Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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A. Theory
# Organs of speech: inwards
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- Speaker: 3 stages
+ Psychological stage: idea is transmitted to the brain throught the 5 senses of human. It is
the process of thinking and choosing what to say.
+ Physiological stage: idea is transmitted to the brain and then to the mouth through nervous
system.
+ Physical stage: the process of producing and articulating the sounds. The mouth works to
speak out the sounds.
- Listener: such stages are simplier. Nervous system carries the sounds from the ears up to the
brain. The brain will analyse the sounds.
3. What is the difference between pulmonic egressive airstream mechanism and ingressive
airstream mechanism? What airstream mechanism do English sounds belong to?
The difference between these two mechanism is the direction of the airstream. In pulmonic
egressive mechanism, the airstream move outwards from the lung to the trachea (windpipe kh
qun) to pharynx (hng) and to the mouth, but the airstream in pulmonic ingressive mechanism
move inwards from the outside.
English sound belong to the pulmonic egresive airstream mechanism and this mechasnism is also
used in almost languages in the world.
4. What is voiced, voiceless sound? In what way(s) are voiced sounds different from voiceless
ones?
- Voiced sounds are the sounds produced by the rapid opening and closing of vocal cords. In a
voiced sound, the rapid opening and closing of vocal cords is a kind of vibration.
- Voiceless sound are the sounds made with vocal cords drawn apart so that the air can pass out
freely between them and there is no vibration.
Voiced and voiceless sounds can be distinguished according to the following criteria:
Criteria
Voiced sound
Voiceless sound
Vibration
The airstream mechanism: where the air used in speech starts from, and which direction it
is travelling in
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The state of the vocal cords: wherether or not the vocal cords are vibrating, which
determines voicing
The state of the velum: whether it is raised or lowered, which determines whether the
sound is oral or nasal
The place and manner of articulation: the horizontal and vertical positions of the tongue
and lips
Acoustic phonetics studies the specific and measurable effects on the air involved in the
production of the speech sound.
6. What is the difference between a vowel and a consonant in the English language? Give
example to illustrate?
Definition:
- Consonants are speech sounds produced by creating an obstruction to the airstream during the
articulation.
- Vowels are speech sounds where the airstream escapes the oral tract (organs of speech)
unobstructed.
Differences: vowel and consonant can be distinguished according to the following criteria:
Criteria
Vowel
Airstream
Nasal or oral
Consonant
Voiced sounds such as: /b/, /v/, /d/, //, /z/, //, //
Voiceless sounds such as: /p/, /f/, /t/, /k/, /s/, //, //
- According to the state of the velum, there are nasal and oral sounds.
Eg.
(vowels)
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- According to the state of the vocal cords, there are vowel and consonant.
Eg.
Vowels: /i:/, /u:/, /:/, /:/, /:/; //, //, //, //, //, //, //
Consonants: /b/, /v/, /d/, //, /z/, //, //, /p/, /f/, /t/, /k/, /s/, //, //
B. Practice
1. Fill in the blanks in the following passage
There are three principal airstream mechanisms: the pulmonic airstream mechanism, the velaric
airstream mechanism and the glottalic airstream mechanism. In normal utterances in all languages
of the world, the airstream is always flowing outwards if the pulmonic egressive airstream
mechanism is involved. Stops made with this mechanism are called plosives (tc). The only
mechanism that is used in some languages to produce some sounds with inward going air and
some sounds with outward going air is the glottalic airstream mechanism. Stops made with this
mechanism acting ingressively are called implosives (ng). Stops made with this mechanism
acting egressively are called ejectives (bt). The mechanism which is used in the language to
produce sounds only with inward going air is the velaric airstream mechanism. Stops made with
this mechanism are called clicks.
2. Fill in the names of the vocal organs in the spaces provided
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UNIT 2
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CONSONANTS
# Definitions:
-
Voiced sounds are sounds produced by the rapid opening and closing of the vocal cords.
In a voiced sound, the rapid opening and closing of the vocal cords is a kind of vibration.
Voiceless sounds are sounds made with vocal cords drawn apart so that the air can pass
out freely and there is no vibration.
Fortis are consonants which are tend to be articulated with relatively strong energy. They
are voiceless sounds and usually shorten the preceeding vowel.
Eg. bat
Lenis are consonants which are tend to be articulated with relatively weak energy. They
are voiced sounds and usually lengthen the preceeding vowel.
Place of articulation
Manner of articulation
Bilabia
l
Plosive
Denta
l
Fricative
Approximan
t
Labio
dental
Alveola
r
t
Lateral
Retro
flex
Platoalveolar
Velar
Glottal
h
j
Affricate
Nasal
Palatal
t
m
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1. Classify all the English plosives, providing the words containing the sounds.
English plosives are classified according to the following 3 criteria:
- According to the place of articulation: there are 3 types
+ Bilabial plosive: /p/, /b/
2. List the bilabial consonants. For each bilabial, provide one word containing it.
There are 4 bilabial consonants in the English language: p, b, w, m
- Bilabial plosive: /p/, /b/
3. What is the distinctive feature that makes /p/ and /b/ different sounds?
/p/ and /b/ are bilabial plosive consonants, but the distinctive feature that makes them different
sounds is the voicing. /p/ is a voiceless consonant while /b/ is a voiced one. We can realize such
difference when these sounds are articulated by touching the Adams apple. When /b/ is
articulated, there is a vibration, but there is no such vibration when /p/ is pronounced.
4. According to what are English consonants classified? Give examples
English consonants are classified according to 5 criteria:
According to place of articulation:
- Bilabial: p, b, w, m
- Labiodental: f, v
- Dental: ,
- Alveolar: t, d, s, z, l, n
- Retroflex: r
- Palato-avleolar: , , t, d
fridge, jane
- Palatal: j
- Velar: k,,
- Glottal: h
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- Fricative: f, v, , , s, z, , , h eg. five, van, think, this, sun, zoo, shine, measure, hot
- Approximant: w, r, j
- Lateral: l
- Affricate: t, d
- Nasal: m, n,
- Oral: p, b, t, d, k, , f, v, ,, s, z, ,, w, r, j, l, t, d, h,
According to State of the vocal cords:
- Voiced sounds: b, d, , v, , z, , w, r, j, l, d, m, n,
- Voiceless sounds: p, t, k, f, , s, , h, t
According to Force of articulation:
- Fortis consonants: voiceless sounds
- Lenis consonants: voiced sounds
5. What are the differences between a plosive and an affricate in English?
Criteria
Airstream
Plosive
Affricate
Number of Plosive
manners
involved
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+ Dental fricative: ,
+ Alveolar fricative: s, z
+ Palato-avleolar fricative: ,
+ Glottal fricative: h
+ Voiceless sounds: f, , s, , h
+ Lenis: v, , z,
Fortis
Lenis
Force of articulation
Voicing
Voiceless
Voiced
Proceeding vowel
Shorten
Lengthen
B. Practice:
1. Describe the consonant in the word skinflint: /skinflint/
s
voiceless
alveolar
fricative
(oral
fortis)
voiceless
velar
plosive
(oral
fortis)
voiced
alveolar
nasal
voiceless
labiodental
fricative
(oral
fortis)
voiced
alveolar
lateral
(oral
lenis)
voiceless
alveolar
plosive
(oral
fortis)
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(lenis)
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2. Underline:
a. The words that begin with a bilabial consonant
mat
knee
sat
bat
rat
pat
got
lot
cot
hot
pot
cat
that
mat
chat
vat
nip
lip
sip
tip
dip
guy
shy
thight thy
high
shy
tie
thigh thy
lie
rave
rouge ray
rose
rough
rang
dumb deaf
lip
lit
limb
crab
dog
hide
laugh back
lull
bar
rob
one
you
one
run
edge
ooze
3. Write the symbol that corresponds to the following phonetic descriptions. Give an English word
that contains this sound
a. voiced bilabial plosive
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UNIT 3
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ENGLISH VOWELS
Note: - vowel with the mark : means long vowel, and also tense vowel
- beside four round vowels (u:, , :, , :), there are three neutral vowel (, :, )
and the rests are unround vowels.
# Definitions:
-
Vowels are speech sounds where the airstream escapes the vocal tract unobstructed.
Monothong is a pure vowel sound which is pronounced without changing of the position
of the organ of speech throughout the duration of the vowel articulation.
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- Monophthong: is a pure vowel sound which is pronounced without changing in the position of
the organ of speech throughout the duration of vowel articualtion.
- Diphthong: is a complex vowel sound consisting of two elements pronounced so as to form a
single syllable. In the pronunciation of the diphthong, the position of the organ of speech starts in
the position of the first vowel and glides gradually to the other one.
The differences of monophthong and diphthong lie in the number of vowel element and the
position of the organ of speech during the articulation:
Criteria
Monophthong
Diphthong
One
Two
Unchange
Eg.
Front vowels: the front of the tongue raises towards the hard palate
:, , ,
Central vowels: the centre of the tongue raises towards the junture of the hard palate and
the soft palate
:, ,
Back vowels: the back of the tongue raises towards the soft palate
:, , , , :
The height of the tongue in the mouth: high, mid and low vowels
-
High vowels: :, , :,
Low vowels: , , , :
Round vowels: :, , ,
Neutral vowels: , :,
Unround vowels: :, , , , :
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Long vowels: :, :, , :, :
Short vowels: , , , , , ,
4. What makes an English front vowel different from ist back counterpart? Give example
An English front vowel differs from its back counterpart is due to the position of the tounge in the
mouth or the raising part of the tongue.
In the pronunciation of an front vowel: the front of the tongue raises towards the hard palate, but
in the articulation of the back vowel the back of the tongue raises towards the soft palate.
5. List all the diphthong. How are they classified into different groups according to their
direction of glide?
a. Definition, list
There are 8 diphthongs in the English language, including: , , , , , ,
,
b. Classification
English diphthongs can be classified according to the direction of glide:
-
6. What are the differences between a vowel and a consonant in the English language? Give
example
a. Definition
- Consonants are speech sounds produced by creating an obstruction to the airstream during the
articulation.
- Vowels are speech sounds where the airstream escapes the oral tract (organ of speech)
unobstructed.
b. Differences
Criteria
Consonants
Vowels
Airstream movement:
Voicing
Consist
of
voiced
voiceless sounds
Eg.
/p/, /b/
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B. Practice
1. Write the symbol that correponds to each of the following phonetic description and then
give an English word contaning the sound:
a. high front unround lax vowel:
B. quay
C. tie
D. grease
B. utterance
C. Oxford
D. eat
B. meet
C. got
D. much
C. smooth
D. crime
C. stupid
D. swear
C. funny
D. fine
C. good
D. food
B. station
B. supper
B. headlight
B. understood
3. Place the member of the following vowel inventory in an appropriate place on a vowel
quadrangle: [, :, , , , , :, :, , ]
See vowels chart
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INTRODUCTION TO PHONOLOGY
A. Theory
1. What is phonology?
Phonology is the description of the systems and patterna of sounds that occur in a language.
2. What is a phoneme / allophone? Prove your point of view
- Phonemes are the smallest segments of sound that can be distinguished by their contrast within
words.
(Segments: are the smallest pieces of sound that are divided from a speech)
- Allophone are phonemes derived from the same phoneme in different distribution.
Eg. stop talking /= /
[] and [=] are allophone of phoneme []
3. What are the differences between phonemic transcription and allophonic (phonetic)
transcription? Give example
- Transcription is the use of a set of symbols representing sounds to show the sounds in written
form.
There are two kinds of transcription: phonemic (broad) transcription and allophinic (phonetic or
narrow) transcription.
Criteria
Phonemic transcription
Allophonic transcription
Symbols
Feature
Eg
4. What can be stated as necessary conditions for forming a minimal set? Give set of words
to illustrate
In order to form a minimal set, we must have more than two words which are different in
meaning, but they have the same number of segments and only one different segment in the same
position/distribution.
Eg.
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- Minimal pair: is a pair of words which are different in meaning, having the same number of
segments with only one different segment in the same position/distribution.
Eg. hat //, cat // - the different segment is the first one.
- Minimal set: is a set of more than two words of different meaning which have the same number
of segment and only one different segment in the same position/distribution.
Eg. bat //, but //, bet // - the different segment is the middle one.
B. Practice
1. Which of the followings is a minimal pair?
A. cater better
B. round bound
// - //
// - //
C. rock box
// - //
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B. table cable
C. teacher richer
// - //
B. back bad
/:/
C. sea saw
// - //
/:/
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A. Rules
Note: [+ voiced: voiced sound], [- voiced: voiceless sound]
[+ aspirated: aspirated], [- aspirated: unaspirated]
1. Aspiration
a. Aspirated
Symbol: []
[- voiced, + plosive] [+ aspirated] when syllable initial.
Means: voiceless plosive sounds (/p, t, k/) will be aspirated as they are the initial syllable, or when
they stand in initial position of a stress syllable.
Eg. car [:]
b. Unaspirated
Symbol: [=]
[- voiced, + plosive] [- aspirated] when standing:
+ after /s/ at the beginning of the syllable; or
+ in medial or final position of a syllable
Eg. sport [=]
happy [=]
map [=]
2. Unexploded articulation
Symbol: [ ]
[- voiced, + plosive] unexploded before another [+ plosive]
Eg. act []
adapt []
looked []
3. Dentalization
Symbol: [ ]
[+ alveolar] [+ dental] before [+ dental], means that alveolar (/t, d, s, z, l, n/) will be
dentalized when it stand before a dental sounds (/,/).
Eg. eighth []
width //
4. Consonants:
[+consonantal) longer when at the end of the word.
Eg. mum [] - // is pronounced longer.
[-voiced] longer when at the end of the word.
Eg. cap
[]
5. Devoicing
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Symbol: [ ]
[+ approximant] devoiced after [+ aspirated, + plosive]
Approximant (/w, r, j, l/) will be devoiced when stand after aspirated plosive.
Eg. play []
[:]
cry []
between
mechnism []
[+lateral] [+ syllabic] when at the end of the word and after another consonant.
Eg. channel [] metal []
7. Velarization
Symbol: [ ]
[+ lateral] velarized when after a vowel and before another consonant; or at the end of the
word.
Eg. milk []
file []
mill []
gap []
key []
population []
calm [:]
bean [:]
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calory []
B. Exercises
1. Give some allophones of the phoneme /k/ that occurs in different distribution?
[] - /k/ is aspirated when it is initial syllable; or stands in initial position of stress syllable.
Eg. car [:]
can []
[=] - /k/ is unaspirated when it stands aster /s/ in the beginning syllable; or in the medial or final
position of the word.
Eg. scar [=:]
book [=]
cooked []
sport [=]
happy [=]
scar [=:]
sky [=]
stop [=]
stay [=]
map [=]
3. Transcribe the word CONGRATULATION phonetically, then give the description of the
transcribed consonants.
Congratulation []
: voiceless (aspirated) velar plosive (oral fortis)
n: voiced alveolar nasal lenis
: voiced velar plosive oral lenis
: voiced retroflex approximant (glide)
: voiceless alveolar plosive oral fortis
: voiced alveolar lateral oral lenis
: voiceless palato-alveolar fricative
4. Show the differences between the underlined sounds in the following pair of words
a. wide
width
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b. quick
skill
[
]
[
]
c.import
shore
[
]
[]
d. bill
plate
[
]
[p
e.health
love
[
]
[
]
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] ]
is g. good food
at [ [:
in
]
]
as
key
[
:]
5. What do the following formulas mean? Give example for each case.
a. [+ alveolar] [+ detal] before [+ dental]
means alveolar (/, , , , , /) will be dentalized when it stands before a dental sound
(/, /).
Eg. eighth []
width //
cry []
between
UNIT 6
calm [:]
bean [:]
A. Theory
1. What is assimilation in the English language? Give example
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Assimilation is a process when one sound adapts itself to the neighbouring sound so that it
becomes close to the assimilating one in one or more aspects.
Eg.
in the [ ] [ ]
right place [ ] [ ]
word.
today [] - // is disappeared
potato [] - // is disappeared
Liaision is a phenomenon where a sound is linked to another in informal speech.
Eg.
come in []
set up []
good
morning
one more [ ] [ ]
progressive assimilation:
in the [ ] [ ]
Eg.
come in []
set up [] (liaision)
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good morning [ ] [ ];
one more [ ] [ ]
- Progressive assimilation: Cf Ci
Eg.
in the [ ] [ ]
right
place
good boy [ ] [ ]
ten men [ ] [ ]
white coat [ ] [ ]
/d/ + /, / //
bad guy [ ] [ ]
/n/ + /, / //
one cup [ ] [ ]
this year [ ] [ ];
nice shoes [ :] [ :]
/z/ + /, /
]
those shops [ ] [
that side [ ] [ ]
good song [ ] [ ]
that zoo [ ] [ ]
bad zone [ ] [ ]
hot night [ ] [ ]
good night [ ] [ ]
get them [ ] [ ]
read these [ ] [ ]
in the [ ] [ ]
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+ ; + ;
tomb place [ ] [ ]
bad toy [ ] [ ]
big car [ :] [ :]
Note: fortis + lenis no assimilation.
7. Types of elision:
a. Definition:
Elision is the missing out of a consonant or vowel or both in informal spoken English or in rapid
speech in English.
b. Types of elision
Consonant:
Plosive + plosive + plosive / fricative the middle plosive will disapprear
Eg. looked back [ ];
acts []
last night [: ]
left mountain [ ]
canned bacon [ ]
seemed good [: ]
Loss of // in of + consonant
Eg. lots of them
Vowel:
Fortis plosive aspirated + weak vowel /, / /, / will disappear
Eg. today []
potato []
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[:]: the linking between final vowel and initial vowel; the elision of /t/:
plosive + plosive + fricative
UNIT 7
STRESS
A. Theory
1. English word stress and its functions?
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a. Definition
Stress is the pronunciation of a syllable with more force than the surrounding ones, that means the
way the speakers use energy created from the lungs to make a syllable more prominent than the
others. The salience of a sound or syllable is called stress.
b. Functions
Grammatical / syntactic function:
-
Stress is used to change the word class without changing in the writing of the word. (noun
has stress on the first syllable and verb has stress on the second syllable)
Eg.
Stress is used to distinguish compound words from a free combination of words (if the
stress is on the first element compound; if stress is on both elements free combination)
Eg. whitehouse [] (compound) white house [
] (free combination)
Emphasis function: stress is employed to give emphasis to word to to contrast word with
another.
Stress helps to form the intonation.
2. What is meant by prominence of a stressed syllable in English?
All stressed syllable have the one characteristic in common which is called prominence, means
that this characteristic helps to distinguish stressed syllable from unstressed one.
3. What is the nature of English word stress?
The nature of English word stress includes four factors:
-
Quality of neighbouring vowel: the vowel of stressed syllable is different from the others
Verbs:
+ Stress is marked on the second syllable if it contain a long vowel or diphthong or ends
with more than one consonants.
Eg. apply []
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attract []
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+ Stress is on the first syllable if final syllable contains short vowel and one (or no)
consonant.
Eg. enter []
open []
+ Stress is placed on the first syllable if the final syllable contain diphthong .
Eg. follow [] borrow []
-
perfect [:]
Nouns:
product []
balloon [:]
Noun and verb with identical spelling: stress is on the first syllable if it is noun and
stress is on the second syllable if it is verb
Eg.
Three-syllable words:
-
Verbs:
+ Stress is placed on the middle (second) syllable if final syllable contains a short vowel or
ends with not more than one consonant.
Eg. encounter []
determine [:]
+ Stress is on the final syllable if it contains a long vowel or diphthong or ends with more
than one consonant.
Eg. recommend []
[]
-
entertain
+ Stress is marked on middle (second) syllable if: final syllable contains a short vowel or
; middle syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong or ends with more than one
consonant.
Eg. disaster [:]
[]
potato []
discover
convenient [:]
+ Stress is on the first syllable if: final syllable contains a short vowel and the middle
syllable contains a short vowel and ends with not more than one consonant.
Eg. quantity [] cinema []
[]
opportune [:]
custody
generous []
+ If final syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong or end with more than one consonant,
stress is usually on the first syllable and the final syllable is said to have secondary
stress.
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Eg. entellect []
marigold []
alkali
[]
relate []
Eg. dominate []
[]
-
calculate
Eg. investigate []
[]
communicate
anticipate
Suffixes carrying primary stress themselves (secondary stress is on the first syllable):
-
transferee [::]
-eer: engineer []
volunteer []
-ette: cigarette []
-esque: picturesque []
japanese [:]
-age: marry []
marriage []
approval [:]
darken [:]
-ful: wonder []
wonderful []
-ing: amaze []
amazing []
-ish: book []
bookish [] (for Adjs or Vs with more
than one syllable: stress is always on the syllable preceding -ish eg.
demolish
[]
birdlike [:]
-less: power []
powerless []
-ly: careful []
-ment: punish []
-ness: homeless []
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carefully []
punishment []
homelessness []
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-ous: poison []
poisonous []
-fy: glory []
glorify []
-wise: clock []
clockwise []
funny []
Suffixes that influence the stem (attract stress to the syllable preceeding them):
- -enous: advantage [:]
[]
advantageous
-ic: diplomat []
diplomatic []
-ion: graduate []
graduation []
-ious: injure []
ambitious []
injurious []
equality [:]
-ive: impulse []
impulsive []
adverbial [:]
More than one syllable stem: stress is on one of them (use the rules above)
suitcase
[:]
half-timbered
[:
first-classs [::]
Compounds functioning as adverbs: stress is on final element
Eg.
North-East [:]
[:]
downstream
Compounds functioning as verbs and having an adverbial first element (the first element is
adv): stress is on final element
Eg.
hoanguyen
back-pedal [] up-grade []
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(Note: bad-tempered []
[ :])
but
bad-tempered
teacher
d. Word-class pair
Two words (two-syllable) with identical spelling, one of them is V and the other is either a N or
an Adj:
-
Eg.
abstract [] (Adj)
[] (V)
contract [] (N)
abstract
contract [] (V)
B. Practice:
1. Mark the stress on the words below:
a. optimistic []
b.
development
[]
c. autonomous []
d.
expectation
[]
e.
representation f. tragedy []
[]
g. freedom [:]
h.
championship
[]
2. Work out the rule for stress placement from the examples below:
a.
possibility
[]
capacity []
b.
record [] (N)
record [] (V)
3. Mark the stress on the following compounds and then work out the rule
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UNIT 8
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INTONATION
A. Theory
1. English intonation and its function?
a. Definition
When speaking, people generally raise the pitch of their voice forming pitch pattern. They also
give syllable in their utterances greater degree of loudness and change their speech rhythm. These
phenomena are called intonation. In other words, intonation is the raises and falls in which level
or pattern of pitch change.
b. Functions
-
Grammatical function: The listener is better able to recognise the grammar and syntactic
structure of what is being said byusing information contained in the intonation.
Discourse funtions: Intonation can signal to the listener what is to be taken as new
information and what is already given
2. What are the basic tunes in English intonation and their uses?
Falling tune (intonation):
-
Uses:
+ In statement
+ In imparative sentence (cu mnh lnh khng c ch ng)
+ Wh-question
-
Rules:
+ The voice decends step-wise on each stressed syllable. Unstressed syllables are on the
same level at the preceding stressed syllable.
+ To avoid monotomy, speaker can make his voice used of the convenience of stressed
syllable, but not as high as stressed syllable
+ For long statement, break them into different tunes.
Eg.
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Uses:
+ Yes / No question
+ Imparative as request or statement as remark of emotion
-
Rule: the voice ascends step-wise at each stress syllable ans then rises.
Tag question:
+ Ask for information: statement: falling tune + tag: raising tune
Eg. Its a nice day, isnt it?
3. Form of intonation
a. Definition
-
Tone-unit: is a unit generally greater in size than the syllable is needed to analyze the
intonation.
Tonic syllable: is a syllable which carries a tone will be called tonic syllable. Tonic
syllable has a higher degree of prominence.
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Head: extends from the first stressed syllable up to the TS (not including TS)
TS
TS Tail
B. Practice
Mark the possible intonation for the following:
a. Have you been to Marys wedding party? (raising tune Yes/No question)
_
-
f. If you like, Ill send the car for you (if-clause: raising tune + main clause: falling
tune)
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