Chapter No 2

Network model

Differentiate between Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services

Layers can offer two different types of service: connection-oriented and connectionless
1. Connection-oriented service:
Connection-oriented service is modeled after the telephone system. To talk to someone, pick
up the phone, dial the number, talk, and then hang up. Similarly, to use a connection-oriented
network service, the service user first establishes a connection, uses the connection, and then
releases the connection. The essential aspect of a connection is that it acts like a tube: the
sender pushes objects (bits) in at one end, and the receiver takes them out at the other end.
When a connection is established, one side makes a proposal and the other side can accept it,
reject it, or make a counterproposal. A typical situation in which a reliable connection-oriented
service is appropriate is file transfer. The owner of the file wants to be sure that all the bits
arrive correctly and in the same order they were sent.
2. Connectionless service:
In contrast, connectionless service is modeled after the postal system. Each message (letter)
carries the full destination address, and each one is routed through the system independent of
all the others. Normally, when two messages are sent to the same destination, the first one sent
will be the first one to arrive. However, it is possible that the first one sent can be delayed so
that the second one arrives first. Not all applications require connections.
For example electronic mail.
Unreliable (meaning not acknowledged) connectionless service is often called datagram
service, which also does not return an acknowledgement to the sender.
A typical situation in which a reliable connection-oriented service is appropriate is file
transfer. The owner of the file wants to be sure that all the bits arrive correctly and in the same
order they were sent. Very few file transfer customers would prefer a service that occasionally
scrambles or loses a few bits, even if it is much faster.

Explain in detail about ISO-OSI reference Model.

This model deals with connecting open systems that is, systems that are open for
communication with other systems. Note that the OSI model itself is not network architecture
because it does not specify the exact services & protocols to be used in each layer. However,
common standards were produced by ISO (International Standards Organization) for each
layer:
The Physical Layer:
The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over a communication channel. The
design issues have to do with making sure that when one side sends a 1 bit, it is received by
the other side as a 1 bit, not as a 0 bit.
The Data Link Layer:
The data link layer takes a raw transmission facility and transforms it into a line that appears
free of undetected transmission errors to the network layer. This task is accomplished by using
data & acknowledgment frames and error detection algorithms (like code Humming).
Network Layer
The network layer is concerned with controlling the operation of the subnet. That is routing
the packets from the source to destination. Routes can be based on static or dynamic routing
tables.
If too many packets are present in the subnet at the same time, they will get in each others
way, forming bottlenecks.

Transport Layer
The transport layer basic function is to accept data from the session layer spilt it into packet
(if necessary), pass these to the network layer and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at
the other end.
The Session Layer:
The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them.
Sessions offer various services, including dialog control, token management and
synchronization.
The Presentation Layer:
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information
transmitted. The presentation layer manages these abstract data structures and allows higherlevel data structures to be defined and exchanged.
The Application Layer:
The application layer contains a variety of protocols that are commonly needed by users. One
widely-used application protocol is HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol). Other application
protocols are used for file transfer, electronic mail, and network news.
The TCP/IP Reference Model:
The TCP/IP reference model was developed prior to OSI model. The major design goals of
this model were,
1. To connect multiple networks together so that they appear as a single network.
2. To survive after partial subnet hardware failures.
3. To provide a flexible architecture.
Unlike OSI reference model, TCP/IP reference model has only 4 layers. They are,
1. Host-to-Network Layer
2. Internet Layer
3. Transport Layer
4. Application Layer

TCP/IP Reference Model

1. Host-to-Network layer
This is the bottom layer of TCP/IP referenced model. The TCP/IP reference model does not
really say much about what happens here except to point out that the host has to connect to the
network using some of the protocols so it can send IP packets over remove it. This protocol is
not defined and varies from host-to-host and network-to-network.
2.
Internet layer
The internet layer is the linchpin that holds the whole architecture together. Its function is to
permit hosts to injects packets into any network, and have they traveled independently to the
destination.
This layer defines official protocol called IP. The function of internet layer is to deliver IP
packets where they are supposed to go. Packet routing is clearly the major issue here, as is
avoiding congestion.
Transport Layer
The transport layer lies above the internet layer and it allows peer entities on the source &
destination hosts to carry on a conversation. Two end-to-end protocols were defined here:
TCP & UDP.
The first one TCP is a reliable connection-oriented protocol that allows a byte stream
originating on one machine to be delivered without error on any other machine in the internet.
The second protocol in this layer, UDP (User Datagram Protocol), is an unreliable,
connectionless protocol for applications that do not want TCP's sequencing or flow control
and wish to provide their own.
The Application Layer:
The TCP/IP model does not have session or presentation layers. On top of the transport layer
is the application layer. It contains all the higher-level protocols. The early ones included
virtual terminal (TELNET), file transfer (FTP), and electronic mail (SMTP).
Many other protocols have been added to these over the years: the Domain Name System
(DNS) for mapping host names onto their network addresses, NNTP, the protocol for moving
USENET news articles around, and HTTP, the protocol for fetching pages on the World Wide
Web.
What are the comparisons of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models?
Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP Reference Models:
The OSI and TCP/IP reference models have much in common. Both are based on the
concept of a stack of independent protocols. Also, the functionality of the layers is roughly
similar. For example, in both models the layers up through and including the transport layer
are there to provide an end-to-end, network-independent transport service to processes
wishing to communicate. These layers form the transport provider. Again in both models, the
layers above transport are application-oriented users of the transport service.
Despite these fundamental similarities, the two models also have many differences
Three concepts are central to the OSI model:
1. Services
2. Interfaces.
3. Protocols.

The biggest contribution of the OSI model is to make the distinction between these three
concepts explicit. Each layer performs some services for the layer above it. The service
definition tells what the layer does, not how entities above it access it or how the layer
works. It defines the layer's semantics.
A layer's interface tells the processes above it how to access it. It specifies what the
parameters are and what results to expect. It, too, says nothing about how the layer works
inside.
Finally, the peer protocols used in a layer are the layer's own business. It can use any
protocols it wants to, as long as it gets the job done (i.e., provides the offered services). It
can also change them at will without affecting software in higher layers.
The TCP/IP model did not originally clearly distinguish between service, interface, and
protocol, although people have tried to retrofit it after the fact to make it more OSI-like.
For example, the only real services offered by the internet layer are SEND IP PACKET
and RECEIVE IP PACKET.
As a consequence, the protocols in the OSI model are better hidden than in the TCP/IP
model and can be replaced relatively easily as the technology changes. Being able to make
such changes is one of the main purposes of having layered protocols in the first place.
The OSI reference model was devised before the corresponding protocols were invented.
This ordering means that the model was not biased toward one particular set of protocols,
a fact that made it quite general. The downside of this ordering is that the designers did not
have much experience with the subject and did not have a good idea of which functionality
to put in which layer.
Another difference is in the area of connectionless versus connection-oriented
communication. The OSI model supports both connectionless and connection-oriented
communication in the network layer, but only connection-oriented communication in the
transport layer, where it counts (because the transport service is visible to the users). The
TCP/IP model has only one mode in the network layer (connectionless) but supports both
modes in the transport layer, giving the users a choice. This choice is especially important
for simple request-response protocols.
Explain simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex communication.
Explain Data transmission technique in communication.
Communication between two hosts can be in one of the following ways,
i.
ii.
iii.
i.

Simplex
Half-duplex
Full-duplex.

Simplex Mode:
In this type of transmission mode, the data can be transmitted only in one direction at any time
i.e., this type of communication is unidirectional in which one host transmits the data and the
other host receives it. The complete channel bandwidth is utilized.

Monitors and keyboards are the examples of simplex devices because at any lime the input
can be inserted through the keyboard which is accepted by the monitor.
Sender

Receiver

Host 1

ii.

Host 2

Half-duplex Mode:
In this type of transmission mode, the data can be transmitted in both the directions but only
one host can transmit at any time. This type of data transmission is used when no data has to
be transmitted in both directions simultaneously. The entire channel bandwidth can be used for
each direction.
Walkie-talkies and citizens based radios are the examples of half-duplex devices.
Sender

Receiver
Data transmission at time t1
Host 2

Host 1
Data transmission at time t2
iii. Full-duplex Mode:

In this type of data transmission, the data can be transmitted in both the directions at the same
time. This mode is suitable for simultaneous bidirectional communication. The entire channel
bandwidth is divided among the two directions in which the data is transmitted.
Telephone conversation is an example of full-duplex data transmission in which both the
persons can talk and listen at the same time.
Sender
Host 1

Receiver
Host 2

Write a short note on Synchronous and asynchronous:Serial transmission can be either asynchronous or synchronous.
Asynchronous Serial Transmission:
It refers to the process of transmitting bits in an asynchronous manner i.e., without taking the
timing constraints into consideration. Instead, both the communicating panics are agreed upon

some specific patterns with which a receiver can retrieve information without considering the
order in which the bits are transmitted.
As time is not an important constraint in asynchronous transmission. Convention has been
followed to alert the receiver about the arrival of a new group in which an extra 0 bit, called
the start bit is added a the beginning of each byte and a bit 1, called the stop bit is inserted at
the end of the byte being transmitted.
This method is called Asynchronous because the sender and the receiver need not be
synchronized with each other, but within each byte, synchronization is still maintained
between the receiver and the incoming bit stream.
Advantages:
1. It is cheap and effective.
2. It is a preferred choice for low speed communication.
Disadvantage
1. The insertion of start and stop bits and gaps into the bit stream makes it slower than
synchronous data transmission.
Synchronous Transmission:
In synchronous type of data transmission, the incoming bit stream is grouped to form longer
frames containing multiple bytes with no spacing between the successive bytes. The bit
streams arc then combined to form bytes by the receiver and are used for decoding purposes
i.e., the incoming data is sent as an unbroken string of ls and 0s. These strings are separated
into the bytes and characters for reconstructing the information. As no start and stop hits and
the gap between bytes are available, timing between the successive bytes is critical. This is
because the accuracy of the received information is entirely dependent on the ability of the
receiver in maintaining the accurate count of the received bits.
Advantages:
1. Synchronous data transmission is faster than the asynchronous data transmission
because of the absence of start and stop bits and the non availability of the gaps
between them. Hence, used for pc-to- pc communication.
2. Byte synchronization can be achieved in the data link layer.
Disadvantage
Though no separation (gap) is present between the characters, some uneven gaps are
available among the successive frames.