, production), facilities

(e.g. living quarters, furniture, life support systems, heliport, etc), consumable
supplies, liquids, etc.
b. Forces generated during operations, e.g. drilling, vessel mooring, helicopter
landing, crane operations, etc.
FABRICATION AND INSTALLATION LOADS
Lifting Forces
Loadout Forces
Transportation Forces
Launching and Upending Forces

ACCIDENTAL LOADS

Examples of accidental loads are loads due to collision with vessels,

fire or explosion, dropped objects, and unintended flooding of
bouyancy tanks.
LOAD COMBINATIONS

a. Dead loads plus operating environmental loads plus maximum live loads,
appropriate to normal operations of the platform.
b. Dead loads plus operating environmental loads plus minimum live loads,
appropriate to normal operations of the platform.
c. Dead loads plus extreme (design) environmental loads plus maximum live loads,
appropriate for combining with extreme conditions.
d. Dead loads plus extreme (design) environmental loads plus minimum live loads,
appropriate for combining with extreme conditions.
According to the DNV and the NPD rules for limit state design, four limit states must
be checked:
1. Ultimate limit state
For this limit state the following two loading combinations must be used:
Ordinary: 1,3 P + 1,3 L + 1,0 D + 0,7 E, and
Extreme : 1,0 P + 1,0 L + 1,0 D + 1,3 E
where P, L, D and E stand for Permanent (dead), Operating (live), Deformation
(e.g., temperature, differential settlement) and Environmental loads
respectively. For well controlled dead and live loads during fabrication and
installation, the load factor 1,3 may be reduced to 1,2. Furthermore, for
structures that are unmanned during storm conditions and which are not used
for storage of oil and gas, the 1,3 load factor for environmental loads - except
earthquakes - may be reduced to 1,15.
2. Fatigue limit state
All load factors are to be taken as 1,0.
3. Progressive Collapse limit state

All load factors are to be taken as 1,0.

4. Serviceability limit state
All load factors are to be taken as 1,0.
CONCLUDING SUMMARY

In addition to environmental loads, an offshore structure must be designed for

dead and live loads, fabrication and installation loads as well as accidental
loads.
Widely accepted rules of practice, listed in the references, are usually followed
for specifying such loads.
The type and magnitude of fabrication, transportation and installation loads
depend upon the methods and sequences used for the corresponding phases.
Dynamic and impact effects are normally taken into account by means of
appropriate dynamic load factors.
Accidental loads are not well defined with respect to intensity and probability
of occurrence. They will typically require special protective measures.
Load combinations and load factors depend upon the design method to be used.
API-RP2A is based on allowable stress design and recommends against limit
state design, BSI favours allowable stress design, while DNV and NPD
recommend limit state design.

Lecture 15A.4 - Analysis I

ANALYTICAL MODEL

The analysis of an offshore structure is an extensive task, embracing consideration of

the different stages, i.e. execution, installation, and in-service stages, during its life.
Many disciplines, e.g. structural, geotechnical, naval architecture, metallurgy are
involved.
The analytical models used in offshore engineering are in some respects similar to
those adopted for other types of steel structures. Only the salient features of offshore
models are presented here.
The same model is used throughout the analysis process with only minor adjustments
being made to suit the specific conditions, e.g. at supports in particular, relating to
each analysis.
Stick Models

Joints
Members
Plate Models
ACCEPTANCE CRITERIA
Code Checks

The verification of an element consists of comparing its characteristic

resistance(s) to a design force or stress. It includes:
a strength check, where the characteristic resistance is related to the yield
strength of the element,
a stability check for elements in compression where the characteristic
resistance relates to the buckling limit of the element.
An element (member or plate) is checked at typical sections (at least both ends
and midspan) against resistance and buckling. This verification also includes
the effect of water pressure for deepwater structures.

Tubular joints are checked against punching under various load patterns. These
checks may indicate the need for local reinforcement of the chord using
overthickness or internal ring-stiffeners.
Elements should also be verified against fatigue, corrosion, temperature or
durability wherever relevant.
Allowable Stress Method

This method is presently specified by American codes (API, AISC).

The loads remain unfactored and a unique coefficient is applied to the
characteristic resistance to obtain an allowable stress as follows:

Condition

Normal

Extreme

"Normal" and "Extreme" respectively represent the most severe conditions:

under which the plant is to operate without shut-down.
the platform is to endure over its lifetime.
Limit State Method

Ultimate Limit State (ULS):

corresponds to an ultimate event considering the structural resistance with
appropriate reserve.
Fatigue Limit State (FLS):
relates to the possibility of failure under cyclic loading.

 Progressive Collapse Limit State (PLS):

reflects the ability of the structure to resist collapse under accidental or
abnormal conditions.
Service Limit State (SLS):
corresponds to criteria for normal use or durability (often specified by the
plant operator).
Load factors
Limit State

Load Categories

ULS (normal)

1,3

1,3

1,0

0,7

0,0

ULS (extreme)

1,0

1,0

1,0

1,3

0,0

FLS

0,0

0,0

0,0

1,0

0,0

PLS (accidental)

1,0

1,0

1,0

1,0

1,0

PLS (post-damage)

1,0

1,0

1,0

1,0

0,0

SLS

1,0

1,0

1,0

1,0

0,0

where the respective load categories are:

P are permanent loads (structural weight, dry equipments, ballast,
hydrostatic pressure).
L are live loads (storage, personnel, liquids).
D are deformations (out-of-level supports, subsidence).
E are environmental loads (wave, current, wind, earthquake).
A are accidental loads (dropped object, ship impact, blast, fire).
Material factors
Classification of Design Conditions

PRELIMINARY MEMBER SIZING

Jacket Pile Sizes
Deck Leg Sizes
Jacket Bracings
Deck Framing

STATIC IN-PLACE ANALYSIS

Structural Model

Main Model
Appurtenances
Foundation Model
Loadings

Gravity Loads
dead weight of structure and equipments.
live loads (equipments, fluids, personnel).
Environmental Loads
Loading Combinations
DYNAMIC ANALYSIS
Dynamic Model

Some simplifications may however take place:

local joint reinforcements and eccentricities may be disregarded.
masses are lumped at the member ends.
the foundation model may be derived from cyclic soil behaviour.
Equations of Motion

Mass
Damping
Structural Damping
Hydrodinamic Damping
Representation Damping

Stiffness
Free Vibration Mode Shapes and Frequencies
Modal Superposition Method

Frequency Domain Analysis

Time Domain Analysis
Direct Integration Methods
CONCLUDING SUMMARY

The analysis of offshore structures is an extensive task.

The analytical models used in offshore engineering are in some respects similar
to those used for other types of steel structures. The same model is used
throughout the analysis process.
The verification of an element consists of comparing its characteristic
resistance(s) to a design force or stress. Several methods are available.
Simple rules are available for preliminary member sizing.
Static in-plane analysis is always carried out at the early stage of a project to
size the main elements of the structure. A dynamic analysis is normally
mandatory for every offshore structure.

Lecture 15A.5 - Analysis II

FATIGUE ANALYSIS

A fatigue analysis is performed for those structures sensitive to the action of cyclic
loadings such as:
wave (jackets, floating structures).
wind (flare booms, stair towers).
structures under rotating equipments.
Fatigue Model

Structural Model
Hydrodynamic Loading Model
Joint Stress Model
Fatigue Damage Model
Closed Form Expression
Deterministic Analysis
Spectral Analysis
Wind Fatigue

Wind Gusts
Vortex Shedding
ABNORMAL AND ACCIDENTAL CONDITIONS
Earthquake Analysis

Model
Ductility Requirements
Analysis Method
Impact

Dropped Object/Boat Impact

Blast and Fire
Progressive Collapse

LOAD OUT & TRANSPORTATION

Load-Out

Skidding
Load-Out by Trailers
Transportation

Naval Architectural Model

Structural Model
INSTALLATION
Launching

Naval Architectural Model

Structural Model
Upending
Docking
Unpiled Stability
Piling
Lifting

Model
Design Factors
Skew Load Factor (SKL)
Dynamic Amplification Factor (DAF)
Tilt Effect Factor (TEF)
Yaw Effect Factor (YEF)

Consequence Factors
LOCAL ANALYSES AND DESIGN
Pile/Sleeve Connections

The main verifications address:

the shear stresses in the concrete.

 the fatigue damage in the shear plates and the attachment welds to the main
jacket accumulated during pile driving and throughout the life of the
platform.

Members within the Splash Zone

A slamming coefficient Cs=3,5 is often selected.

Straightened Nodes
Appurtenances

Risers, Caissons & J-Tubes

Static In-Place and Fatigue
Pull-in

Conductors
Helidecks
Flare Booms
CONCLUDING SUMMARY

With the trend to ever deeper and more slender offshore structures in yet
harsher environments, more elaborate theories are necessary to analyse
complex situations. There is a risk for the Engineer having increasingly to
rely on the sole results of computer analyses at the expense of sound design
practice.
To retain enough control of the process of analysis, the following
recommendations are given:
check the interfaces between the different analyses and ensure the consistency of
the input/output.
verify the validity of the data resulting from a complex analysis against a
simplified model, which can also be used to assess the influence of a particular
parameter.
make full use of "good engineering judgement" to criticise the unexpected results
of an analysis.