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10ES36
FIELD THEORY
Sub Code : 10ES36
IA Marks : 25
Hrs/ Week : 04
Exam Hours : 03
Total Hrs. : 52
PART: A
UNIT 1: ELECTROSTATICS
Hrs: 8
Experimental law of coulomb, Electric field intensity, Field due to continuous volume
charge distribution, Field of a line charge, Electric flux density, Electric flux density,
Gauss law, Divergence, Vector Operator, Divergence theorem
UNIT 2: Energy and potential & Conductors, dielectrics and capacitance
Energy expended in moving a point charge in an electric field, Line integral,
Definition of potential difference and potential, Potential field of a point charge &
system of charges. Energy density in an electrostatic field. Potential gradient, Current
and current density, Continuity of current, metallic conductors, Conductor properties
and boundary conditions for dielectrics, Conductor properties and boundary
conditions for capacitance
Hrs: 8
UNIT 3: Poissons and Laplaces equations
Derivation of Poissons equation, Uniqueness theorem, Examples of Laplace
Equations, Examples of Poissons Equations
Hrs: 6
UNIT 4: MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS
Biot- savart law, Ampheres circuitary law, curls theorem, Stokes theorem,
Magnetic flux and flux density, Vector magnetic potentials.
Hrs: 6
PART - B
UNIT -5: MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS AND DEVICES
Force on a moving charge and differential current element, Force between differential
current elements, Force and Torque on a closed circuit, Magnetic materials and
inductance, Magnetization and permeability, Magnetic boundary condition ns,
Magnetic circuits, Potential energy and forces on magnetic materials.
Hrs: 8
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Field Theory
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2.
3.
Field and Wave Electromagnetics, David K Cheng, Pearson Education Asia, 2nd
edition, - 1989, Indian Reprint 2001.
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INDEX SHEET
SL.NO
TOPIC
PAGE NO.
PART A
UNIT 1: ELECTROSTATICS
01
02
03
204
05
Electric flux
10
06
Gauss law
14
07
Divergence
22
08
Vector Operator
20
09
Divergence theorem
25
28
02
Line integral.
30
03
33
04
35
05
36
06
Potential gradient
40
07
45
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08
Continuity of current
47
09
50
10
53
59
02
Uniqueness theorem
60
03
62
04
64
70
02
78
03
curls theorem
79
04
Stokes theorem
80
05
81
06
84
PART B
UNIT 5:MAGNETIC FORCES
01
89
02
91
03
93
04
115
05
118
06
120
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122
Faradays law.
124
02
Displacement current.
129
03
133
156
02
157
03
171
04
175
198
02
200
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UNIT 1
ELECTROSTATICS
Coulombs Law
Coulombs law states that the electrostatic force F between two point charges q1 and
q2 is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges, and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them., and it acts along
the line joining the two charges.
Then, as per the Coulombs Law,
F kq1q2
Or F=(kq1q2)/(r) N
Where k is the constant of proportionality whose value varies with the system of units.
R^ is the unit vector along the line joining the two charges.
In SI unit, k=
Where
is called the permittivity of the free space.
It has an assigned value given as =8.834
F/m.
where
Here,
, and
Force on Q1 is given by
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F1 =
Newtons
F1
q1
q2
q1
q2
F2
@
2
r +
F=Fq1+Fq2+Fq3...............
Hence,
F= q{
}N
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between A and B. As per the Coulombs Law, the force between Q and q is given by:
r N
F=
If it is a unit positive charge, then by definition, F in the above equation gives the
magnitude of the electric field intensity E.
i.e. E=F when
Therefore, the magnitude of the electric field strength is:
E=Q/(4r
Let r be the unit vector along the line joining A and B. Thus, the vector relation
between E is written as:
E=Q/(4
or) V/m
E=Eq1+Eq2+Eq3...............
Hence,
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E=
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dE can resolved into two rectangular components, dEx and dEy. Now, dEx=dEcos.
Taking the magnitude of dE from above, the equation becomes,
dEx=
cos=
substituting for dq from above, we have;
dEx=
E=
ax
Electric flux
The concept of electric flux is useful in association with Gauss' law. The electric flux
through a planar area is defined as the electric field times the component of the area
perpendicular to the field. If the area is not planar, then the evaluation of the flux
generally requires an area integral since the angle will be continually changing.
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When the area A is used in a vector operation like this, it is understood that the
magnitude of the vector is equal to the area and the direction of the vector is
perpendicular to the area.
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Gauss law
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Divergence
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Divergence theorem
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Recommended readings:
1.
2.
3.
Electromagnetic Waves And Radiating Systems, Edward C. Jordan and Keith
G Balmain, Prentice Hall of India / Pearson Education, 2nd edition, 1968.Reprint
2002
4.
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UNIT 2:
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Potential gradient
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Dipole
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Capacitance
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Problem
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2.
3.
Electromagnetic Waves And Radiating Systems, Edward C. Jordan and Keith
G Balmain, Prentice Hall of India / Pearson Education, 2nd edition, 1968.Reprint
2002
4.
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UNIT 3:
Poissons and Laplaces equations
Laplaces & Poissons equation
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Uniqueness theorem
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Example 2:
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Example 3:
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Example 4:
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2.
3.
Electromagnetic Waves And Radiating Systems, Edward C. Jordan and Keith
G Balmain, Prentice Hall of India / Pearson Education, 2nd edition, 1968.Reprint
2002
4.
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UNIT - 4
MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS
Static electric fields are characterized by E or D. Static magnetic fields, are characterized by
H or B. There are similarities and dissimilarities between electric and magnetic fields. As E
and D are related according to D = E for linear material space, H and B are related according
to
B = H.
A definite link between electric and magnetic fields was established by Oersted in 1820. An
electrostatic field is produced by static or stationary charges. If the charges are moving with
constant velocity, a static magnetic (or magnetostatic) field is produced. A magnetostatic field
is produced by a constant current flow (or direct current). This current flow may be due to
magnetization currents as in permanent magnets, electron-beam currents as in vacuum tubes,
or conduction currents as in current-carrying wires.
Like Coulomb's law, Biot-Savart's law is the general law of magnetostatics. Just as
Gauss's law is a special case of Coulomb's law, Ampere's law is a special case of BiotDept. Of ECE/SJBIT
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Biot-Savart's law states that the magnetic field intensity dH produced at a point P, as shown in
Figure 1.1, by the differential current element I dl is proportional to the product I dl and the
sine of the angle between the element and the line joining P to the element and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance R between P and the element.
That is,
dH
I dl sin
R2
(1.1)
or
dH
KI dl sin
R2
(1.2)
where, k is the constant of proportionality. In SI units, k = 1/4. So, eq. (1.2) becomes
dH
I dl sin
4R 2
(1.3)
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From the definition of cross product equation A x B = AB Sin AB an, it is easy to notice that
eq. (1.3) is better put in vector form as
dH
Idl a R
4R 2
Idl R
4R 3
(1.4)
where R in the denominator is |R| and aR = (vector R/|R|}. Thus, the direction of dH can be
determined by the right-hand rule with the right-hand thumb pointing in the direction of the
current, the right-hand fingers encircling the wire in the direction of dH as shown in Figure
1.2(a). Alternatively, one can use the right-handed screw rule to determine the direction of
dH: with the screw placed along the wire and pointed in the direction of current flow, the
direction of advance of the screw is the direction of dH as in Figure 1.2(b).
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Figure 1.2: Determining the direction of dH using (a) the right-hand rule, or (b) the righthanded screw rule.
It is customary to represent the direction of the magnetic field intensity H (or current I) by a
small circle with a dot or cross sign depending on whether H (or I) is out of, or into, the page
as illustrated in Figure 1.3.
As like different charge configurations, one can have different current distributions: line
current, surface current and volume current as shown in Figure 1.4. If we define K as the
surface current density (in amperes/meter) and J as the volume current density (in
amperes/meter square), the source elements are related as
I dl K dS J dv
(1.5)
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Thus, in terms of the distributed current sources, Biot-Savart law as in eq. (1.4)
becomes
Idl a R
KdS a R
Jdv a R
4R 2
4R 2
(Line current)
(1.6)
(Surface current)
(1.7)
4R 2
(Volume current)
(1.8)
As an example, let us apply eq. (1.6) to determine the field due to a straight current carrying
filamentary conductor of finite length AB as in Figure 1.5. We assume that the conductor is
along the z-axis with its upper and lower ends respectively subtending angles
Figure 1.3: Conventional representation of H (or I) (a) out of the page and (b) into the page.
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Figure 1.4: Current distributions: (a) line current (b) surface current (c) volume current.
dH
Idl R
4R 3
(1.9)
dl x R = dz a
(1.10)
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Hence,
I dz
4 z
2
a
2
(1.11)
I
H
4
I
4
2 cos ec 2 d
3 cos ec 3
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sin d
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Or
I
4
cos
2 cos 1 a
(1.12)
The equation (1.12) is generally applicable for any straight filamentary conductor of finite
length. Note from eq. (1.12) that H is always along the unit vector a (i.e., along concentric
circular paths) irrespective of the length of the wire or the point of interest P. As a special
case, when the conductor is semi-infinite (with respect to P), so that point A is now at O(0, 0,
0) while B is at (0, 0, ); 1 = 90, 2 = 0, and eq. (1.12) becomes
I
4
(1.13)
Another special case is when the conductor is infinite in length. For this case, point A is at (0,
0, - ) while B is at (0, 0, ); 1 = 180, 2 = 0. So, eq. (1.12) reduces to
I
2
(1.14)
To find unit vector a in equations (1.12) to (1.14) is not always easy. A simple approach is
to determine a from
a a a
(1.15)
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where al is a unit vector along the line current and a is a unit vector along the perpendicular
line from the line current to the field point.
Illustration: The conducting triangular loop in Figure 1.6(a) carries a current of 10 A. Find H
at (0, 0, 5) due to side 1 of the loop.
Solution:
This example illustrates how eq. (1.12) is applied to any straight, thin, current-carrying
conductor. The key point to be kept in mind in applying eq. (1.12) is figuring out 1, 2,
and a. To find H at (0, 0, 5) due to side 1 of the loop in Figure 1.6(a), consider Figure
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Figure 1.6: (a) conducting triangular loop (b) side 1 of the loop.
1.6(b), where side 1 is treated as a straight conductor. Notice that we join the Point of interest
(0, 0, 5) to the beginning and end of the line current. Observe that 1, 2 and are assigned
in the same manner as in Figure 1.5 on which eq. (1.12) is based.
cos 2
cos 1 = cos 90 = 0,
=5
29
To determine a is often the hardest part of applying eq. (1.12). According to eq. (1.15), al =
ax and a = az, so
a = ax x az = -ay
Hence,
H1
1
4
cos 2 cos 1 a
10 2
0 (a y )
4 (5) 29
= -59.1 ay mA/m
Ampere's circuit law states that the line integral of the tangential components of H around a
closed path is the same as the net current Ienc enclosed by the path
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H dl I enc
(1.16)
Ampere's law is similar to Gauss's law and it is easily applied to determine H when the
current distribution is symmetrical. It should be noted that eq. (1.16) always holds whether
the current distribution is symmetrical or not but we can only use the equation to determine H
when symmetrical current distribution exists. Ampere's law is a special case of Biot-Savart's
law; the former may be derived from the latter.
I enc H dl ( H ) dS
(1.17)
But
I enc J dS
(1.18)
Comparing the surface integrals in eqs. (7.17) and (7.18) clearly reveals that
xH=J
(1.19)
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I H a d a H d H 2
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Or
1
2
(1.20)
As expected from eq. (1.14).
D = 0E in free
space, the magnetic flux density B is related to the magnetic field intensity H according to
B = 0 H
(1.21)
where, 0 is a constant known as the permeability of free space. The constant is in
henrys/meter (H/m) and has the value of
0 = 4 x 10-7 H/m
(1.22)
The precise definition of the magnetic field B, in terms of the magnetic force, can be
discussed later.
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Figure 1.8: Magnetic flux lines due to a straight wire with current coming out of the
page
B dS
S
(1.23)
Where the magnetic flux is in webers (Wb) and the magnetic flux density is a
webers/square meter (Wb/m2) or teslas.
B dS 0
(1.24)
This equation is referred to as the law of conservation of magnetic flux or Gauss's law for
magnetostatic fields just as
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S B dS B dv 0
v
Or
.B=0
(1.25)
This equation is the fourth Maxwell's equation to be derived. Equation (1.24) or (1.25) shows
that magnetostatic fields have no sources or sinks. Equation (1.25) suggests that magnetic
field lines are always continuous.
Integral Form
Remarks
Form
. D = v
S D dS v dv
Gauss's law
.B=0
xE=0
xH=J
SB dS 0
LE dl 0
L H dl J dS
Ampere's law
The Table 1.2 gives the information related to Maxwell's Equations for Static
Electromagnetic Fields.
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x (V) = 0
(1.26)
. ( x A) = 0
(1.27)
which must always hold for any scalar field V and vector field A.
Just as E = -V, we define the magnetic scalar potential Vm (in amperes) as related to H
according to
H = - Vm
if J = 0
(1.28)
The condition attached to this equation is important and will be explained. Combining eq.
(1.28) and eq. (1.19) gives
J = x H = - x (- Vm) = 0
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(1.29)
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since Vm, must satisfy the condition in eq. (1.26). Thus the magnetic scalar potential V m is
only defined in a region where J = 0 as in eq. (1.28). We should also note that V m satisfies
Laplace's equation just as V does for electrostatic fields; hence,
2 Vm = 0, (J = 0)
(1.30)
We know that for a magnetostatic field, x B = 0 as stated in eq. (1.25). In order to satisfy
eqs. (1.25) and (1.27) simultaneously, we can define the vector magnetic potential A (in
Wb/m) such that
B=xA
(1.31)
Just as we defined
dQ
4 0 r
(1.32)
We can define
A
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0 I dl
4R
0 K dS
4R
(1.33)
(1.34)
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0 J dv
4R
(1.35)
Illustration 1: Given the magnetic vector potential A = -2/4 az Wb/m, calculate the total
magnetic flux crossing the surface = /2, 1 2m, 0 z 5m.
Solution:
B A
B dS
Az
a a ,
1
2
z0 1 d
dS d dz a
dz
1 2
15
(5)
4
4
= 3.75 Wb
Illustration 2:
Identify the configuration in figure 1.9 that is not a correct representation of I and H.
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Solution:
Figure 1.9 (c) is not a correct representation. The direction of H field should have been
outwards for the given I direction.
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PART - B
UNIT -5: MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS AND DEVICES
Force on a moving charge and differential current element, Force between differential
current elements, Force and Torque on a closed circuit, Magnetic materials and
inductance, Magnetization and permeability, Magnetic boundary conditions, Magnetic
circuits, Potential energy and forces on magnetic materials.
Recommended readings:
1.
2.
3.
Electromagnetic Waves And Radiating Systems, Edward C. Jordan and Keith
G Balmain, Prentice Hall of India / Pearson Education, 2nd edition, 1968.Reprint
2002
4.
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PART -B
UNIT -5
MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS AND DEVICES
According to earlier information, the electric force Fe, on a stationary or moving electric
charge Q in an electric field is given by Coulornb's experimental law and is related to the
electric field intensity E as
Fe = QE
(2.1)
A magnetic field can exert force only on a moving charge. From experiments, it is found that
the magnetic force Fm experienced by a charge Q moving with a velocity u in a magnetic field
B is
Fm = Qu x B
(2.2)
From eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), a comparison between the electric force Fe and the magnetic force
Fm can be made. Fe is independent of the velocity of the charge and can perform work on the
charge and change
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its kinetic energy. Unlike Fe, Fm depends on the charge velocity and
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is normal to it. Fm cannot perform work because it is at right angles to the direction of motion,
of the charge (Fm.dl = 0); it does not cause an increase in kinetic energy of the charge. The
magnitude of Fm is generally small compared to Fe except at high velocities.
For a moving charge Q in the Presence of both electric and magnetic fields, the total force on
the charge is given by
F = Fe + Fm
or
F = Q (E + u x B)
(2.3)
This is known as the Lorentz force equation. It relates mechanical force to electrical force. If
the mass of the charged Particle moving in E and B fields is m, by Newton's second law of
motion.
F m
du
Q E u B
dt
(2.4)
The solution to this equation is important in determining the motion of charged particles in E
and B fields. We should bear in mind that in such fields, energy transfer can be only by
means of the electric field. A summary on the force exerted on a charged particle is given in
table 2.1.
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State of Particle
E Field
B Field
Combined E and B
Fields
Stationary
QE
QE
Moving
QE
Qu x B
Q(E + u x B)
The magnetic field B is defined as the force per unit current element
Alternatively, B may be defined from eq. (2.2) as the vector which satisfies F m / q = u x B just
as we defined electric field E as the force per unit charge, Fe / q.
Let us now consider the force between two elements I1 dl1 and I2 dl2. According to BiotSavart's law, both current elements produce magnetic fields. So we may find the force d(dF1)
on element I1 dl1 due to the field dB2 produced by element I2 dl2 as shown in Figure 2.1.
As per equation
dF = I dl x B2
(2.5)
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dB2
0 I 2 dl 2 a R
21
4R
2
21
(2.6)
Hence,
d (dF1 )
0 I1dl1 I 2 dl 2 a R
21
2
4R21
(2.7)
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F1
0 I1 I 2
4
L1
dl1 dl 2 a R21
L2
2
R21
(2.8)
eq.
The force F2 on loop 2 due to the magnetic field B1 from loop 1 is obtained from eq. (2.8) by
interchanging subscripts 1 and 2. It can be shown that F2 = - F1; thus F1 and F2 obey Newton's
third law that action and reaction are equal and opposite. It is worthwhile to mention that eq.
(2.8) was experimentally established by Qersted and Ampete; Biot and Savart (Ampere's
colleagues) actually based their law on it.
Now that we have considered the force on a current loop in a magnetic field, we can
determine the torque on it. The concept of a current loop experiencing a torque in a magnetic
field is of paramount importance in understanding the behavior of orbiting charged particles,
d.c. motors, and generators. If the loop is placed parallel to a magnetic field, it experiences a
force that tends to rotate it.
The torque T (or mechanical moment of force) on the loop is the, vector product of the force
F and the moment arm r.
That is,
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Field Theory
10ES36
T=rxF
(2.9)
Let us apply this to a rectangular loop of length l and width w placed in a uniform magnetic
field B as shown in Figure 8.5(a). From this figure, we notice that dl is parallel to B along
sides 12 and 34 of the loop and no force is exerted on those sides. Thus
F I dl B I dl B
I dz a z B I dz a z B
or
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Field Theory
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F= F0 F0 = 0
(2.10)
Where, |F0| = I Bl because B is uniform. Thus, no force is exerted on the loop as a whole.
However, F0 and F0 act at different points on the loop, thereby creating a couple. If the
normal to the plane of the loop makes an angle with B, as shown in the cross-sectional view
of Figure 2.2(b), the torque on the loop is
T = BIS sin
(2.12)
m = I S an
(2.13)
as the magnetic dipole moment (in A/M2) of the loop. In eq. (2.13), an is a unit normal vector
to the plane of the loop and its direction is determined by the right-hand rule: fingers in the
direction of current Hand thumb along an.
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Field Theory
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The magnetic dipole moment is the product of current and area of the loop; its reaction is
normal to the loop.
T=mxB
(2.14)
Stoke's Theorem relates a line integral to the surface integral and vice-versa, that is
H dL ( H ) dS
S
(3.1)
If there is a charge or a moving charge, Q in an electric field, E, there exists a force on the
charge. This force is given by
FE = QE
(3.2)
If a charge, Q moving with a velocity, V is placed in a magnetic field, B (=H), then there
exists a force on the charge (Fig. 3.1). This force is given by
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Field Theory
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FH = Q(V x B)
(3.3)
If the charge, Q is placed in both electric and magnetic fields, then the force on the charge is
F =Q (E + V x B)
(3.4)
Problem 1: A charge of 12 C has velocity of 5ax + 2ay - 3az m/s. Determine F on the charge
in the field of (a) E=18ax,+5ay +10az V/m
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Field Theory
10ES36
Solution:
(a) The force, F on the charge, Q due to E is
or,
F=Q |E|= 12 18 2 5 2 10 2
F = 254.27 N
F = Q[V x B)
B = 4 ax + 4 ay + 3 az wb / m2
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Field Theory
10ES36
or,
F = 415.17 N
F = IL x B
(3.5)
or,
F = I L B Sin Newton
(3.6)
where is the angle between the direction of the current element and the direction of
magnetic flux density
dF = dQ (V x B)
(3.7)
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Field Theory
10ES36
But
dQ = d
dF = d (V x B)
= ( V x B) d
But
V = J
dF = J d x B
dF =IdL x B
or,
F = IL x B, Newton
(3.8)
Solution:
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Field Theory
10ES36
Here,
IL = 10 x 10-3 x 0.04ay
= 4 x l0-4 ay
H = (5ax/) A/m
B = 5ax wb/m2
F = 4 x l0-4 ay x 5ax
or
F = -2.0az mN
1.
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Field Theory
10ES36
Htanl - Htan2 = Js
(3.9)
At non-conducting boundaries, Js = 0.
2.
Bnl = Bn2
(3.10)
Proof: Consider Fig. 3.2 in which a differential rectangular loop across a boundary separating
medium 1 and medium 2 are shown.
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Field Theory
10ES36
H dL
50
H y4
01
12
23
34
45
y
y
H y3
H x1x H y1
2
2
y
y
H y2
H x 2 x I
2
2
As y 0, we get
H dL H
x1
x H x 2 x I
or,
H x1 H x 2
I
Js
x
(3.11)
Here, Hxl and Hx2 are tangential components in medium 1 and 2, respectively.
So,
Htan1 Htan2 = Js
(3.12)
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Field Theory
10ES36
B dS 0
s
(3.13)
B dS B
s
n1
a y dS a y B n 2 a y dS (a y )
(3.14)
Bn1 S - Bn2 S = 0
that is,
Therefore,
Bnl = Bn2
(3.15)
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Field Theory
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Problem 3:
Two homogeneous, linear and isotropic media have an interface at x = 0. x < 0 describes
medium 1 and x > 0 describes medium 2. r1 = 2 and
Determine:
(a) Magnetic field in medium 2
(b) Magnetic flux density in medium 1
(c) Magnetic flux density in medium 2.
Solution:
The magnetic field in medium 1 is
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Field Theory
(a)
10ES36
H1 = Htan1 + Hn1
Hn1 = 150ax
The boundary condition is
Htanl = Htan2
H n2
1
H n1
2
2
150a x
5
= 60ax
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Field Theory
10ES36
H2 = Htan2 + Hn2
(b)
B1= 1 H1
= 0 r H1
(c)
B2 = 2 H2
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Field Theory
10ES36
Like scalar electrostatic potential, it is possible to have scalar magnetic potential. It is defined
in such a way that its negative gradient gives the magnetic field, that is,
H = Vm
(3.16)
x H = - x Vm
(3.17)
x H =0
So,
(3.18)
or,
XH=J
J=0
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Field Theory
10ES36
H = -Vm (J=0)
(3.19)
.B = 0 .H = 0 = m (-Vm) = 0
or,
2 Vm = 0 (J = 0)
(3.20)
Vm H dL
A
Vector magnetic potential exists in regions where J is present. It is defined in such a way
that its curl gives the magnetic flux density, that is,
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Field Theory
10ES36
BxA
(3.21)
It is also defined as
4R
m
(3.22)
or,
or,
0 Kds
,
4R
(K = current sheet)
(3.23)
0 Jdv
,
4R
(3.24)
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Field Theory
10ES36
BxA
and
0 Jd
4R
3. 2A = 0 j
4. 2A = 0 if J = 0
5. Vector magnetic potential, A has applications to obtain radiation characteristics of
antennas, apertures and also to obtain radiation leakage from transmission lines,
waveguides and microwave ovens.
6. A is used to find near and far-fields of antennas.
Problem 4:
The vector magnetic potential, A due to a direct current in a conductor in free space is given
by A = (X2 + Y2) az wb /m2. Determine the magnetic field produced by the current element
at (1, 2, 3).
Solution:
A = (x2 +y2) az wb/m2
We have B = x A
10 6
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
ax
x
0
ay
y
0
az
z
2
x y 2
Page 111
Field Theory
10ES36
x y 2 a x x 2 y 2 a y 10 6
x
x
x 2 2 y a x 2 x y 2 a y 10 6
5a x 6a y 10 6
5a
6a y 10 6
1
5a x 6a y 10 6
7
4 10
Consider Fig. 3.5 in which a rectangular loop is placed under a uniform magnetic flux density,
B.
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Field Theory
10ES36
(3.25)
F1 = -ILBay
(3.26)
F2 = IL x B = -ILaz x Bax
(3.27)
F2 = - ILBay
(3.28)
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Field Theory
10ES36
The forces on QR and PS exert a torque. This torque tends to rotate the coil about its axis.
The torque, T is nothing but a mechanical moment of force. The torque on the loop is defined
as the vector product of moment arm and force,
that is,
T r x F, N-m
where
(3.29)
r = moment arm
F = force
Applying this definition to the loop considered above, the expression for
torque is given by
T = r1 x F1 + r2 x F2
(3.30)
w
w
a x ( ILBa y ) a x ( ILBa y )
2
2
(3.31)
= -BILwaz
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Field Theory
or,
10ES36
T = -BISaz
(3.32)
T = m x B, N-m
(3.34)
where
m = I l w ay
= I S ay
Problem 5:
A rectangular coil is placed in a field of B = (2ax + ay) wb/m2. The coil is in y-z plane and has
dimensions of 2 m x 2 m. It carries a current of 1 A. Find the torque about the z-axis.
Solution:
m=IS an = 1 x 4ax
T = 4az, N-m
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Field Theory
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The term 'Magnetism' is commonly discussed in terms of magnets with basic examples like
north pole, compass needle, horse shoe magnets and so on.
1.
Diamagnetic materials
2.
Paramagnetic materials
3.
Ferromagnetic materials
Diamagnetic Materials
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Field Theory
10ES36
Magnetic fields due to the motion of orbiting electrons and spinning electrons cancel
each other.
Permanent magnetic moment of each atom is zero.
These materials are widely affected by magnetic field.
Magnetic susceptibility m is (-)ve.
r = 1
B=0
Most of the materials exhibit diamagnetism.
They are linear magnetic materials.
Diamagnetism is not temperature dependent.
These materials acquire magnetisation opposite to H and hence they are called
diamagnetic materials.
Paramagnetic Materials
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Field Theory
10ES36
These materials acquire magnetisation parallel to H and hence they are called paramagnetic
materials.
Ferromagnetic Materials
m >> 0
r >> l
If a permanent magnet made of iron is heated above its curie temperature, 770C, it
loses its magnetisation completely.
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Field Theory
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INDUCTANCE
Inductor is a coil of wire wound according to various designs with or without a core of
magnetic material to concentrate the magnetic field.
Inductance, L In a conductor, device or circuit, an inductance is the inertial property caused
by an induced reverse voltage that opposes the flow of current when a voltage is applied. It
also opposes a sudden change in current that has been established.
The inductance, L of a conductor system is defined as the ratio of magnetic flux linkage to
the current producing the flux, that is,
N
(Henry)
I
(3.35)
Here
N = number of turns
= flux produced
I = current in the coil
1 Henry l wb/Amp
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Field Theory
10ES36
2WH
I2
(3.36)
Aircore
coils are wound to provide a few pico henries to a few micro henries. These are used at IF and
RF frequencies in tuning coils, interstage coupling coils and so on.
High ratio inductive reactance to effective loss resistance at the operating frequency
Toroid
It consists of a coil wound on annular core. One side of each turn of the coil is threaded
through the ring to form a Toroid (Fig. 3.6).
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Field Theory
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0 N 2S
Inductance of Toroid, L
2r
Here
(3.37)
N = number of turns
r = average radius
S = cross-sectional area
NI
2r
(3.38)
It is a coil of wire which has a long axial length relative to its diameter. The coil is tubular in
form. It is used to produce a known magnetic flux density along its axis.
A solenoid is also used to demonstrate electromagnetic induction. A bar of iron, which is free
to move along the axis of the coil, is usually provided for this purpose. A typical solenoid is
shown in Fig. 3.7.
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Field Theory
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0 N 2 S
l
(3.39)
l = length of solenoid
S = cross-sectional area
N = Number of turns
NI
l
(3.40)
I is the current
Page 122
Field Theory
10ES36
Recommended Questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
Page 123
Field Theory
10ES36
2.
3.
Electromagnetic Waves And Radiating Systems, Edward C. Jordan and Keith
G Balmain, Prentice Hall of India / Pearson Education, 2nd edition, 1968.Reprint
2002
4.
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Field Theory
10ES36
UNIT -6
TIME VARYING MAGNETIC FIELDS AND MAXWELLS EQUATIONS
Introduction
Electrostatic fields are usually produced by static electric charges whereas magnetostatic
fields are due to motion of electric charges with uniform velocity (direct current) or static
magnetic charges (magnetic poles); time-varying fields or waves are usually due to
accelerated charges or time-varying current.
Faraday discovered that the induced emf, Vemf (in volts), in any closed circuit is equal to the
time rate of change of the magnetic flux linkage by the circuit
Vemf
d
d
N
dt
dt
1.1
where N is the number of turns in the circuit and is the flux through each turn. The negative
sign shows that the induced voltage acts in such a way as to oppose the flux producing it. This
is known as Lenzs Law, and it emphasizes the fact that the direction of current flow in the
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Field Theory
10ES36
circuit is such that the induced magnetic filed produced by the induced current will oppose the
original magnetic field.
Having considered the connection between emf and electric field, we may examine how
Faraday's law links electric and magnetic fields. For a circuit with a single (N = 1), eq. (1.1)
becomes
Vemf N
d
dt
1.2
In terms of E and B, eq. (1.2) can be written as
Vemf E dl
L
d
B dS
dt S
1.3
where, has been replaced by
B dS
closed path L. It is clear from eq. (1.3) that in a time-varying situation, both electric and
magnetic fields are present and are interrelated. Note that dl and dS in eq. (1.3) are in
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Field Theory
10ES36
accordance with the right-hand rule as well as Stokes's theorem. This should be observed in
Figure 2. The variation of flux with time as in eq. (1.1) or eq. (1.3) may be caused in three
ways:
This is the case portrayed in Figure 2 where a stationary conducting loop is in a time varying
magnetic B field. Equation (1.3) becomes
Vemf E dl
L
B
dS
t
1.4
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Field Theory
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This emf induced by the time-varying current (producing the time-varying B field) in a
stationary loop is often referred to as transformer emf in power analysis since it is due to
transformer action. By applying Stokes's theorem to the middle term in eq. (1.4), we obtain
E dS t dS
S
1.5
For the two integrals to be equal, their integrands must be equal; that is,
B
t
1.6
This is one of the Maxwell's equations for time-varying fields. It shows that the time varying
E field is not conservative ( x E 0). This does not imply that the principles of energy
conservation are violated. The work done in taking a charge about a closed path in a timevarying electric field, for example, is due to the energy from the time-varying magnetic field.
When a conducting loop is moving in a static B field, an emf is induced in the loop. We
recall from eq. (1.7) that the force on a charge moving with uniform velocity u in a magnetic
field B is
Fm = Qu x B
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1.7
Page 128
Field Theory
10ES36
Em
Fm
uB
Q
1.8
Vemf Em dl u B dl
L
1.9
This type of emf is called motional emf or flux-cutting emf because it is due to motional
action. It is the kind of emf found in electrical machines such as motors, generators, and
alternators.
This is the general case in which a moving conducting loop is in a time-varying magnetic
field. Both transformer emf and motional emf are present. Combining equation 1.4 and 1.9
gives the total emf as
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Field Theory
10ES36
B
dS u B dl
t
S
L
Vemf E dl
L
1.10
Em u B
1.11
B
u B
t
1.12
DISPLACEMENT CURRENT
xH=J
1.13
But the divergence of the curl of any vector field is identically zero.
Hence,
. ( x H) = 0 = . J
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1.14
Page 130
Field Theory
10ES36
v
0
t
1.15
Thus eqs. 1.14 and 1.15 are obviously incompatible for time-varying conditions. We must
modify eq. 1.13 to agree with eq. 1.15. To do this, we add a term to eq. 1.13, so that it
becomes
x H = J + Jd
1.16
where Jd is to be determined and defined. Again, the divergence of the curl of any vector is
zero. Hence:
. ( x H) = 0 = . J + . Jd
1.17
J d J
D
D
t
t
t
1.18
or
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Field Theory
Jd
10ES36
D
t
1.19
Substituting eq. 1.19 into eq. 1.15 results in
H J
D
t
1.20
This is Maxwell's equation (based on Ampere's circuit law) for a time-varying field. The term
Jd = D/t is known as displacement current density and J is the conduction current density (J
= E)3.
Fig. 3 Two surfaces of integration showing the need for Jd in Amperes circuit law
The insertion of Jd into eq. 1.13 was one of the major contribution of Maxwell. Without the
term Jd, electromagnetic wave propagation (radio or TV waves, for example) would be
impossible. At low frequencies, Jd is usually neglected compared with J. however, at radio
frequencies, the two terms are comparable. At the time of Maxwell, high-frequency sources
were not available and eq. 1.20 could not be verified experimentally.
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Field Theory
10ES36
I d J d dS
D
dS
t
1.21
We must bear in mind that displacement current is a result of time-varying electric field. A
typical example of such current is that through a capacitor when an alternating voltage source
is applied to its plates.
PROBLEM: A parallel-plate capacitor with plate area of 5 cm2 and plate separation of 3 mm
has a voltage 50 sin 103 t V applied to its plates. Calculate the displacement current assuming
= 2 0.
Solution:
D E
Jd
V
d
D dV
t d dt
Hence,
Id Jd S
S dV
d dt
dV
dt
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Field Theory
10ES36
Ic
d
dQ
dD
dE S dV
dV
S s S
S
C
dt
dt
dt
dt
d dt
dt
Id 2
10 9 5 10 4
10 3 50 cos 10 3 t
3
36 3 10
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Field Theory
10ES36
. J = -v
where,
J = conduction current density (A/M2)
P = volume charge density (C/M3), v
v
t
ax
ay
az
x
y
z
Proof: Consider a closed surface enclosing a charge Q. There exists an outward flow of
current given by
I J dS
S
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Field Theory
10ES36
I J dS
S
dQ
dt
I J dS J d
S
Thus,
J d
By definition,
Q d
dQ
dt
where ,
So,
J d
where
d d
t
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Field Theory
10ES36
The volume integrals are equal only if their integrands are equal.
Thus,
. J = -
Differential (or
Integral Form
Point) Form
S D dS v dv
. D = v
Remarks
Gauss's law
x E =-
Nonexistence of magnetic
SB dS 0
.B=0
B
t
xH=J+
monopole
E dl t B dS
L
Faradays Law
D
t
L H dl J dS
D
+J
t
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Page 137
Field Theory
xE=-
10ES36
B
t
.D =
.B = 0
Here,
H = magnetic field strength (A/m)
D = electric flux density, (C/m2)
(D/t) = displacement electric current density (A/m2)
J = conduction current density (A/m 2)
E = electric field (V/m)
B = magnetic flux density wb/m2 or Tesla
(B/t) = time-derivative of magnetic flux density (wb/m2 -sec)
B is called magnetic current density (V/m2) or Tesla/sec
P = volume charge density (C/m3)
Maxwell's equations for time varying fields in integral form are given by
dL
L
S D J dS
E dL B dS
L
D dS d
S
B dS 0
S
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Page 138
Field Theory
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
10ES36
Page 139
Field Theory
10ES36
1. The first Maxwell's equation states that the magnetomotive force around a closed path
is equal to the sum of electric displacement and, conduction currents through any
surface bounded by the path.
2. The second law states that the electromotive force around a closed path is equal to the
inflow of magnetic current through any surface bounded by the path.
3. The third law states that the total electric displacement flux passing through a closed
surface (Gaussian surface) is equal to the total charge inside the surface.
4. The fourth law states that the total magnetic flux passing through any closed surface
is zero.
H J H dL J dS
L
E 0 E dL 0
L
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Field Theory
10ES36
D D dS d
S
B 0 B dS 0
S
As the fields are static, all the field terms which have time derivatives are zero, that is,
0,
D
=
t
B
= 0.
t
xH=J
.xH=.J
RHS = . J = 0
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Field Theory
10ES36
xH=J+F
.xH=.J+.F
that is,
.xH=0=.J+.F
. F + (-) = 0
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Page 142
Field Theory
or,
10ES36
. F = -
. D =
or,
. D =
.F=.D
The divergence of two vectors are equal only if the vectors are identical,
that is, F = D
So,
xH=D+J
Hence proved.
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Field Theory
10ES36
emf
d
dt
and by definition,
emf E dL
L
E dL
L
But
d
dt
B dS
S
E dL t dS
L
B dS ,
B
t
E dL E dS
L
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Field Theory
10ES36
E dS B dS
S
Two surface integrals are equal only if their integrands are equal,
that is, x E = - B
Hence proved.
D dS Q d
S
D dS Dd d
S
that is,
. D =
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Field Theory
10ES36
Hence proved.
B dS 0
S
RHS is zero as there are no isolated magnetic charges and the magnetic flux lines are closed
loops.
B d 0
or,
.B=0
Hence proved.
PROBLEM 1:
Given E = 10 sin (t - y) ay V/m, in free space, determine D, B and H.
Solution:
E = 10 sin (t - y) ay, V/m
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Field Theory
10ES36
x E = -B
ax
That is, E
x
0
or,
As
ay
y
Ey
az
z
0
E a x E y 0 a z E y
z
x
Ey = 10 sin (t - z) V/m
E y
x
Now, x E becomes
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Field Theory
10ES36
E y
z
ax
= 10 cos (t - z) ax
B
t
B 10 cost z dt a x
or
and
10
sin t z a z , wb / m 2
10
sin t z a z , A / m
given by E = 2 cos t
Solution:
z
a y V/m, find the magnetic field, H.
0
We have
B/t = - x E
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Page 148
Field Theory
10ES36
ax
x
0
ay
y
Ey
az
z
0
a x E y a y (0) a z E y
x
z
E y
z
z
sin t a x
0
0
or,
or,
Thus,
ax
z
cos t a x
0
0
z
cos t a x
0 0
0
2
z
cos t a x
0
0
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
z
dt a x
0
sin t
0
0
120
0 0
1
Page 149
Field Theory
10ES36
1
z
cos t a x A / m
60
0
determine the displacement current density. If the same field exists in a medium whose
conductivity is given by 2.0 x 103 (mho)/cm, find the conduction current density.
Solution:
E at a TV receiver in free space
Jd D
D
t
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
Page 150
Field Theory
10ES36
5 0 cost y a z
t
Jc = E
Jc = 2 x 105 x 5 cos (t - y) az
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
Page 151
Field Theory
10ES36
2.
3.
Electromagnetic Waves And Radiating Systems, Edward C. Jordan and Keith
G Balmain, Prentice Hall of India / Pearson Education, 2nd edition, 1968.Reprint
2002
4.
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
Page 152
Field Theory
10ES36
UNIT -7
UNIFORM PLANE WAVES
Sinusoidal Time Variations:
In practice, most generators produce voltage and currents and hence electric and
magnetic fields which vary sinusoidally with time. Further, any periodic variation can
be represented as a weight sum of fundamental and harmonic frequencies.
Therefore we consider fields having sinusoidal time variations, for example,
E = Em cos t
E = Em sin t
Here, w = 2f, f = frequency of the variation.
Therefore every field or field component varies sinusoidally, mathematically by an
additional term. Representing sinusoidal variation. For example, the electric field E
can be represented as
E x, y, z , t as
ie., E r , t ; r x, y, z
E r , t Re E r e jt ________ (11)
The symbol tilda placed above the E vector represents that E is time varying
quantity.
The phasor notation:
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Field Theory
10ES36
| Ex |
| Ex |
t
E x
with time). We note that the phase of the sinusoid is determined by , the argument of
the complex number Ex.
Therefore the time varying quantity may be expressed as
E x Re Ex e j e jt ________ (13)
Ex cos( t ) ________ (14)
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Field Theory
10ES36
D
H J
_______ (15)
t
using phasor notation, this eqn. becomes,
Re He jt Re De jt Re Je jt ________ (16)
t
j t
j t
Re He j t Re
De
Re
Je
j t
j t
Re
j D e Re Je
Re H j D J e j t
0
H J j D ________ (17)
This phasor form can be obtained from time-varying form by replacing each time
derivative by
jw ie.,
is to be replaced by
t
For the sinusoidal time variations, the Maxwells equation may be expressed in phasor
form as:
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Field Theory
10ES36
(17)
H J j D
(18)
E j B
(19)
(20)
B 0
H dL
J j D ds
S
E dl j B ds
D ds
B ds 0
dV
J j
J ds j dv _______ (21)
vol
D E
B H
J E
____ (22)
E 2 E
2
H 2 H
2
_________ (23)
2 E 2 j E 0
________ (24)
2 H 2 j H 0
Wave propagation in a loss less medium:
In phasor form, the wave eqn. for VPW is
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
Page 156
Field Theory
10ES36
2 E
2
2
E
Ey
2
2 E y _______ (25)
x
;
2
2 E
E y C1
e j x C2 e j x _______ (26)
E y x, t Re E y x e j t
Re C1 e j t z C2 e j t z ______ (27)
C1 cos t z C2 cos t z ______ (28)
When C1 and C2 are real.
Therefore we note that, in a homogeneous, lossless medium, the assumption of
sinusoidal time variations results in a space variation which is also sinusoidal.
Eqn. (27) and (28) represent sum of two waves traveling in opposite directions.
If C1 = C2 , the two traveling waves combine to form a simple standing wave which
does not progress.
If we rewrite eqn. (28) with Ey as a fn of (x-t),
we get =
Let us identify some point in the waveform and observe its velocity; this point is
t x a constant
Then
dx
dt
' a ' t
This velocity is called phase velocity, the velocity of a phase point in the wave.
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
Page 157
Field Theory
10ES36
Wavelength: These distance over which the sinusoidal waveform passes through a
full cycle of 2 radians
ie.,
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
Page 158
Field Theory
10ES36
2
2
or
But
or
f ;
f in H Z
2 E 2 E 0
Where
2 j
j j
2 E
2
E
x 2
E x E0e x
Therefore in time varying form, we get
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
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Field Theory
10ES36
E x, t Re E e x e jt
e x Re E0e jwt
This eqn. shown that a up wave traveling in the +x direction and attenuated by a
factor e x .
The phase shift factor
and velocity f
= Real part of = RP
j jt
2
1 2 2 1
2
1 2 2 1
H E j E J c J disp
J cond
J disp
Page 160
Field Theory
10ES36
1 is conductor.
1 is dielectric.
dissipation factor D
Example 11.1
a) Express
t 0.5 z 300
Page 161
Field Theory
10ES36
20 500 ay
40 2100 az
,V / m
Es 100 300 ax
Let us rewrite Es as
0
0
0
20e j 50 ay
40e j 210 az
.V / m
Es 100e j 30 ax
E Re Es e j t
j t 300
j t 500
j t 2100
Re 100e
20e
40e
V /m
None of the amplitudes or phase angles in this are expressed as a function of x,y
or z.
Even if so, the procedure is still effective.
b) Consider
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Page 162
Field Theory
10ES36
A/ m
H s 20e 0.1 j 20 z ax
0.1 j 20 z
H t Re 20e
ax
e j t
A/ m
20e 0.1z cos t 20 z ax
E x E x x, y , z
Note :
consider
Ex
Re E x x, y , z
t
t
Re j Ex e j t
e j t
Therefore taking the partial derivative of any field quantity wrt time is equivalent to
multiplying the corresponding phasor by j .
Example
Given
200 j 600 az
e j 0.4 x V / m
E0 s 500 400 ay
Find a
b E at 2, 3,1 at t 0
c
E
at 2, 3,1 at t 10 ns.
d
E
at 3, 4, 2 at t 20 ns.
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Page 163
Field Theory
10ES36
0.4 0 0
0.4 3 108
4 107
10 9
36 9
120 106
f 19.1 106 Hz
b) Given
200 j 600 az
e j 0.4 x
Es 500 400 ay
632.456e j 71.565 e j 0.4 x az
500e j 40 e j 0.4 x ay
0
500e
j 0.4 x 400
j 0.4 x 71.565
ay
632.456e
az
0
j 0.4 x 400
j 0.4 x 71.5650
632.456 e j t e
E t 500 Re e j t e
ay
az
c)
E at t 10 ns at 2, 3,1
d)
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Field Theory
10ES36
at t = 20 ns,
E at 2,3,1
631.644 az
V /m
438.736 ay
D 11.2:
320 ay
e j 0.07 z
Given H s 2 400 ax
A/ m
space. Find
(a)
origin.
(e j z term)
0.07
0.07
0.07 3 108 21.0 106 rad / sec
(b)
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
Page 165
Field Theory
10ES36
0
0
3 e j 20 e j 0.07 z ay
e j t
H t Re 2 e j 40 e j 0.07 z ax
A/ m
(c)
3cos 0.3 ay
H t 2 cos 0.7 ax
2.82ay
1.53ax
3.20666 A / m
In free space,
E z , t 120 sin t z ay
find
V /m
z, t
Ey
we have
Hx
Hx
120
Ey
120
sin t z ay
120
120
1
sin t z
z, t
sin t z ax
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Field Theory
10ES36
Problem 3. J&B
Non uniform plans waves also can exist under special conditions. Show that the
function
F e z sin
x t
1 2 F
c 2 t 2
2c 2
e 1
2
Ans:
From the given eqn. for F, we note that F is a function of x and z,
2 F
2 F
F
x 2
y 2
F
e z
cos x t
x
2
F
2 e z
z
e
F
x t
sin
2
x 2
e z sin
x t
z
2 F
2 z
e
sin
x t 2 F
2
z
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Page 167
Field Theory
10ES36
F 2 2 F
dF
e z cos x t
dt
d 2F
e z sin x t
2
dt
2
2 F
The given wave equation is
1 2 F
c 2 t 2
2
1
2 F 2
c
2 F
F
2
2
2
2
c2
2
2
2 2 2
c
2
2
2 2
2c 2
2c 2 2
c2
or
2c 2
2
2c 2
1
2
Example
The electric field intensity of a uniform plane wave in air has a magnitude of 754
V/m and is in the z direction. If the wave has a wave length = 2m and
propagating in the y direction.
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Field Theory
10ES36
Find
(i)
(ii)
c 3 108 m / sec
(i)
3 108
f
2m
2
2
3.14 rad / m
2m
Ez 754 cos 2 150 106 t y
e
(ii)
For a wave propagating in the +y direction,
E
Ez
x
Hz
Hz
For the given wave,
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Page 169
Field Theory
10ES36
Ez 754 V / m;
Ex 0
754
754
H x 754
A/ m
120 377
A/ m
Example
find for copper having = 5.8*107 (/m) at 50Hz, 3MHz, 30GHz.
1
f
1
1
1
7
7
4 10
5.8 10
f
1
1
4 2 5.8 f
1
66 10 3
23.2 2 f
f
66 10 3
9.3459 10 3 m
50
66 103
(ii )
3.8105 10 5 m
3 106
66 103
(iii )
3.8105 10 7 m
6
3 10
(i )
2 E
2
E
Z 2
0r
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
2 E
2
E
________ (i )
Z 2
Page 170
Field Theory
10ES36
2 Ey
Z
2 Ey
E y z , t Re E y z e j t
Re C1
e j z C2
e j z e jt _______ (3)
If C1 and C2 are real, the result of real part extraction operation is,
Page 171
Field Theory
10ES36
________(5)
In phasor form, identifying a some reference point on the waveform and observing
its velocity may obtain the same result. For a wave traveling in the +Z direction,
this point is given by t z a constant.
dz
, as in eqn. (5)
dt
This velocity of some point on the sinusoidal waveform is called the phase
velocity. is called the phase-shift constant and is a measure of phase shift in
radians per unit length.
2
2
2
2
;
________(7)
2 f f
f ,
f in Hz
________(8)
For the value of given in eqn. (1), the phase velocity is,
0 C
0 _______(9)
C 3 108 m / sec
Page 172
Field Theory
10ES36
2 E 2 E 0 _______(10)
where
2 2 j j j _______(11)
E must satisfy
2 E
2
E
_______(13)
Z 2
This equation has a possible solution
E Z E0e Z _______(14)
In time varying form this is becomes
E z, t Re E0
= e
Re E0
e Z
e jt _______(15)
e j t z ________(16)
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
j j ________(11)
Page 173
Field Theory
10ES36
2 j 2 2 j 2 j 2 ________(17)
2
2 2 2 ;
2 2 2 ________(18)
________(19)
2
Therefore (19) in (18) gives:
2
2
4
4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 0
2
2 2 2
4
2 4 2 2 2 2 2
2
2 2
1
2
2
2 2
1 1 2 2
2
2
2
1 2 2
1 _________(20)
and
2
1 2 2
1 ___________(21)
We choose some reference point on the wave, the cosine function,(say a rest). The
value of the wave ie., the cosine is an integer multiple of 2 at erest.
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
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Field Theory
10ES36
k0 z 2m
at mth erest.
Now let us fix our position on the wave as this mth erest and observe time
variation at this position, nothing that the entire cosine argument is the same
multiple of 2 for all time in order to keep track of the point.
ie.,
t k0 0 z 2m t z / c
). Thus the
wave erest (and the entire wave moves in a +ve direction) with a speed given by
the above eqn.
Similarly, eqn. ( ) having a cosine argument t 0 z describes a wave that
moves in the negative direction (as + increases z must decrease to keep the
argument constant). These two waves are called the traveling waves.
Let us further consider only +ve z traveling wave:
We have
0
x
Ex
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
0
y
Ey
z
0
Page 175
Field Theory
10ES36
Es j H s
E y
Ex
i
k0 j iH 0 x j by
j
z
z
Exs
j H 0 y
z
0
1
H oy
Ez 0 e jk0 z E x 0
e j 0 z
j
0
H y z , t Ex 0
Ex
Hy
cos t 0 z
0 377 120
Ey and Hx are in phase in time and space. The UPW is called so because is
uniform thought any plane Z = constant.
Energy flow is in +Z direction.
E and H are perpendicular to the direction of propagation; both lie in a plane that
is transverse to the direction of propagation. Therefore also called a TEM wave.
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
Page 176
Field Theory
10ES36
2 f
106
f
159.155 KHz
2
2
2
C
1.88495 km
f
1
period
6.283 s
f
E
amplitude of H y x 120
Hy
Hy
Ex
250
0.6631 A / m
120
120
11.2. Given
3200 ay
e j 0.07 z A / m
H s 2 400 ax
2 Es k 2 s
k
k0
r r 0
r r
For Ex component
We have
d 2 Exs
k 2 Exs
2
dz
direction.
k can be complex one of the solutions of this eqn. is,
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Page 177
Field Theory
10ES36
jk j
Exs Ex 0 e z e j z
Therefore its time varying part becomes,
Exs Ex 0e z cos t z
This is UPW that propagates in the +Z direction with phase constant but losing its
amplitude with increasing Z e z . Thus the general effect of a complex valued k
is to yield a traveling wave that changes its amplitude with distance.
If is +ve
If is -ve
= gain coefficient
wave grows
is measured in repers per meter
2 E 2 E
In a conducting medium, the wave eqn. becomes for sinusoidal time variations:
2 E 2 j E 0
Problem:
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Page 178
Field Theory
10ES36
.D 0
in a conductor
if ohms law and sinusoidal time variations are assumed. When ohms law and
sinusoidal time variations are assumed, the first Maxwells curl equation is
H E j E
Taking divergence on both sides, we get,
H E j E 0
E j 0
or D j 0
, & are
D 0
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Page 179
Field Theory
10ES36
2 E
2
E
Z 2
2 E
2
E
________ (i )
Z 2
0r
2 Ey
Z
2 Ey
E y z , t Re E y z e j t
Re C1
e j z C2
e j z e jt _______ (3)
If C1 and C2 are real, the result of real part extraction operation is,
Page 180
Field Theory
10ES36
Equations (3) and (4) represent sum of two waves traveling in opposite directions.
If C1 = C2, the two wave combine to form a standing wave which does not
progress.
________(5)
In phasor form, identifying a some reference point on the waveform and observing
its velocity may obtain the same result. For a wave traveling in the +Z direction,
this point is given by t z a constant.
dz
, as in eqn. (5)
dt
This velocity of some point on the sinusoidal waveform is called the phase
velocity. is called the phase-shift constant and is a measure of phase shift in
radians per unit length.
2
2
2
2
;
________(7)
2 f f
f ,
f in Hz
________(8)
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
Page 181
Field Theory
10ES36
For the value of given in eqn. (1), the phase velocity is,
0 C
0 _______(9)
C 3 108 m / sec
2 E 2 E 0 _______(10)
where
2 2 j j j _______(11)
E must satisfy
2 E
2
E
_______(13)
Z 2
This equation has a possible solution
E Z E0e Z _______(14)
In time varying form this is becomes
E z, t Re E0
= e
Re E0
e Z
e jt _______(15)
e j t z ________(16)
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Field Theory
10ES36
j j ________(11)
2 j 2 2 j 2 j 2 ________(17)
2
2 2 2 ;
2 2 2 ________(18)
________(19)
2
Therefore (19) in (18) gives:
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
Page 183
Field Theory
10ES36
2
4
4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 0
2
4 2 2
2
2 2 2
4
2 4 2 2 2 2 2
2
2 2
2 2 1
2 2
1 1 2 2
2
1
1 _________(20)
2 2
and
2
1 2 2 1 ___________(21)
We choose some reference point on the wave, the cosine function,(say a rest). The
value of the wave ie., the cosine is an integer multiple of 2 at erest.
k0 z 2m
at mth erest.
Now let us fix our position on the wave as this mth erest and observe time
variation at this position, nothing that the entire cosine argument is the same
multiple of 2 for all time in order to keep track of the point.
ie.,
t k0 0 z 2m t z / c
). Thus the
wave erest (and the entire wave moves in a +ve direction) with a speed given by
the above eqn.
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
Page 184
Field Theory
10ES36
0
x
Ex
z
0
0
y
Ey
Es j H s
E y
Ex
i
k0 j iH 0 x j by
j
z
z
Exs
j H 0 y
z
0
1
H oy
Ez 0 e jk0 z E x 0
e j 0 z
j
0
H y z , t Ex 0
Ex
Hy
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
cos t 0 z
0 377 120
Page 185
Field Theory
10ES36
Ey and Hx are in phase in time and space. The UPW is called so because is
uniform thought any plane Z = constant.
Energy flow is in +Z direction.
E and H are perpendicular to the direction of propagation; both lie in a plane that
is transverse to the direction of propagation. Therefore also called a TEM wave.
2 f
106
f
159.155 KHz
2
2
2
C
1.88495 km
f
1
period
6.283 s
f
E
amplitude of H y x 120
Hy
Hy
Ex
250
0.6631 A / m
120
120
11.3. Given
3200 ay
e j 0.07 z A / m
H s 2 400 ax
Page 186
Field Theory
10ES36
2 Es k 2 s
k
k0
r r 0
r r
For Ex component
We have
d 2 Exs
k 2 Exs
2
dz
direction.
k can be complex one of the solutions of this eqn. is,
jk j
Exs Ex 0 e z e j z
Therefore its time varying part becomes,
Exs Ex 0e z cos t z
This is UPW that propagates in the +Z direction with phase constant but losing its
amplitude with increasing Z e z . Thus the general effect of a complex valued k
is to yield a traveling wave that changes its amplitude with distance.
If is +ve
If is -ve
= gain coefficient
wave grows
is measured in repers per meter
Page 187
Field Theory
10ES36
2
E E
2
In a conducting medium, the wave eqn. becomes for sinusoidal time variations:
2 E 2 j E 0
Problem:
Using Maxwells eqn. (1) show that
.D 0
in a conductor
if ohms law and sinusoidal time variations are assumed. When ohms law and
sinusoidal time variations are assumed, the first Maxwells curl equation is
H E j E
Taking divergence on both sides, we get,
H E j E 0
E j 0
or D j 0
, & are
D 0
POLARISATION:
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Page 188
Field Theory
10ES36
It shows the time varying behavior of the electric field strength vector at some point in
space.
Consider of a UPW traveling along Z direction with E and H vectors lying in the xy plane.
0 and only Ex
is present, the wave is said to be polarized in the xIf Ey
direction.
.
and Ey
field E has a direction that depends on the relative magnitudes of Ex
The angle which this resultant direction makes with the x axis is tan-1
Ey
; and this
Ex
are not in phase ie., they reach their maxima at different instances of
and Ey
If Ex
time, then the direction of the resultant electric vector will vary with time. In this case
it can be shown that the locus of the end point of the resultant E will be an ellipse and
the wave is said to be elliptically polarized.
difference, the locus of the resultant E is a circle and the wave is circularly polarized.
Linear Polarisation:
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
Page 189
Field Theory
10ES36
Consider the phasor form of the electric field of a UPW traveling in the Z-direction:
E0 e j z
E Z , t Re E0e j z e jt
The wave is traveling in Z-direction.
Therefore E z lies in the x-y plane. In general, E0 is a complex vector ie., a vector
whose components are complex numbers.
E0 Er jE0i
Where E0 and E0i are real vectors having, in general, different directions.
At some point in space, (say z = 0) the resultant time varying electric field is
E 0, t Re E0 r j E0i e j t
Therefore E not only changes its magnitude but also changes its direction as time
varies.
Circular Polarisation:
Here the x and y components of the electric field vector are equal in magnitude.
If Ey leads Ex by 900 and Ex and Ey have the same amplitudes,
j ay
E0
Ie., Ex E y , we have, E ax
Page 190
Field Theory
10ES36
cos t ay
sin t E0
E 0, t ax
Ex E0 cos t
and E y E0 sin t
Ex2 E y2 E02
Which shows that the end point of E 0 0, t traces a circle of radius E0 as time
progresses.
Therefore the wave is said to the circularly polarized. Further we see that the sense or
direction of rotation is that of a left handed screw advancing in the Z-direction ( ie., in
the direction of propagation). Then this wave is said to be left circularly polarized.
Similar remarks hold for a right-circularly polarized wave represented by the complex
vector,
j ay
E0
E ax
It is apparent that a reversal of the sense of rotation may be obtained by a 180 0 phase
shift applied either to the x component of the electric field.
Elliptical Polarisation:
A j ay
B
E0 ax
Where A and B are +ve real constants.
Its time varying form is
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
Page 191
Field Theory
10ES36
cos t ayB
sin t
E 0, t axA
E A cos t
x
E y B sin t
E x2
A2
E y 2
B2
Thus the end point of the E 0, t vector traces out an ellipse and the wave is
2.
3.
Electromagnetic Waves And Radiating Systems, Edward C. Jordan and Keith
G Balmain, Prentice Hall of India / Pearson Education, 2nd edition, 1968.Reprint
2002
4.
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
Page 192
Field Theory
10ES36
UNIT -8
REFLECTION AND REFARACTION OF PLANE WAVES
REFLECTION BY A PERFECT CONDUCTOR:
NORMAL INCIDENCE:
When an em wave traveling in one medium impinges upon a second medium having a
different , or , then the wave will be partially transmitted, and partially
reflected.
When a plane wave in air is incident normally on the surface of a perfect conductor
the wave is for fields that vary with time, neither E nor H can exist within a
conductor., therefore no energy of the incident wave is transmitted.
As there can be no loss within a perfect conductor; therefore none of the energy is
obsorbed. Therefore, the amplitudes of E and H in the reflected wave are the same
as in the incident wave; the only difference is in the direction of power flow.
Let Ei e j x ________(1) be the incident wave.
Let the boundary, the surface of the perfect conductor be at x = 0.
Therefore at the boundary, ie., at x = 0, the electric field is zero. This requires that, the
sum of the electric field strengths in the initial and reflected waves add to give zero
resultant field strength in the plane x = 0.
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
Page 193
Field Theory
10ES36
Er Ei _______(3)
The amplitude of the reflected electric field strength is equal to that of the incident
electric field strength but its phase has been reversed on reflection.
The resultant electric field strength at any point at any point a distance x from the x
= 0 plane is the sum of the field strengths of the incident and reflected wave at that
point, given by
ET x Ei e j x Er e j x
2 jEi e j x e j x
2 jEi sin x _______ 4
ET x , t Re 2 jEi sin x e j t
1. Eqn. (3) shows that (1) the incident and reflected waves combine to produce a
standing wave, which does not progress.
2. The magnitude of the electric field varies sinusoidally with distance from the
reflecting plane.
3. It is zero at the surface and at multiples of half wave lengths from the surface.
4. It has a maximum value of twice the electric field strength of the incident
wave at distances from the surface that are odd multiples of a quarter
wavelength.
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Field Theory
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In as much as the BCs require that the electric field is reversed in phase on reflection
to produce zero resultant field at the boundary surface.
HT x H i e j x H r e j x
2 H i e j x e j x
2 H i cos x _______ 6
Further,
H T x, t Re HT x e jt
2 H i cos x cos t ______ 7
The resultant magnetic field strength H also has a standing was distribution. This
SWD has maximum value at the surface of the conductor and at multiples of a half
from the surface, where as the zero points occur at odd multiples of a quarter
wavelength from the surface. From the boundary conditions for H its follows that
there must be a surface current of Js amperes per such that JS = HT (at x = 0).
Since Ei and Hi were in phase in the incident plane wave, eqns. (6) and (7) show that
ET and HT are 90 0out of time phase because of the factor j in eqn. (4).
This is as it should be, for it indicates no average flow of power. This is the case when
the energy transmitted in the forward direction is equaled by that reflected back.
Let us rewrite eqns. (4) and (6)
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
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Field Theory
10ES36
Eqns. (8) and (9) show that ET and HT differ in time phase by 900.
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
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Field Theory
10ES36
In the y direction, both the incident and reflected waves progress to the right (+y
direction) with the same velocity and wavelength and so there will be a traveling
wave along the +y direction.
The expression for reflected wave, using the above fig, is
E Ei e
e
j y y
_______ 10
E Ei e
e
2 jEi sin z z e
j y y
_______ 10
Where,
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
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Field Theory
10ES36
z
from the reflecting
2
surface.
The planes of max electric field strength occurs at odd multiples of
z
from the
4
surface.
The whole standing wave distribution of electric field strength is seen from eqn. (10)
above to be traveling in the y direction with a velocity,
y sin sin
This is the velocity with which a erest of the incident wave moves along the y axis.
The wavelength in this direction is,
sin
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
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Field Theory
10ES36
Here, Ei and Er will have the instantaneous directions shown above, because the
components parallel to the perfectly conducting boundary must be equal and opposite.
The magnetic field strength vector H will be reflected without phase reversal.
Ei
E
r
Hi H r
For the incident wave, the wave expression for the magnetic field strength would be
H 2 H i cos z z e
where
z cos
j y y
and
y sin
The magnetic field strength has a standing wave distribution in the Z-direction with
the planes of maximum H located at the conducting surface and at multiples of
z
2
from the surface. The planes of zero magnetic field strength occur at odd multiples of
z
from the surface.
4
For the incident wave,
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
Page 199
Field Theory
10ES36
Ei Hi , Ez sin Hi ; Ey cos Hi
For the reflected wave,
H r Hi , Ez sin H r ; Ey cos H r
The total z component of the electric field strength is,
Ex 2 sin
H i cos z z e
j y y
E y 2 j cos
H i sin z z e
j y y
Both Ey and Ez have a standing wave distribution above the reflecting surface.
However, for the normal or z components of E , the maxima occur at the plane and
multiples of z
from the plane, whereas for the component E parallel to the
2
reflecting surface the minima occur at the plane and at multiples of z
from the
plane.
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
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Field Theory
10ES36
Ei 1 H r
We have,
Er 1 H r
Et 2 H t
Hi H r H z
Ei Er Et
Hi H r
Ei Er H z
1
2 Ei Er 1 Ei Er
Ei Er
Ei 2 1 Er 2 1
Er 2 1
Ei 2 1
Also,
Et
E Er
E
21
i
1 r
c
Ei
Ei 1 2
Further ,
Hr
E
2
r 1
Ht
E 1 2
H t 1 Et
21
H i 2 Ei 1 2
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
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Field Theory
10ES36
The permeabilities of all known insulators do not differ appreciably from that of free
space, so that,
1 2
Er
Ei
Et
Ei
Hr
Hi
Ht
Hi
0 / 2
0 / 2
0 / 1
0 / 1
1 2
1 2
2 1
1 2
2 1
2 1
2 2
1 2
CB 1
AD 2
Now CB = AB sin1 and AD = AB sin2.
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
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Field Theory
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2 2
2
1
1 1
sin 1 1
sin 2 2
In addition,
AE = CB
sin1 = sin3
or 1= 3
The power transmitted =
E2
1
1
E12 cos 1
E22 cos 1
Et2 cos 2 .
Et2 cos 1
Et2 cos 1
Et2 cos 2
Er2
1 Et2 cos 2
1
Et2
2 Ei2 cos 1
1
2
1
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
Et2 cos 2
Ei2 cos 1
Page 203
Field Theory
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Case 1:
Perpendicular polarization (HP):
Ei E r Et
Et
E
1 r
Ei
Ei
But we have,
E r2
1
E i2
2 E t2 cos 2
2
1 E i cos 1
E r2
1
E i2
2
1
E
1 r
Ei
cos 2
cos 1
2
cos 2
cos 1
E r2
1 2
Ei
2
1
E
1 r
Ei
Er
Ei
2
1
E cos 2
1 r
E i cos 1
Er
Ei
1 cos 1 2 cos 2
1 cos 1 2 cos 2
But we have,
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Field Theory
sin 1
2
sin 2
1
10ES36
Ei
1 cos 1 2 1 sin 2 1
cos 1
2
sin 2 1
1
cos 1
2
sin 2 1
1
This equation gives the ratio of the reflected to incident electric field strength for the
case of a perpendicular polarized wave.
.
Case II:
Parallel Polarisation:
Ei Er cos 1 Et cos 2
Et
E cos 1
1 r
Ei
Ei cos 2
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
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Field Theory
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2 E t2 cos 2
E r2
2
E i2
1 E i cos 1
2
E r2
E r2 cos 2 2 cos 2
E i2
Ei2 cos 2 1 cos 1
1
E r2
1 2
Ei
2
E r2 cos 1
1 2
Ei cos 2
1
Er
Ei
2
E cos 1
1 r
E i cos 2
1
Er
Ei
2 cos 1
1
1 cos 2
Er
Ei
2 cos 1
1
1 cos 2
2 cos 1 1 cos 2
2 cos 1 1 cos 2
1 sin
2 cos 1 1 1 sin 2 2
2 cos 1 1
sin 2 2 1 / 2 sin 2 1
Therefore we get
Er
Ei
/ 1 cos 1
2
sin 2 1
1
/ 1 cos 1
2
sin 2 1
1
This equation gives the reflection coefficient for parallel or vertical polarization, ie.,
the ratio of reflected to incident electric field strength when E is parallel to the plane
of incidence.
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
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Field Theory
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BRESNSTER ANGLE:
We have
Er
Ei
/ 1 cos 1
2
sin 2 1
1
/ 1 cos 1
2
sin 2 1
1
When Nr = 0, Er = 0.
Therefore no reflection at all.
Therefore for zero reflection condition, we have,
2
cos 1
1
2
sin 2 1
1
22
2
2
cos
sin 2 1
1
2
1
1
22 22
2
2
sin
sin 2 1
1
2
2
1
1 1
22 22 sin 2 1 12 12 sin 2 1
2
1
22 sin 2 1 2 1 2
2 1 2 sin 2 1 2 1 2
sin 2 1
2
1 2
cos 2 1
1
1 2
tan 1
2
1
At this angle, which is called the Bresoster angle, there is no reflected wave when the
incident wave is parallel (or vertically) polarized. If the incident wave is not entirely
parallel polarized, there will he some reflection, but the reflected wave is entirely of
perpendicular (or horizontal) polarization.
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
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Field Theory
10ES36
Note:1
For perpendicular paolarisation, we have
E
Ei
cos 1 2 / 1 sin 2 1
cos 1 2 / 1 sin 2 1
putting
N r 0, we get
cos 1 2 / 1 sin 2 1
cos 2 1 2 / 1 sin 2 1
or 2 1
Note 2:
For parallel polarization,
We can show that
Er
tan 1 2
Ei
tan 1 2
and for perpendicular polarization, we can show that,
Er
sin 2 1
Ei
sin 2 1
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
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Field Theory
Er
Ei
10ES36
2
sin 2 1
1
cos 1
( perpendicular polarization )
2
cos 1
sin 2 1
1
and
Er
Ei
2
sin 2 1
1
2 / 1 cos 1
( parallel polarization )
2
2 / 1 cos 1
sin 2 1
1
2
1
a jb
and thus have a unit magnitude. In other
Both coefficients take the form
a jb
words, the reflection is total provided that 1 is great enough and also provided that
medium (1) is denser than medium. (2) but total reflection does not imply that there is
no field
in
medium
(2).
In medium
(2), the
fields
have
the form,
e j 2 y sin 2 Z cos 2
Snells law gives the y variation as, e
j 2 y 1 /2
j 2 Z cos2
j 2 Z
e
e
1sin
j 2 Z j 1
2Z
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT
sin 2 1 1
sin 2 1 1
Page 209
Field Theory
10ES36
In the above expression, the lower sign must be chosen such that the fields decrease
exponentially as Z becomes increasingly negative.
ie.,
cos 2 j 1
2
sin 2 1 1
j 1
2
sin 2 1
2
2
Therefore under the condition of TIR, a field does exist in the rarer medium.
However, this field has a phase progression along the boundary and decreases
exponentially away from it. If is thus the example of a non-uniform plane wave.
The phase velocity along the interface is given by ,
1
sin 1
2
Which, under the conditions of TIR is less than the phase velocity
of a UPW in
2
medium (2).
Consequently, the non-uniform plane wave in medium (2) is a slow wave. Also, since
some kind of a surface between two media is necessary to support this wave, it is
called a surface wave.
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