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Field Theory

10ES36

FIELD THEORY
Sub Code : 10ES36

IA Marks : 25

Hrs/ Week : 04

Exam Hours : 03

Total Hrs. : 52

Exam Marks : 100

PART: A
UNIT 1: ELECTROSTATICS

Hrs: 8

Experimental law of coulomb, Electric field intensity, Field due to continuous volume
charge distribution, Field of a line charge, Electric flux density, Electric flux density,
Gauss law, Divergence, Vector Operator, Divergence theorem
UNIT 2: Energy and potential & Conductors, dielectrics and capacitance
Energy expended in moving a point charge in an electric field, Line integral,
Definition of potential difference and potential, Potential field of a point charge &
system of charges. Energy density in an electrostatic field. Potential gradient, Current
and current density, Continuity of current, metallic conductors, Conductor properties
and boundary conditions for dielectrics, Conductor properties and boundary
conditions for capacitance
Hrs: 8
UNIT 3: Poissons and Laplaces equations
Derivation of Poissons equation, Uniqueness theorem, Examples of Laplace
Equations, Examples of Poissons Equations
Hrs: 6
UNIT 4: MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS
Biot- savart law, Ampheres circuitary law, curls theorem, Stokes theorem,
Magnetic flux and flux density, Vector magnetic potentials.
Hrs: 6
PART - B
UNIT -5: MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS AND DEVICES
Force on a moving charge and differential current element, Force between differential
current elements, Force and Torque on a closed circuit, Magnetic materials and
inductance, Magnetization and permeability, Magnetic boundary condition ns,
Magnetic circuits, Potential energy and forces on magnetic materials.
Hrs: 8

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Field Theory

10ES36

UNIT -6: TIME VARYING MAGNETIC FIELDS AND MAXWELLS


EQUATIONS
Faradays law, Displacement current, Maxwells equation in point and integral form,
Retarded potentials.
Hrs: 6
UNIT -7: UNIFORM PLANE WAVES
Wave propagation in free space, Wave propagation in dielectrics, Poyntings theorem
and wave power, Propagation in good conductors
Hrs: 6
UNIT -8: REFLECTION AND REFARACTION OF PLANE WAVES
Reflection of uniform plane waves at normal incidence, SWR, Plane wave
propagation in general directions
Hrs: 6
Recommended readings:
1.

Energy Electromagnetics, William H Hayt Jr. and John A Buck, Tata


McGraw-Hill, 7th edition, 2006.

2.

Electromagnetics with Applications, John Krauss and Daniel A Fleisch


McGraw-Hill, 5th edition, 1999

3.

Field and Wave Electromagnetics, David K Cheng, Pearson Education Asia, 2nd
edition, - 1989, Indian Reprint 2001.

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Field Theory

10ES36

INDEX SHEET

SL.NO

TOPIC

PAGE NO.

PART A
UNIT 1: ELECTROSTATICS
01

Experimental law of coulomb

02

Force on a point charge

03

Force due to several charges

204

Electric field intensity

05

Electric flux

10

06

Gauss law

14

07

Divergence

22

08

Vector Operator

20

09

Divergence theorem

25

UNIT 2: ENERGY & POTENTIAL, CONDUCTORS, DIELECTRICS &


CAPACITANCE
01

Energy expended in moving a point charge


in an electric field

28

02

Line integral.

30

03

Definition of potential difference and


potential

33

04

Potential field of a point charge & system of


charges.

35

05

Energy density in an electrostatic field

36

06

Potential gradient

40

07

Current and current density

45

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08

Continuity of current

47

09

Conductor properties and boundary


conditions for dielectrics

50

10

Conductor properties and boundary


conditions for capacitance

53

UNIT 3: Poissons and Laplaces Equation


01

Derivation of Poissons equation

59

02

Uniqueness theorem

60

03

Examples of Laplace Equations

62

04

Example of Poissons equatiom

64

UNIT 4:STEADY MAGNETIC FIELD


01

Biot- savart law.

70

02

Ampheres circuitary law

78

03

curls theorem

79

04

Stokes theorem

80

05

Magnetic flux and flux density

81

06

Vector magnetic potentials

84

PART B
UNIT 5:MAGNETIC FORCES
01

Force on a moving charge and differential


current element.

89

02

Force between differential current elements.

91

03

Force and Torque on a closed circuit.

93

04

Magnetic materials and inductance

115

05

Magnetization and permeability.

118

06

Magnetic boundary conditions

120

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Field Theory

07

10ES36

Potential energy and forces on magnetic


materials.

122

UNIT 6: TIME VARYING FIELDS & MAXWELLS EQUTION


01

Faradays law.

124

02

Displacement current.

129

03

Maxwells equation in point and integral


form.

133

UNIT 7: UNIFORM PLANE WAVES


01

Wave propagation in free space

156

02

Wave propagation in dielectrics

157

03

Poyntings theorem and wave power

171

04

Propagation in good conductors

175

UNIT 8:PLANE WAVE AT BOUNDARIES & DISPERSIVE MEDIUM


01

Reflection of uniform plane waves at normal


inicidence.

198

02

Reflection of uniform plane waves at normal


inicidence

200

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UNIT 1

ELECTROSTATICS
Coulombs Law
Coulombs law states that the electrostatic force F between two point charges q1 and
q2 is directly proportional to the product of the magnitude of the charges, and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them., and it acts along
the line joining the two charges.
Then, as per the Coulombs Law,
F kq1q2
Or F=(kq1q2)/(r) N
Where k is the constant of proportionality whose value varies with the system of units.
R^ is the unit vector along the line joining the two charges.
In SI unit, k=

Where
is called the permittivity of the free space.
It has an assigned value given as =8.834
F/m.

FORCE ON A POINT CHARGE


The forces of attraction/repulsion between two point charges
and
(charges
whose size is much smaller than the distance between them) are given by Coulombs
law:

where
Here,

m/F in SI units, and R is the distance between the two charges.


is the force exerted on

, and

is the force acting on

points from charge 2 toward charge 1. Accordingly,

. The unit vector


.

Force on Q1 is given by

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Field Theory

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F1 =

Newtons

F1

q1

q2

q1

q2

F2
@
2

Force due to several charges


Let there be many point charges q1,q2,q3.........qn at distances r1,r2,r3.....rn from
charge q. The force F1, F2, F3..........Fn at the charges q1,q2,q3...........qn respectively
are:
q{

r +

F=Fq1+Fq2+Fq3...............
Hence,

F= q{

}N

Electric field intensity


Electric field intensity at any point in an electric field is the force experienced by
positive unit charge placed at that point.
Consider a charge Q located at a point A. At the point B in the electric fields set up by
Q, it is required
To find the electric field intensity E.
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Let the charge at B be

and let the charge Q be fixed at A. Let r be the distance

between A and B. As per the Coulombs Law, the force between Q and q is given by:
r N

F=

If it is a unit positive charge, then by definition, F in the above equation gives the
magnitude of the electric field intensity E.
i.e. E=F when
Therefore, the magnitude of the electric field strength is:
E=Q/(4r
Let r be the unit vector along the line joining A and B. Thus, the vector relation
between E is written as:
E=Q/(4

or) V/m

Electric Field intensity due to several charges


Let there be many point charges q1,q2,q3.........qn at distances r1,r2,r3.....rn be the
corresponding unit vectors. The field E1, E2, E3..........En at the charges
q1,q2,q3...........qn respectively are:
r +

E=Eq1+Eq2+Eq3...............
Hence,

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E=

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Electric field intensity at a point due to a infinite sheet of charge

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Electric field at a point on the axis of charged circular ring


Let be the charge density of the ring.
So, =dq/dl
dq=dl
Electric field due to an infinitely small element=dE
dE=dq/4o r r
where r is the unit vector along AP.
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dE can resolved into two rectangular components, dEx and dEy. Now, dEx=dEcos.
Taking the magnitude of dE from above, the equation becomes,
dEx=
cos=
substituting for dq from above, we have;
dEx=

The component dEy is directed downwards.


If we consider an element of the ring at a point diametrically opposite to A, then its
dEy component points upwards and hence, cancels with that due to element A. The
dEx components add up.
dEy=0.
The total field at P is the sum of the fields due to all the elements of the ring.
Therefore, E=dE=dEx+dEy=dEx
E=dEx=
=
But, r=(R+x)
Therefore,

E=

ax

where a x is the unit vector along the x axis.

Electric flux
The concept of electric flux is useful in association with Gauss' law. The electric flux
through a planar area is defined as the electric field times the component of the area
perpendicular to the field. If the area is not planar, then the evaluation of the flux
generally requires an area integral since the angle will be continually changing.

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When the area A is used in a vector operation like this, it is understood that the
magnitude of the vector is equal to the area and the direction of the vector is
perpendicular to the area.

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Gauss law

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Application of Gauss law

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Divergence

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Maxwells First equation


From divergence theorem, we have

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Divergence theorem

From Gauss law, we have

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UNIT 2: Energy and potential & Conductors, dielectrics and


capacitance
Energy expended in moving a point charge in an electric field, Line integral,
Definition of potential difference and potential, Potential field of a point charge &
system of charges. Energy density in an electrostatic field. Potential gradient, Current
and current density, Continuity of current, metallic conductors, Conductor properties
and boundary conditions for dielectrics, Conductor properties and boundary
conditions for capacitance

Recommended readings:
1.

Energy Electromagnetics, William H Hayt Jr . and John A Buck, Tata


McGraw-Hill, 7th edition,2006.

2.

Electromagnetics with Applications, John Krauss and Daniel A Fleisch


McGraw-Hill, 5th edition, 1999

3.
Electromagnetic Waves And Radiating Systems, Edward C. Jordan and Keith
G Balmain, Prentice Hall of India / Pearson Education, 2nd edition, 1968.Reprint
2002
4.

Field and Wave Electromagnetics, David K Cheng, Pearson Education Asia,


2nd edition, - 1989, Indian Reprint 2001.

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Field Theory

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UNIT 2:

Energy and potential & Conductors, dielectrics and capacitance


Energy expended in moving a point charge in an electric field

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Definition of Potential &Potential difference

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Potential field of a point charge

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Potential field of system of charges: Conservative property

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Potential gradient

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Dipole

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Energy density in an electrostatic field

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Capacitance

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Problem

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Boundary condition for perfect dielectric

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UNIT 3: Poissons and Laplaces equations


Derivation of Poissons equation, Uniqueness theorem, Examples of Laplace
Equations, Examples of Poissons Equations
Recommended readings:
1.

Energy Electromagnetics, William H Hayt Jr . and John A Buck, Tata


McGraw-Hill, 7th edition,2006.

2.

Electromagnetics with Applications, John Krauss and Daniel A Fleisch


McGraw-Hill, 5th edition, 1999

3.
Electromagnetic Waves And Radiating Systems, Edward C. Jordan and Keith
G Balmain, Prentice Hall of India / Pearson Education, 2nd edition, 1968.Reprint
2002
4.

Field and Wave Electromagnetics, David K Cheng, Pearson Education Asia,


2nd edition, - 1989, Indian Reprint 2001.

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UNIT 3:
Poissons and Laplaces equations
Laplaces & Poissons equation

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Uniqueness theorem

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Example of laplaces equation

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Example 2:

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Example 3:

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Example 4:

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UNIT 4: MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS


Biot- savart law, Ampheres circuitary law, curls theorem, Stokes theorem,
Magnetic flux and flux density, Vector magnetic potentials.
Recommended readings:
1.

Energy Electromagnetics, William H Hayt Jr . and John A Buck, Tata


McGraw-Hill, 7th edition,2006.

2.

Electromagnetics with Applications, John Krauss and Daniel A Fleisch


McGraw-Hill, 5th edition, 1999

3.
Electromagnetic Waves And Radiating Systems, Edward C. Jordan and Keith
G Balmain, Prentice Hall of India / Pearson Education, 2nd edition, 1968.Reprint
2002
4.

Field and Wave Electromagnetics, David K Cheng, Pearson Education Asia,


2nd edition, - 1989, Indian Reprint 2001.

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UNIT - 4
MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS

Static electric fields are characterized by E or D. Static magnetic fields, are characterized by
H or B. There are similarities and dissimilarities between electric and magnetic fields. As E
and D are related according to D = E for linear material space, H and B are related according
to

B = H.

A definite link between electric and magnetic fields was established by Oersted in 1820. An
electrostatic field is produced by static or stationary charges. If the charges are moving with
constant velocity, a static magnetic (or magnetostatic) field is produced. A magnetostatic field
is produced by a constant current flow (or direct current). This current flow may be due to
magnetization currents as in permanent magnets, electron-beam currents as in vacuum tubes,
or conduction currents as in current-carrying wires.

The development of the motors, transformers, microphones, compasses, telephone bell


ringers, television focusing controls, advertising displays, magnetically levitated high speed
vehicles, memory stores, magnetic separators, and so on, involve magnetic phenomena and
play an important role in our everyday life.

There are two major laws governing magnetostatic fields:

(1) Biot-Savart's law, and

(2) Ampere's circuit law.

Like Coulomb's law, Biot-Savart's law is the general law of magnetostatics. Just as
Gauss's law is a special case of Coulomb's law, Ampere's law is a special case of BiotDept. Of ECE/SJBIT

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Savart's law and is easily applied in problems involving symmetrical current


distribution.

BIOT SAVART's LAW

Biot-Savart's law states that the magnetic field intensity dH produced at a point P, as shown in
Figure 1.1, by the differential current element I dl is proportional to the product I dl and the
sine of the angle between the element and the line joining P to the element and is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance R between P and the element.

That is,

dH

I dl sin
R2

(1.1)
or

dH

KI dl sin
R2

(1.2)

where, k is the constant of proportionality. In SI units, k = 1/4. So, eq. (1.2) becomes

dH

I dl sin
4R 2

(1.3)

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From the definition of cross product equation A x B = AB Sin AB an, it is easy to notice that
eq. (1.3) is better put in vector form as

dH

Idl a R
4R 2

Idl R
4R 3

(1.4)

where R in the denominator is |R| and aR = (vector R/|R|}. Thus, the direction of dH can be
determined by the right-hand rule with the right-hand thumb pointing in the direction of the
current, the right-hand fingers encircling the wire in the direction of dH as shown in Figure
1.2(a). Alternatively, one can use the right-handed screw rule to determine the direction of
dH: with the screw placed along the wire and pointed in the direction of current flow, the
direction of advance of the screw is the direction of dH as in Figure 1.2(b).

Figure 1.1: Magnetic field dH at P due to current element I dl.

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Figure 1.2: Determining the direction of dH using (a) the right-hand rule, or (b) the righthanded screw rule.

It is customary to represent the direction of the magnetic field intensity H (or current I) by a
small circle with a dot or cross sign depending on whether H (or I) is out of, or into, the page
as illustrated in Figure 1.3.

As like different charge configurations, one can have different current distributions: line
current, surface current and volume current as shown in Figure 1.4. If we define K as the
surface current density (in amperes/meter) and J as the volume current density (in
amperes/meter square), the source elements are related as

I dl K dS J dv
(1.5)

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Thus, in terms of the distributed current sources, Biot-Savart law as in eq. (1.4)
becomes

Idl a R

KdS a R

Jdv a R

4R 2

4R 2

(Line current)

(1.6)

(Surface current)

(1.7)

4R 2

(Volume current)

(1.8)

As an example, let us apply eq. (1.6) to determine the field due to a straight current carrying
filamentary conductor of finite length AB as in Figure 1.5. We assume that the conductor is
along the z-axis with its upper and lower ends respectively subtending angles

Figure 1.3: Conventional representation of H (or I) (a) out of the page and (b) into the page.

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Figure 1.4: Current distributions: (a) line current (b) surface current (c) volume current.

2 and 1 at P, the point at which H is to be determined. Particular note should be taken of


this assumption, as the formula to be derived will have to be applied accordingly. If we
consider the contribution dH at P due to an element dl at (0, 0, z),

dH

Idl R
4R 3

(1.9)

But dl = dz az and R = a - zaz , so

dl x R = dz a
(1.10)

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Hence,

I dz

4 z
2

a
2

(1.11)

Figure 1.5: Field at point P due to a straight filamentary conductor.

Letting z = cot , dz = - cosec2 d, equation (1.11) becomes

I
H
4

I
4

2 cos ec 2 d

3 cos ec 3

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sin d

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Or

I
4

cos

2 cos 1 a

(1.12)

The equation (1.12) is generally applicable for any straight filamentary conductor of finite
length. Note from eq. (1.12) that H is always along the unit vector a (i.e., along concentric
circular paths) irrespective of the length of the wire or the point of interest P. As a special
case, when the conductor is semi-infinite (with respect to P), so that point A is now at O(0, 0,
0) while B is at (0, 0, ); 1 = 90, 2 = 0, and eq. (1.12) becomes

I
4

(1.13)

Another special case is when the conductor is infinite in length. For this case, point A is at (0,
0, - ) while B is at (0, 0, ); 1 = 180, 2 = 0. So, eq. (1.12) reduces to

I
2

(1.14)

To find unit vector a in equations (1.12) to (1.14) is not always easy. A simple approach is
to determine a from

a a a
(1.15)

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where al is a unit vector along the line current and a is a unit vector along the perpendicular
line from the line current to the field point.

Illustration: The conducting triangular loop in Figure 1.6(a) carries a current of 10 A. Find H
at (0, 0, 5) due to side 1 of the loop.

Solution:
This example illustrates how eq. (1.12) is applied to any straight, thin, current-carrying
conductor. The key point to be kept in mind in applying eq. (1.12) is figuring out 1, 2,
and a. To find H at (0, 0, 5) due to side 1 of the loop in Figure 1.6(a), consider Figure

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Figure 1.6: (a) conducting triangular loop (b) side 1 of the loop.
1.6(b), where side 1 is treated as a straight conductor. Notice that we join the Point of interest
(0, 0, 5) to the beginning and end of the line current. Observe that 1, 2 and are assigned
in the same manner as in Figure 1.5 on which eq. (1.12) is based.

cos 2

cos 1 = cos 90 = 0,

=5

29

To determine a is often the hardest part of applying eq. (1.12). According to eq. (1.15), al =
ax and a = az, so
a = ax x az = -ay

Hence,

H1

1
4

cos 2 cos 1 a

10 2

0 (a y )

4 (5) 29

= -59.1 ay mA/m

AMPERE'S CIRCUIT LAW

Ampere's circuit law states that the line integral of the tangential components of H around a
closed path is the same as the net current Ienc enclosed by the path

In other words, the circulation of H equals Ienc ; that is,


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H dl I enc
(1.16)

Ampere's law is similar to Gauss's law and it is easily applied to determine H when the
current distribution is symmetrical. It should be noted that eq. (1.16) always holds whether
the current distribution is symmetrical or not but we can only use the equation to determine H
when symmetrical current distribution exists. Ampere's law is a special case of Biot-Savart's
law; the former may be derived from the latter.

By applying Stoke's theorem to the left-hand side of eq. (1.16), we obtain

I enc H dl ( H ) dS
(1.17)
But

I enc J dS
(1.18)

Comparing the surface integrals in eqs. (7.17) and (7.18) clearly reveals that

xH=J
(1.19)

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This is the third Maxwell's equation to be derived; it is essentially Ampere's law in


differential (or point) form whereas eq. (1.16) is the integral form. From eq. (1.19),
we should observe that X H = J 0; that is, magnetostatic field is not conservative.

APPLICATIONS OF AMPERE'S LAW

Infinite Line Current

Consider an infinitely long filamentary current I along the z-axis as in Figure 1. 7. To


determine H at an observation point P, we allow a closed path pass through P. This path on,
which Ampere's law is to be applied, is known as an Amperian path (analogous to the term
Gaussian surface). We choose a concentric circle as the Amperian path in view of eq. (1.14),
which shows that H is constant provided p is constant. Since this path encloses the whole
current I, according to Ampere's law

I H a d a H d H 2

Figure 1.7: Ampere's law applied to an infinite filamentary, line current.

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Or

1
2

(1.20)
As expected from eq. (1.14).

MAGNETIC FLUX DENSITY

The magnetic flux density B is similar to the electric flux density D. As

D = 0E in free

space, the magnetic flux density B is related to the magnetic field intensity H according to
B = 0 H
(1.21)
where, 0 is a constant known as the permeability of free space. The constant is in
henrys/meter (H/m) and has the value of

0 = 4 x 10-7 H/m

(1.22)

The precise definition of the magnetic field B, in terms of the magnetic force, can be
discussed later.

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Figure 1.8: Magnetic flux lines due to a straight wire with current coming out of the
page

The magnetic flux through a surface S is given by

B dS
S

(1.23)

Where the magnetic flux is in webers (Wb) and the magnetic flux density is a
webers/square meter (Wb/m2) or teslas.

An isolated magnetic charge does not exit.

Total flux through a closed surface in a magnetic field must be zero;


that is,

B dS 0
(1.24)

This equation is referred to as the law of conservation of magnetic flux or Gauss's law for
magnetostatic fields just as

D. dS = Q is Gauss's law for electrostatic fields. Although the

magnetostatic field is not conservative, magnetic flux is conserved.

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By applying the divergence theorem to eq. (1.24), we obtain

S B dS B dv 0
v

Or
.B=0
(1.25)

This equation is the fourth Maxwell's equation to be derived. Equation (1.24) or (1.25) shows
that magnetostatic fields have no sources or sinks. Equation (1.25) suggests that magnetic
field lines are always continuous.

TABLE 1.2: Maxwell's Equations for Static EM Fields

Differential (or Point)

Integral Form

Remarks

Form
. D = v

S D dS v dv

Gauss's law

.B=0

xE=0

xH=J

SB dS 0

Nonexistence of magnetic monopole

LE dl 0

Conservativeness of electrostatic field

L H dl J dS

Ampere's law

The Table 1.2 gives the information related to Maxwell's Equations for Static
Electromagnetic Fields.

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MAGNETIC SCALAR AND VECTOR POTENTIALS


We recall that some electrostatic field problems were simplified by relating the electric
Potential V to the electric field intensity E (E = -V). Similarly, we can define a potential
associated with magnetostatic field B. In fact, the magnetic potential could be scalar V m
vector A. To define Vm and A involves two important identities:

x (V) = 0
(1.26)

. ( x A) = 0

(1.27)

which must always hold for any scalar field V and vector field A.

Just as E = -V, we define the magnetic scalar potential Vm (in amperes) as related to H
according to

H = - Vm

if J = 0

(1.28)

The condition attached to this equation is important and will be explained. Combining eq.
(1.28) and eq. (1.19) gives

J = x H = - x (- Vm) = 0

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(1.29)

Page 84

Field Theory

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since Vm, must satisfy the condition in eq. (1.26). Thus the magnetic scalar potential V m is
only defined in a region where J = 0 as in eq. (1.28). We should also note that V m satisfies
Laplace's equation just as V does for electrostatic fields; hence,
2 Vm = 0, (J = 0)

(1.30)

We know that for a magnetostatic field, x B = 0 as stated in eq. (1.25). In order to satisfy
eqs. (1.25) and (1.27) simultaneously, we can define the vector magnetic potential A (in
Wb/m) such that

B=xA
(1.31)

Just as we defined

dQ

4 0 r

(1.32)

We can define

A
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0 I dl
4R

0 K dS
4R

for line current

(1.33)

for surface current

(1.34)
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Field Theory

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0 J dv

for volume current

4R

(1.35)

Illustration 1: Given the magnetic vector potential A = -2/4 az Wb/m, calculate the total
magnetic flux crossing the surface = /2, 1 2m, 0 z 5m.

Solution:

B A

B dS

Az

a a ,

1
2

z0 1 d

dS d dz a

dz

1 2
15
(5)
4
4

= 3.75 Wb

Illustration 2:

Identify the configuration in figure 1.9 that is not a correct representation of I and H.

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Figure 1.9: Different I and H representations (related to Illustration 2)

Solution:
Figure 1.9 (c) is not a correct representation. The direction of H field should have been
outwards for the given I direction.

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PART - B
UNIT -5: MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS AND DEVICES
Force on a moving charge and differential current element, Force between differential
current elements, Force and Torque on a closed circuit, Magnetic materials and
inductance, Magnetization and permeability, Magnetic boundary conditions, Magnetic
circuits, Potential energy and forces on magnetic materials.

Recommended readings:
1.

Energy Electromagnetics, William H Hayt Jr . and John A Buck, Tata


McGraw-Hill, 7th edition,2006.

2.

Electromagnetics with Applications, John Krauss and Daniel A Fleisch


McGraw-Hill, 5th edition, 1999

3.
Electromagnetic Waves And Radiating Systems, Edward C. Jordan and Keith
G Balmain, Prentice Hall of India / Pearson Education, 2nd edition, 1968.Reprint
2002
4.

Field and Wave Electromagnetics, David K Cheng, Pearson Education Asia,


2nd edition, - 1989, Indian Reprint 2001.

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PART -B
UNIT -5
MAGNETIC FORCES, MATERIALS AND DEVICES

Force on a Charged Particle

According to earlier information, the electric force Fe, on a stationary or moving electric
charge Q in an electric field is given by Coulornb's experimental law and is related to the
electric field intensity E as

Fe = QE
(2.1)

This shows that if Q is Positive, Fe and E have the same direction.

A magnetic field can exert force only on a moving charge. From experiments, it is found that
the magnetic force Fm experienced by a charge Q moving with a velocity u in a magnetic field
B is

Fm = Qu x B

(2.2)

This clearly shows that Fm is perpendicular to both u and B.

From eqs. (2.1) and (2.2), a comparison between the electric force Fe and the magnetic force
Fm can be made. Fe is independent of the velocity of the charge and can perform work on the
charge and change
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its kinetic energy. Unlike Fe, Fm depends on the charge velocity and
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Field Theory

10ES36

is normal to it. Fm cannot perform work because it is at right angles to the direction of motion,
of the charge (Fm.dl = 0); it does not cause an increase in kinetic energy of the charge. The
magnitude of Fm is generally small compared to Fe except at high velocities.

For a moving charge Q in the Presence of both electric and magnetic fields, the total force on
the charge is given by
F = Fe + Fm
or

F = Q (E + u x B)
(2.3)

This is known as the Lorentz force equation. It relates mechanical force to electrical force. If
the mass of the charged Particle moving in E and B fields is m, by Newton's second law of
motion.

F m

du
Q E u B
dt

(2.4)

The solution to this equation is important in determining the motion of charged particles in E
and B fields. We should bear in mind that in such fields, energy transfer can be only by
means of the electric field. A summary on the force exerted on a charged particle is given in
table 2.1.

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TABLE 2.1: Force on a Charged Particle

State of Particle

E Field

B Field

Combined E and B
Fields

Stationary

QE

QE

Moving

QE

Qu x B

Q(E + u x B)

The magnetic field B is defined as the force per unit current element

Alternatively, B may be defined from eq. (2.2) as the vector which satisfies F m / q = u x B just
as we defined electric field E as the force per unit charge, Fe / q.

Force between Two Current Elements

Let us now consider the force between two elements I1 dl1 and I2 dl2. According to BiotSavart's law, both current elements produce magnetic fields. So we may find the force d(dF1)
on element I1 dl1 due to the field dB2 produced by element I2 dl2 as shown in Figure 2.1.

As per equation

dF = I dl x B2

d(dF1) = I1 dl1 x dB2


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(2.5)
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Field Theory

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But from Biot-Savart's law,

dB2

0 I 2 dl 2 a R

21

4R

2
21

(2.6)
Hence,

d (dF1 )

0 I1dl1 I 2 dl 2 a R

21

2
4R21

(2.7)

Figure 2.1: Force between two current loops.


This equation is essentially the law of force between two current elements and is analogous to
Coulomb's law, which expresses the force between two stationary charges. From eq. (2.7),
we obtain the total force F1 on current loop 1 due to current loop 2 shown Figure 2.1 as

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F1

0 I1 I 2
4


L1

dl1 dl 2 a R21

L2

2
R21

(2.8)

Although this equation appears complicated, we should remember that it is based on

eq.

(2.5). It is eq. (8. 10) that is of fundamental importance.

The force F2 on loop 2 due to the magnetic field B1 from loop 1 is obtained from eq. (2.8) by
interchanging subscripts 1 and 2. It can be shown that F2 = - F1; thus F1 and F2 obey Newton's
third law that action and reaction are equal and opposite. It is worthwhile to mention that eq.
(2.8) was experimentally established by Qersted and Ampete; Biot and Savart (Ampere's
colleagues) actually based their law on it.

MAGNETIC TORQUE AND MOMENT

Now that we have considered the force on a current loop in a magnetic field, we can
determine the torque on it. The concept of a current loop experiencing a torque in a magnetic
field is of paramount importance in understanding the behavior of orbiting charged particles,
d.c. motors, and generators. If the loop is placed parallel to a magnetic field, it experiences a
force that tends to rotate it.

The torque T (or mechanical moment of force) on the loop is the, vector product of the force
F and the moment arm r.

That is,

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Field Theory

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T=rxF
(2.9)

and its units are Newton-meters.

Let us apply this to a rectangular loop of length l and width w placed in a uniform magnetic
field B as shown in Figure 8.5(a). From this figure, we notice that dl is parallel to B along
sides 12 and 34 of the loop and no force is exerted on those sides. Thus

F I dl B I dl B

I dz a z B I dz a z B

Figure 2.2: Rectangular planar loop in a uniform magnetic field.

or

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F= F0 F0 = 0

(2.10)

Where, |F0| = I Bl because B is uniform. Thus, no force is exerted on the loop as a whole.
However, F0 and F0 act at different points on the loop, thereby creating a couple. If the
normal to the plane of the loop makes an angle with B, as shown in the cross-sectional view
of Figure 2.2(b), the torque on the loop is

|T| = |F0| w sin


or
T = B I l w sin
(2.11)

But lw = S, the area of the loop. Hence,

T = BIS sin

(2.12)

We define the quantity

m = I S an
(2.13)

as the magnetic dipole moment (in A/M2) of the loop. In eq. (2.13), an is a unit normal vector
to the plane of the loop and its direction is determined by the right-hand rule: fingers in the
direction of current Hand thumb along an.

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The magnetic dipole moment is the product of current and area of the loop; its reaction is
normal to the loop.

Introducing eq. (2.13) in eq. (2.12), we obtain

T=mxB

(2.14)

3.0 STOKE'S THEOREM

Stoke's Theorem relates a line integral to the surface integral and vice-versa, that is

H dL ( H ) dS
S

(3.1)

FORCE ON A MOVING CHARGE DUE TO ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

If there is a charge or a moving charge, Q in an electric field, E, there exists a force on the
charge. This force is given by

FE = QE
(3.2)

If a charge, Q moving with a velocity, V is placed in a magnetic field, B (=H), then there
exists a force on the charge (Fig. 3.1). This force is given by

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FH = Q(V x B)

(3.3)

B = magnetic flux density, (wb/m2)

V = velocity of the charge, m/s

Fig. 3.1: Direction of field, velocity and force

If the charge, Q is placed in both electric and magnetic fields, then the force on the charge is

F =Q (E + V x B)
(3.4)

This equation is known as Lorentz force equation.

Problem 1: A charge of 12 C has velocity of 5ax + 2ay - 3az m/s. Determine F on the charge
in the field of (a) E=18ax,+5ay +10az V/m
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(b) B = 4ax + 4ay + 3az wb/m2.

Solution:
(a) The force, F on the charge, Q due to E is

F = QE = 12 (18ax + 5ay + 10az)

= 216ax + 60ay + 120az

or,

F=Q |E|= 12 18 2 5 2 10 2

F = 254.27 N

(b) The force F on the charge due to B is

F = Q[V x B)

Here V = 5ax + 2ay - 3az m/s

B = 4 ax + 4 ay + 3 az wb / m2

F = 12 [18ax - 27ay + 12az]

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or,

F= 12 (324 729 144)

F = 415.17 N

FORCE ON A CURRENT ELEMENT IN A MAGNETIC FIELD

The force on a current element when placed in a magnetic field, B is

F = IL x B
(3.5)
or,
F = I L B Sin Newton

(3.6)

where is the angle between the direction of the current element and the direction of
magnetic flux density

B = magnetic flux density, wb/m2

IL = current element, Amp-m


Proof: Consider a differential charge, dQ to be moving with a velocity, V in a magnetic field,
H = (B/). Then the differential force on the charge is given by

dF = dQ (V x B)
(3.7)
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But
dQ = d

dF = d (V x B)

= ( V x B) d

But

V = J

dF = J d x B

Jd is nothing but IdL,

dF =IdL x B

or,

F = IL x B, Newton

(3.8)

Problem 2: A current element 4 cm long is along y-axis with a current of 10 mA flowing in


y-direction. Determine the force on the current element due to the magnetic field if the
magnetic field H = (5ax/) A/m.

Solution:
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The force on a current element under the influence of magnetic field is


F = IL x B

Here,

IL = 10 x 10-3 x 0.04ay

= 4 x l0-4 ay

H = (5ax/) A/m

B = 5ax wb/m2

F = 4 x l0-4 ay x 5ax

F = (0.4ay x 5ax) x 10-3

or

F = -2.0az mN

BOUNDARY CONDITIONS ON H AND B

1.

The tangential component of magnetic field, H is continuous across any boundary


except at the surface of a perfect conductor, that is,

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Htanl - Htan2 = Js

(3.9)

At non-conducting boundaries, Js = 0.

2.

The normal component of magnetic flux density, B is continuous across any


discontinuity, that is,

Bnl = Bn2
(3.10)

Proof: Consider Fig. 3.2 in which a differential rectangular loop across a boundary separating
medium 1 and medium 2 are shown.

Fig. 3.2: A rectangular loop across a boundary

From Ampere's circuit law, we have

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H dL

50

H y4

01

12

23

34

45

y
y
H y3
H x1x H y1
2
2

y
y
H y2
H x 2 x I
2
2

As y 0, we get

H dL H

x1

x H x 2 x I

or,

H x1 H x 2

I
Js
x

(3.11)

Here, Hxl and Hx2 are tangential components in medium 1 and 2, respectively.

So,

Htan1 Htan2 = Js

(3.12)

Now consider a cylinder shown in Fig. 3.3.

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Fig. 3.3: A differential cylinder across the boundary

Gauss's law for magnetic fields is

B dS 0
s

(3.13)

In this case, for y 0

B dS B
s

n1

a y dS a y B n 2 a y dS (a y )

(3.14)

Bn1 S - Bn2 S = 0

that is,

Therefore,

Bnl = Bn2

(3.15)

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Problem 3:

Two homogeneous, linear and isotropic media have an interface at x = 0. x < 0 describes
medium 1 and x > 0 describes medium 2. r1 = 2 and

r2 = 5. The magnetic field in medium

1 is 150ax - 400ay + 250az A/m.

Determine:
(a) Magnetic field in medium 2
(b) Magnetic flux density in medium 1
(c) Magnetic flux density in medium 2.

Solution:
The magnetic field in medium 1 is

H1 = 150ax - 400ay +250az A/m


Consider Fig. 3.4.

Fig. 3.4: Illustrative figure

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Field Theory

(a)

10ES36

H1 = Htan1 + Hn1

Htanl = -400ay + 250az A/m

Hn1 = 150ax
The boundary condition is

Htanl = Htan2

Htan2 = - 400ay + 50az A/m

The boundary condition on B is Bn1 = Bn2

that is, 1 Hn1 = 1 Hn2

H n2

1
H n1
2

2
150a x
5

= 60ax

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H2 = Htan2 + Hn2

(b)

B1= 1 H1

= 0 r H1

=4 x 10-7 x 2(150ax - 400ay + 250az)

= (376.5ax - 1004ay + 627.5az) wb/m2

(c)

B2 = 2 H2

= 4 x 10-7 x 5 (60ax - 400ay + 250az)

= (376.98ax - 2513.2ay +1570.75az)wb/m2

SCALAR MAGNETIC POTENTIAL

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Like scalar electrostatic potential, it is possible to have scalar magnetic potential. It is defined
in such a way that its negative gradient gives the magnetic field, that is,

H = Vm
(3.16)

Vm = scalar magnetic potential (Amp)

Taking curl on both sides, we get

x H = - x Vm
(3.17)

But curl of the gradient of any scalar is always zero.

x H =0

So,
(3.18)

But, by Ampere's circuit law

or,

XH=J

J=0

In other words, scalar magnetic potential exists in a region where J = 0.

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H = -Vm (J=0)
(3.19)

The scalar potential satisfies Laplace's equation, that is, we have

.B = 0 .H = 0 = m (-Vm) = 0

or,
2 Vm = 0 (J = 0)
(3.20)

Characteristics of Scalar Magnetic Potential (Vm)

1. The negative gradient of Vm gives H, or H = -Vm


2. It exists where J = 0
3. It satisfies Laplacs equation.
4. It is directly defined as
B

Vm H dL
A

5. It has the unit of Ampere.

VECTOR MAGNETIC POTENTIAL

Vector magnetic potential exists in regions where J is present. It is defined in such a way
that its curl gives the magnetic flux density, that is,
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BxA
(3.21)

where A = vector magnetic potential (wb/m).

It is also defined as

0 IdL Henry Amp

4R
m

(3.22)

or,

or,

0 Kds
,
4R

(K = current sheet)

(3.23)

0 Jdv
,
4R

(3.24)

Characteristics of Vector Magnetic Potential

1. It exists even when J is present.


2. It is defined in two ways

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Field Theory

10ES36

BxA

and

0 Jd
4R

3. 2A = 0 j
4. 2A = 0 if J = 0
5. Vector magnetic potential, A has applications to obtain radiation characteristics of
antennas, apertures and also to obtain radiation leakage from transmission lines,
waveguides and microwave ovens.
6. A is used to find near and far-fields of antennas.

Problem 4:

The vector magnetic potential, A due to a direct current in a conductor in free space is given
by A = (X2 + Y2) az wb /m2. Determine the magnetic field produced by the current element
at (1, 2, 3).

Solution:
A = (x2 +y2) az wb/m2
We have B = x A

10 6

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ax

x
0

ay

y
0

az

z
2
x y 2

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Field Theory

10ES36

x y 2 a x x 2 y 2 a y 10 6
x
x

x 2 2 y a x 2 x y 2 a y 10 6

B / at (1,2,3) 1 4ax 2 4a y 106

5a x 6a y 10 6

5a

6a y 10 6

1
5a x 6a y 10 6
7
4 10

H = (3.978ax 4.774ay), A/m

FORCE AND TORQUE ON A LOOP OR COIL

Consider Fig. 3.5 in which a rectangular loop is placed under a uniform magnetic flux density,
B.

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Fig. 3.5: Rectangular conductor loop in x-z plane

From Fig. 3.5, the force on QR due to B is

F1 =IL x B =-ILaz x Bax

(3.25)

F1 = -ILBay
(3.26)

that is, the force, F1 on QR moves it downwards. Now the force on PS is

F2 = IL x B = -ILaz x Bax
(3.27)
F2 = - ILBay
(3.28)

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Force, F2 on PS moves it upwards. It may be noted that the sides PQ and


SR will not experience force as they are parallel to the field, B.

The forces on QR and PS exert a torque. This torque tends to rotate the coil about its axis.

The torque, T is nothing but a mechanical moment of force. The torque on the loop is defined
as the vector product of moment arm and force,

that is,
T r x F, N-m

where

(3.29)

r = moment arm
F = force

Applying this definition to the loop considered above, the expression for
torque is given by

T = r1 x F1 + r2 x F2

(3.30)

w
w
a x ( ILBa y ) a x ( ILBa y )
2
2

(3.31)
= -BILwaz

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or,

10ES36

T = -BISaz
(3.32)

where S = wL = area of the loop

The torque in terms of magnetic dipole moment, m is

T = m x B, N-m
(3.34)

where

m = I l w ay

= I S ay

Problem 5:

A rectangular coil is placed in a field of B = (2ax + ay) wb/m2. The coil is in y-z plane and has
dimensions of 2 m x 2 m. It carries a current of 1 A. Find the torque about the z-axis.
Solution:

m=IS an = 1 x 4ax

T = m x B = 4ax x (2ax + ay)

T = 4az, N-m
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MATERIALS IN MAGNETIC FIELDS

A material, is said to be magnetic if m 0, r = 1

A material is said to be non-magnetic if m = 0, r = 1.

The term 'Magnetism' is commonly discussed in terms of magnets with basic examples like
north pole, compass needle, horse shoe magnets and so on.

Magnetic properties are described in terms of magnetic susceptibility and relative


permeability of the materials.

Magnetic materials are classified into

1.

Diamagnetic materials

2.

Paramagnetic materials

3.

Ferromagnetic materials

Diamagnetic Materials

A material is said to diamagnetic if its susceptibility, m < 0 and r 1.0.

Examples are copper, lead, silicon, diamond and bismuth.


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Characteristics of diamagnetic materials

Magnetic fields due to the motion of orbiting electrons and spinning electrons cancel
each other.
Permanent magnetic moment of each atom is zero.
These materials are widely affected by magnetic field.
Magnetic susceptibility m is (-)ve.
r = 1
B=0
Most of the materials exhibit diamagnetism.
They are linear magnetic materials.
Diamagnetism is not temperature dependent.
These materials acquire magnetisation opposite to H and hence they are called
diamagnetic materials.

Paramagnetic Materials

A material for which m > 0 and r 1 is said to be paramagnetic.

Examples are air, tungsten, potassium and platinum.

Characteristics of paramagnetic materials

They have non-zero permanent magnetic moment.


Magnetic fields due to orbiting and spinning electrons do not cancel each other.
Paramagnetism is temperature dependent.
m lies between 10-5 and 10-3.
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These are used in MASERS.


m > 0
r 1
They are linear magnetic materials.

These materials acquire magnetisation parallel to H and hence they are called paramagnetic
materials.

Ferromagnetic Materials

A material for which m >> 0, r >> 1 is said to be ferromagnetic.

Examples are iron, nickel, cobalt and their alloys.

Characteristics of ferromagnetic materials

They exhibit large permanent dipole moment.

m >> 0

r >> l

They are strongly magnetised by magnetic field.

They retain magnetism even if the magnetic field is removed.

They lose their ferromagnetic properties when the temperature is raised.

If a permanent magnet made of iron is heated above its curie temperature, 770C, it
loses its magnetisation completely.

They are non-linear magnetic materials.

B = H does not hold good as depends on B.

In these materials, magnetisation is not determined by the field present. It depends on


the magnetic history of the object.

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INDUCTANCE

Inductor is a coil of wire wound according to various designs with or without a core of
magnetic material to concentrate the magnetic field.
Inductance, L In a conductor, device or circuit, an inductance is the inertial property caused
by an induced reverse voltage that opposes the flow of current when a voltage is applied. It
also opposes a sudden change in current that has been established.

Definition of Inductance, L (Henry):

The inductance, L of a conductor system is defined as the ratio of magnetic flux linkage to
the current producing the flux, that is,

N
(Henry)
I

(3.35)

Here

N = number of turns
= flux produced
I = current in the coil

1 Henry l wb/Amp

L is also defined as (2WH/I2), or

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Field Theory

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2WH
I2

(3.36)

where, WH = energy in H produced by I.

In fact, a straight conductor carrying current has the property of inductance.

Aircore

coils are wound to provide a few pico henries to a few micro henries. These are used at IF and
RF frequencies in tuning coils, interstage coupling coils and so on.

The requirements of such coils are:

Stability of inductance under all operating conditions

High ratio inductive reactance to effective loss resistance at the operating frequency

Low self capacitance

Small size and low cost

Low temperature coefficient

STANDARD INDUCTANCE CONFIGURATIONS

Toroid

It consists of a coil wound on annular core. One side of each turn of the coil is threaded
through the ring to form a Toroid (Fig. 3.6).

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Fig. 3.6: Toroid

0 N 2S
Inductance of Toroid, L
2r

Here

(3.37)

N = number of turns
r = average radius
S = cross-sectional area

Magnetic field in a Toroid, H

NI
2r

(3.38)

I is the current in the coil.


Solenoid

It is a coil of wire which has a long axial length relative to its diameter. The coil is tubular in
form. It is used to produce a known magnetic flux density along its axis.

A solenoid is also used to demonstrate electromagnetic induction. A bar of iron, which is free
to move along the axis of the coil, is usually provided for this purpose. A typical solenoid is
shown in Fig. 3.7.

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Fig. 3.7: Solenoid

The inductance, L of a solenoid is

0 N 2 S
l

(3.39)
l = length of solenoid
S = cross-sectional area
N = Number of turns

The magnetic field in a solenoid is

NI
l

(3.40)
I is the current

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Recommended Questions:
1.

Derive for force on a moving charge.

2.

Derive for Lorentz force equation.

3.

Derive for force between differential current elements.

4.

Derive for force & torque on a closed circuit.

5.

Discuss briefly about magnetic materials.

6.

Discuss briefly about magnetic boundary conditions.

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10ES36

UNIT -6: TIME VARYING MAGNETIC FIELDS AND MAXWELLS


EQUATIONS
Faradays law, Displacement current, Maxwells equation in point and integral form,
Retarded potentials.
Recommended readings:
1.

Energy Electromagnetics, William H Hayt Jr. and John A Buck, Tata


McGraw-Hill, 7th edition, 2006.

2.

Electromagnetics with Applications, John Krauss and Daniel A Fleisch


McGraw-Hill, 5th edition, 1999

3.
Electromagnetic Waves And Radiating Systems, Edward C. Jordan and Keith
G Balmain, Prentice Hall of India / Pearson Education, 2nd edition, 1968.Reprint
2002
4.

Field and Wave Electromagnetics, David K Cheng, Pearson Education Asia,


2nd edition, - 1989, Indian Reprint 2001.

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UNIT -6
TIME VARYING MAGNETIC FIELDS AND MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

Introduction

Electrostatic fields are usually produced by static electric charges whereas magnetostatic
fields are due to motion of electric charges with uniform velocity (direct current) or static
magnetic charges (magnetic poles); time-varying fields or waves are usually due to
accelerated charges or time-varying current.

Stationary charges Electrostatic fields


Steady current Magnetostatic fields
Time-varying current Electromagnetic fields (or waves)

Faraday discovered that the induced emf, Vemf (in volts), in any closed circuit is equal to the
time rate of change of the magnetic flux linkage by the circuit

This is called Faradays Law, and it can be expressed as

Vemf

d
d
N
dt
dt

1.1

where N is the number of turns in the circuit and is the flux through each turn. The negative
sign shows that the induced voltage acts in such a way as to oppose the flux producing it. This
is known as Lenzs Law, and it emphasizes the fact that the direction of current flow in the
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Field Theory

10ES36

circuit is such that the induced magnetic filed produced by the induced current will oppose the
original magnetic field.

Fig. 1 A circuit showing emf-producing field Ef and electrostatic field Ee

TRANSFORMER AND MOTIONAL EMFS

Having considered the connection between emf and electric field, we may examine how
Faraday's law links electric and magnetic fields. For a circuit with a single (N = 1), eq. (1.1)
becomes

Vemf N

d
dt

1.2
In terms of E and B, eq. (1.2) can be written as

Vemf E dl
L

d
B dS
dt S

1.3
where, has been replaced by

B dS

and S is the surface area of the circuit bounded by the

closed path L. It is clear from eq. (1.3) that in a time-varying situation, both electric and
magnetic fields are present and are interrelated. Note that dl and dS in eq. (1.3) are in
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accordance with the right-hand rule as well as Stokes's theorem. This should be observed in
Figure 2. The variation of flux with time as in eq. (1.1) or eq. (1.3) may be caused in three
ways:

1. By having a stationary loop in a time-varying B field


2. By having a time-varying loop area in a static B field
3. By having a time-varying loop area in a time-varying B field.

A. STATIONARY LOOP IN TIME-VARYING B FIELD (TRANSFORMER EMF)

This is the case portrayed in Figure 2 where a stationary conducting loop is in a time varying
magnetic B field. Equation (1.3) becomes

Vemf E dl
L

B
dS
t

1.4

Fig. 2: Induced emf due to a stationary loop in a time varying B field.

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This emf induced by the time-varying current (producing the time-varying B field) in a
stationary loop is often referred to as transformer emf in power analysis since it is due to
transformer action. By applying Stokes's theorem to the middle term in eq. (1.4), we obtain

E dS t dS
S

1.5

For the two integrals to be equal, their integrands must be equal; that is,

B
t

1.6

This is one of the Maxwell's equations for time-varying fields. It shows that the time varying
E field is not conservative ( x E 0). This does not imply that the principles of energy
conservation are violated. The work done in taking a charge about a closed path in a timevarying electric field, for example, is due to the energy from the time-varying magnetic field.

B. MOVING LOOP IN STATIC B FIELD (MOTIONAL EMF)

When a conducting loop is moving in a static B field, an emf is induced in the loop. We
recall from eq. (1.7) that the force on a charge moving with uniform velocity u in a magnetic
field B is

Fm = Qu x B

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1.7

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Field Theory

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We define the motional electric field Em as

Em

Fm
uB
Q

1.8

If we consider a conducting loop, moving with uniform velocity u as consisting of a large


number of free electrons, the emf induced in the loop is

Vemf Em dl u B dl
L

1.9

This type of emf is called motional emf or flux-cutting emf because it is due to motional
action. It is the kind of emf found in electrical machines such as motors, generators, and
alternators.

C. MOVING LOOP IN TIME-VARYING FIELD

This is the general case in which a moving conducting loop is in a time-varying magnetic
field. Both transformer emf and motional emf are present. Combining equation 1.4 and 1.9
gives the total emf as

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10ES36

B
dS u B dl

t
S
L

Vemf E dl
L

1.10

Em u B
1.11

or from equations 1.6 and 1.11.

B
u B
t

1.12

DISPLACEMENT CURRENT

For static EM fields, we recall that

xH=J

1.13

But the divergence of the curl of any vector field is identically zero.

Hence,

. ( x H) = 0 = . J
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1.14
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Field Theory

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The continuity of current requires that

v
0
t

1.15

Thus eqs. 1.14 and 1.15 are obviously incompatible for time-varying conditions. We must
modify eq. 1.13 to agree with eq. 1.15. To do this, we add a term to eq. 1.13, so that it
becomes

x H = J + Jd

1.16

where Jd is to be determined and defined. Again, the divergence of the curl of any vector is
zero. Hence:

. ( x H) = 0 = . J + . Jd

1.17

In order for eq. 1.17 to agree with eq. 1.15,

J d J

D
D
t
t
t

1.18
or

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Field Theory

Jd

10ES36

D
t

1.19
Substituting eq. 1.19 into eq. 1.15 results in

H J

D
t

1.20
This is Maxwell's equation (based on Ampere's circuit law) for a time-varying field. The term
Jd = D/t is known as displacement current density and J is the conduction current density (J
= E)3.

Fig. 3 Two surfaces of integration showing the need for Jd in Amperes circuit law

The insertion of Jd into eq. 1.13 was one of the major contribution of Maxwell. Without the
term Jd, electromagnetic wave propagation (radio or TV waves, for example) would be
impossible. At low frequencies, Jd is usually neglected compared with J. however, at radio
frequencies, the two terms are comparable. At the time of Maxwell, high-frequency sources
were not available and eq. 1.20 could not be verified experimentally.

Based on displacement current density, we define the displacement current as


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I d J d dS

D
dS
t

1.21

We must bear in mind that displacement current is a result of time-varying electric field. A
typical example of such current is that through a capacitor when an alternating voltage source
is applied to its plates.

PROBLEM: A parallel-plate capacitor with plate area of 5 cm2 and plate separation of 3 mm
has a voltage 50 sin 103 t V applied to its plates. Calculate the displacement current assuming
= 2 0.

Solution:

D E

Jd

V
d

D dV

t d dt

Hence,

Id Jd S

S dV
d dt

dV
dt

which is the same as the conduction current, given by

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Ic

d
dQ
dD
dE S dV
dV
S s S
S

C
dt
dt
dt
dt
d dt
dt

Id 2

10 9 5 10 4

10 3 50 cos 10 3 t
3
36 3 10

= 147.4 cos 103 t nA

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EQUATION OF CONTINUITY FOR TIME VARYING FIELDS

Equation of continuity in point form is

. J = -v

where,
J = conduction current density (A/M2)
P = volume charge density (C/M3), v

v
t

= vector differential operator (1/m)

ax

ay
az
x
y
z

Proof: Consider a closed surface enclosing a charge Q. There exists an outward flow of
current given by

I J dS
S

This is equation of continuity in integral form.

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From the principle of conservation of charge, we have

I J dS
S

dQ
dt

From the divergence theorem, we have

I J dS J d
S

Thus,

J d

By definition,

Q d

dQ
dt

where ,

= volume charge density (C/m3)

So,

J d

where

d d
t

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The volume integrals are equal only if their integrands are equal.

Thus,

. J = -

MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS FOR STATIC EM FIELDS

Differential (or

Integral Form

Point) Form

S D dS v dv

. D = v

Remarks

Gauss's law

x E =-

Nonexistence of magnetic

SB dS 0

.B=0

B
t

xH=J+

monopole

E dl t B dS
L

Faradays Law

D
t

L H dl J dS

Ampere's circuit law

MAXWELLS EQUATIONS FOR TIME VARYING FIELDS

These are basically four in number.


Maxwell's equations in differential form are given by
xH=

D
+J
t

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Field Theory

xE=-

10ES36

B
t

.D =
.B = 0
Here,
H = magnetic field strength (A/m)
D = electric flux density, (C/m2)
(D/t) = displacement electric current density (A/m2)
J = conduction current density (A/m 2)
E = electric field (V/m)
B = magnetic flux density wb/m2 or Tesla
(B/t) = time-derivative of magnetic flux density (wb/m2 -sec)
B is called magnetic current density (V/m2) or Tesla/sec
P = volume charge density (C/m3)
Maxwell's equations for time varying fields in integral form are given by

dL

L
S D J dS

E dL B dS
L

D dS d
S

B dS 0
S

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Page 139

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DEFINATIONS OF MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS

1. The first Maxwell's equation states that the magnetomotive force around a closed path
is equal to the sum of electric displacement and, conduction currents through any
surface bounded by the path.

2. The second law states that the electromotive force around a closed path is equal to the
inflow of magnetic current through any surface bounded by the path.

3. The third law states that the total electric displacement flux passing through a closed
surface (Gaussian surface) is equal to the total charge inside the surface.

4. The fourth law states that the total magnetic flux passing through any closed surface
is zero.

MAXWELLS EQUATIONS FOR STATIC FIELDS

Maxwells Equations for static fields are:

H J H dL J dS
L

E 0 E dL 0
L

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D D dS d
S

B 0 B dS 0
S

As the fields are static, all the field terms which have time derivatives are zero, that is,
0,

D
=
t

B
= 0.
t

PROOF OF MAXWELLS EQUATIONS

1. From Ampere's circuital law, we have

xH=J

Take dot product on both sides

.xH=.J

As the divergence of curl of a vector is zero,

RHS = . J = 0

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10ES36

But the equation of continuity in point form is

This means that if x H = J is true, it is resulting in . J = 0.

As the equation of continuity is more fundamental, Ampere's circuital law


should be modified. Hence we can write

xH=J+F

Take dot product on both sides

.xH=.J+.F

that is,

.xH=0=.J+.F

Substituting the value of .J from the equation of continuity in the above


expression, we get

. F + (-) = 0

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or,

10ES36

. F = -

The point form of Gauss's law is

. D =

or,

. D =

From the above expressions, we get

.F=.D

The divergence of two vectors are equal only if the vectors are identical,

that is, F = D

So,

xH=D+J

Hence proved.

2. According to Faraday's law,

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10ES36

emf

d
dt

= magnetic flux, (wb)

and by definition,

emf E dL
L

E dL
L

But

d
dt

B dS
S

E dL t dS
L

B dS ,

B
t

Applying Stoke's theorem to LHS, we get

E dL E dS
L

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10ES36

E dS B dS
S

Two surface integrals are equal only if their integrands are equal,

that is, x E = - B

Hence proved.

3. From Gauss's law in electric field, we have

D dS Q d
S

Applying divergence theorem to LHS, we get

D dS Dd d
S

Two volume integrals are equal if their integrands are equal,

that is,

. D =

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10ES36

Hence proved.

4. We have Gauss's law for magnetic fields as

B dS 0
S

RHS is zero as there are no isolated magnetic charges and the magnetic flux lines are closed
loops.

Applying divergence theorem to LHS, we get

B d 0

or,
.B=0

Hence proved.

PROBLEM 1:
Given E = 10 sin (t - y) ay V/m, in free space, determine D, B and H.

Solution:
E = 10 sin (t - y) ay, V/m

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D = 0 E, 0 = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m

D = 100 sin (t - y) ay, C/m2

Second Maxwells equation is

x E = -B

ax

That is, E
x
0

or,

As

ay

y
Ey

az

z
0

E a x E y 0 a z E y
z
x

Ey = 10 sin (t - z) V/m

E y
x

Now, x E becomes

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E y
z

ax

= 10 cos (t - z) ax

B
t

B 10 cost z dt a x

or

and

10

sin t z a z , wb / m 2

10

sin t z a z , A / m

PROBLEM 2: If the electric field strength, E of an electromagnetic wave in free space is

given by E = 2 cos t

Solution:

z
a y V/m, find the magnetic field, H.
0

We have

B/t = - x E

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ax

x
0

ay

y
Ey

az

z
0

a x E y a y (0) a z E y
x
z

E y
z

z
sin t a x
0
0

or,

or,

Thus,

ax

z
cos t a x
0
0

z
cos t a x
0 0
0
2

z
cos t a x
0
0

Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT

z
dt a x
0

sin t

0
0

120

0 0
1

Page 149

Field Theory

10ES36

1
z
cos t a x A / m
60
0

PROBLEM 3: If the electric field strength of a radio broadcast signal at a TV receiver is


given by

E = 5.0 cos (t - y) az, V/m,

determine the displacement current density. If the same field exists in a medium whose
conductivity is given by 2.0 x 103 (mho)/cm, find the conduction current density.

Solution:
E at a TV receiver in free space

= 5.0 cos (t - y) az, V/m

Electric flux density

D = 0 E = 5 0 cos (t - y) az, V/m

The displacement current density

Jd D

D
t

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Field Theory

10ES36

5 0 cost y a z
t

Jd = -50 sin (t - y) az, V/m2

The conduction current density,

Jc = E

= 2.0 x 103 (mho) /cm


= 2 x 105 mho /m

Jc = 2 x 105 x 5 cos (t - y) az

Jc = 106 cos (t - y) az V/m2

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Field Theory

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UNIT -7: UNIFORM PLANE WAVES


Wave propagation in free space, Wave propagation in dielectrics, Poyntings theorem
and wave power, Propagation in good conductors
Recommended readings:
1.

Energy Electromagnetics, William H Hayt Jr . and John A Buck, Tata


McGraw-Hill, 7th edition,2006.

2.

Electromagnetics with Applications, John Krauss and Daniel A Fleisch


McGraw-Hill, 5th edition, 1999

3.
Electromagnetic Waves And Radiating Systems, Edward C. Jordan and Keith
G Balmain, Prentice Hall of India / Pearson Education, 2nd edition, 1968.Reprint
2002
4.

Field and Wave Electromagnetics, David K Cheng, Pearson Education Asia,


2nd edition, - 1989, Indian Reprint 2001.

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UNIT -7
UNIFORM PLANE WAVES
Sinusoidal Time Variations:
In practice, most generators produce voltage and currents and hence electric and
magnetic fields which vary sinusoidally with time. Further, any periodic variation can
be represented as a weight sum of fundamental and harmonic frequencies.
Therefore we consider fields having sinusoidal time variations, for example,
E = Em cos t
E = Em sin t
Here, w = 2f, f = frequency of the variation.
Therefore every field or field component varies sinusoidally, mathematically by an

additional term. Representing sinusoidal variation. For example, the electric field E
can be represented as

E x, y, z , t as


ie., E r , t ; r x, y, z

Where E is the time varying field.


The time varying electric field can be equivalently represented, in terms of

corresponding phasor quantity E (r) as

E r , t Re E r e jt ________ (11)

The symbol tilda placed above the E vector represents that E is time varying
quantity.
The phasor notation:
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT

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Field Theory

10ES36

We consider only one component at a time, say Ex.


The phasor Ex is defined by
r, t R E r e jt ________ (12)
E
x
e
x

| Ex |
| Ex |
t

E x

Ex r denotes Ex as a function of space (x,y,z). In general Ex r is complex and


hence can be represented as a point in a complex and hence can be represented as a
point in a complex plane. (see fig) Multiplication by e jwt results in a rotation through
an angle wt measured from the angle . At t increases, the point Ex e jwt traces out a
circle with center at the origin. Its projection on the real axis varies sinusoidally with
(varying sinusoidally
time & we get the time-harmonically varying electric field Ex

with time). We note that the phase of the sinusoid is determined by , the argument of
the complex number Ex.
Therefore the time varying quantity may be expressed as
E x Re Ex e j e jt ________ (13)
Ex cos( t ) ________ (14)

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Field Theory

10ES36

Maxwells eqn. in phasor notation:


In time harmonic form, the Maxwells first curl eqn. is:

D
H J
_______ (15)
t
using phasor notation, this eqn. becomes,

Re He jt Re De jt Re Je jt ________ (16)
t

The diff. Operator & Re part operator may be interchanged to get,

j t
j t
Re He j t Re
De
Re
Je

j t

j t
Re
j D e Re Je

Re H j D J e j t
0

This relation is valid for all t. Thus we get

H J j D ________ (17)

This phasor form can be obtained from time-varying form by replacing each time
derivative by

jw ie.,

is to be replaced by
t

For the sinusoidal time variations, the Maxwells equation may be expressed in phasor
form as:

Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT

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Field Theory

10ES36

(17)

H J j D

(18)

E j B

(19)

(20)

B 0


H dL

J j D ds
S



E dl j B ds


D ds


B ds 0

dV

The continuity eqn., contained within these is,

J j


J ds j dv _______ (21)
vol

The constitutive eqn. retain their forms:

D E

B H

J E

____ (22)

For sinusoidal time variations, the wave equations become

E 2 E

2
H 2 H
2

( for electric field )


( for electric field )

_________ (23)

Vector Helmholtz eqn.


In a conducting medium, these become

2 E 2 j E 0

________ (24)
2 H 2 j H 0
Wave propagation in a loss less medium:
In phasor form, the wave eqn. for VPW is

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10ES36

2 E
2
2

E
Ey
2
2 E y _______ (25)
x
;
2

2 E

E y C1

e j x C2 e j x _______ (26)

C1 & C2 are arbitrary constants.


The corresponding time varying field is

E y x, t Re E y x e j t
Re C1 e j t z C2 e j t z ______ (27)
C1 cos t z C2 cos t z ______ (28)
When C1 and C2 are real.
Therefore we note that, in a homogeneous, lossless medium, the assumption of
sinusoidal time variations results in a space variation which is also sinusoidal.
Eqn. (27) and (28) represent sum of two waves traveling in opposite directions.
If C1 = C2 , the two traveling waves combine to form a simple standing wave which
does not progress.
If we rewrite eqn. (28) with Ey as a fn of (x-t),
we get =

Let us identify some point in the waveform and observe its velocity; this point is

t x a constant

Then

dx

dt

' a ' t

This velocity is called phase velocity, the velocity of a phase point in the wave.
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT

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Field Theory

10ES36

is called the phase shift constant of the wave.

Wavelength: These distance over which the sinusoidal waveform passes through a
full cycle of 2 radians
ie.,

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10ES36

2
2

or

But

or
f ;

f in H Z

Wave propagation in a conducting medium


We have,

2 E 2 E 0
Where

2 j
j j

is called the propagation constant is, in general, complex.


Therefore, = + j
= Attenuation constant
= phase shift constant.
The eqn. for UPW of electric field strength is

2 E
2

E
x 2

One possible solution is

E x E0e x
Therefore in time varying form, we get
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Page 159

Field Theory

10ES36

E x, t Re E e x e jt
e x Re E0e jwt

This eqn. shown that a up wave traveling in the +x direction and attenuated by a
factor e x .
The phase shift factor

and velocity f

= Real part of = RP

j jt

2
1 2 2 1

2
1 2 2 1

Conductors and dielectrics:


We have the phasor form of the 1st Maxwells curl eqn.

H E j E J c J disp

where J c E conduction current density ( A/m2 )

J disp j E displacement current density ( A/m2 )

J cond

J disp

We can choose a demarcation between dielectrics and conductors;


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Field Theory

10ES36

1 is conductor.

Cu: 3.5*108 @ 30 GHz

1 is dielectric.

Mica: 0.0002 @ audio and RF

* For good conductors,

& are independent of freq.

* For most dialectics,

& are function of freq.

is relatively constant over frequency range of interest

Therefore dielectric constant


*

dissipation factor D

if D is small, dissipation factor is practically as the power factor of the dielectric.


PF = sin
= tan-1D
PF & D difference by <1% when their values are less than 0.15.

Example 11.1
a) Express

E y 100 cos 2 108 t 0.5 z 300 v / m as a phasor


E y Re 100 e j 2 10

t 0.5 z 300

Drop Re and suppress ejwt term to get phasor


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Field Theory

Therefore phasor form of Eys = 100e0.5 z 30

10ES36

Whereas Ey is real, Eys is in general complex.


Note: 0.5z is in radians; 300 in degrees.
Example 11.2
Given

20 500 ay
40 2100 az
,V / m
Es 100 300 ax

find its time varying form representation

Let us rewrite Es as

0
0
0
20e j 50 ay
40e j 210 az
.V / m
Es 100e j 30 ax

E Re Es e j t
j t 300
j t 500
j t 2100
Re 100e
20e
40e
V /m

E 100 cos t 300 20 cos t 500 40 cos t 2100 V / m

None of the amplitudes or phase angles in this are expressed as a function of x,y
or z.
Even if so, the procedure is still effective.
b) Consider

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Field Theory

10ES36

A/ m
H s 20e 0.1 j 20 z ax

0.1 j 20 z

H t Re 20e
ax
e j t

A/ m
20e 0.1z cos t 20 z ax
E x E x x, y , z
Note :

consider

Ex

Re E x x, y , z
t
t
Re j Ex e j t

e j t

Therefore taking the partial derivative of any field quantity wrt time is equivalent to
multiplying the corresponding phasor by j .

Example
Given

200 j 600 az
e j 0.4 x V / m
E0 s 500 400 ay
Find a

b E at 2, 3,1 at t 0

c
E
at 2, 3,1 at t 10 ns.

d
E
at 3, 4, 2 at t 20 ns.

a) From given data,

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Page 163

Field Theory

10ES36

0.4 0 0
0.4 3 108

4 107

10 9
36 9

120 106

f 19.1 106 Hz

b) Given

200 j 600 az
e j 0.4 x
Es 500 400 ay
632.456e j 71.565 e j 0.4 x az

500e j 40 e j 0.4 x ay
0

500e

j 0.4 x 400

j 0.4 x 71.565
ay
632.456e

az
0

j 0.4 x 400
j 0.4 x 71.5650
632.456 e j t e

E t 500 Re e j t e
ay
az

632.456 cos t 0.4 x 71.565 az

500 cos t 0.4 x 400 ay

632.456 0.4 x 71.565 az

E at 2,3,1 t 0 500 cos 0.4 x 400 ay


291.076 az
V /m
36.297 ay

c)

E at t 10 ns at 2, 3,1

500 cos 120 106 10 109 0.4 2 400 ay

632.456 cos 120 106 10 109 0.4 2 71.5650 az


417.473 az
V /m
477.823 ay

d)

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10ES36

at t = 20 ns,

E at 2,3,1
631.644 az
V /m
438.736 ay

D 11.2:

320 ay
e j 0.07 z
Given H s 2 400 ax

A/ m

for a UPW traveling in free

space. Find
(a)

(b) Hx at p(1,2,3) at t = 31 ns.

(c) H at t=0 at the

origin.

(a) we have p = 0.07

(e j z term)

0.07

0.07
0.07 3 108 21.0 106 rad / sec

21.0 106 rad / sec

(b)

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Page 165

Field Theory

10ES36

0
0
3 e j 20 e j 0.07 z ay
e j t
H t Re 2 e j 40 e j 0.07 z ax

3 cos t 0.07 z 200 ay

2 cos t 0.07 z 400 ax

H x (t ) 2 cos t 0.07 z 400


H x (t ) at p 1, 2, 3

2 cos 2.1106 t 0.21 400

At t 31n sec; 2 cos 2.1106 3110 9 0.21 400


2 cos 651103 0.21 400
1.9333

A/ m

(c)

3cos 0.7 z 0.35 ay

H t at t 0 2 cos 0.07 z 0.7 ax

3cos 0.3 ay

H t 2 cos 0.7 ax
2.82ay

1.53ax
3.20666 A / m

In free space,

E z , t 120 sin t z ay
find

V /m

z, t
Ey

we have

Hx

Hx

120

Ey

120

sin t z ay
120

120
1

sin t z

z, t

sin t z ax

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Problem 3. J&B
Non uniform plans waves also can exist under special conditions. Show that the
function

F e z sin

x t

satisfies the wave equation 2 F

1 2 F
c 2 t 2

provided the wave velocity is given by

2c 2
e 1
2

Ans:
From the given eqn. for F, we note that F is a function of x and z,

2 F
2 F
F

x 2
y 2
F

e z
cos x t
x

2
F

2 e z
z
e
F
x t
sin
2
x 2

e z sin
x t
z

2 F

2 z

e
sin
x t 2 F
2
z

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Field Theory

10ES36

F 2 2 F

dF


e z cos x t
dt


d 2F

e z sin x t
2
dt

2

2 F
The given wave equation is

1 2 F
c 2 t 2
2
1
2 F 2

c

2 F

F
2

2
2

2
c2
2
2
2 2 2
c

2
2
2 2

2c 2

2c 2 2

c2

or

2c 2
2

2c 2
1
2

Example
The electric field intensity of a uniform plane wave in air has a magnitude of 754
V/m and is in the z direction. If the wave has a wave length = 2m and
propagating in the y direction.
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Find
(i)
(ii)

Frequency and when the field has the form A cos t z .

Find an expression for H .

In air or free space,

c 3 108 m / sec

(i)

3 108
f

m / sec 1.5 108 Hz 150 MHz

2m
2
2

3.14 rad / m

2m
Ez 754 cos 2 150 106 t y
e

(ii)
For a wave propagating in the +y direction,

E
Ez
x
Hz
Hz
For the given wave,

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Field Theory

10ES36

Ez 754 V / m;

Ex 0

754
754
H x 754

A/ m
120 377

H 2 cos 2 150 106 t y ax

A/ m

Example
find for copper having = 5.8*107 (/m) at 50Hz, 3MHz, 30GHz.

1
f

1
1
1

7
7
4 10
5.8 10
f

1
1

4 2 5.8 f

1
66 10 3

23.2 2 f
f

66 10 3
9.3459 10 3 m
50
66 103
(ii )
3.8105 10 5 m
3 106
66 103
(iii )
3.8105 10 7 m
6
3 10
(i )

Wave Propagation in a loss less medium:


Definition of uniform plane wave in Phasor form:
In phasor form, the uniform plane wave is defined as one for which the equiphase
surface is also an equiamplitude surface, it is a uniform plane wave.
For a uniform plane wave having no variations in x and y directions, the wave
equation in phasor form may be expressed as

2 E
2

E
Z 2

0r

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2 E
2

E
________ (i )
Z 2
Page 170

Field Theory

10ES36

where . Let us consider eqn.(i) for, the Ey component, we get

2 Ey
Z

2 Ey

E y has a solution of the form,

Ey C1e j z C2e j z ________ (2)


Where C1 and C2 are arbitrary complex constants. The corresponding time varying
form of E y is

E y z , t Re E y z e j t
Re C1

e j z C2

e j z e jt _______ (3)

If C1 and C2 are real, the result of real part extraction operation is,

Ey z, t C1 cos t z C2 cos t z _______ (4)


From (3) we note that, in a homogeneous lossless medium, sinusoidal time
variation results in space variations which is also sinusoidal.
Equations (3) and (4) represent sum of two waves traveling in opposite directions.
If C1 = C2, the two wave combine to form a standing wave which does not
progress.

Phase velocity and wavelength:


The wave velocity can easily obtained when we rewrite Ey as a function and

z t , as in eqn. (4). This shows that


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Field Theory

10ES36

________(5)

In phasor form, identifying a some reference point on the waveform and observing
its velocity may obtain the same result. For a wave traveling in the +Z direction,
this point is given by t z a constant.

dz

, as in eqn. (5)
dt

This velocity of some point on the sinusoidal waveform is called the phase
velocity. is called the phase-shift constant and is a measure of phase shift in
radians per unit length.

Wavelength: Wavelength is defined as that distance over which the sinusoidal


waveform passes through a full cycle of 2 radius.
ie.,

2
2
2
2

;
________(7)
2 f f

f ,
f in Hz
________(8)
For the value of given in eqn. (1), the phase velocity is,

0 C

0 _______(9)

C 3 108 m / sec

Wave propagation in conducting medium:


The wave eqn. written in the form of Helmholtz eqn. is
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2 E 2 E 0 _______(10)
where

2 2 j j j _______(11)

, the propagation constant is complex = + j _________(12)


We have, for the uniform plane wave traveling in the z direction, the electric field

E must satisfy

2 E
2

E
_______(13)
Z 2
This equation has a possible solution

E Z E0e Z _______(14)
In time varying form this is becomes

E z, t Re E0
= e

Re E0

e Z

e jt _______(15)

e j t z ________(16)

This is the equation of a wave traveling in the +Z direction and attenuated by a


factor e Z . The phase shift factor and the wavelength phase, velocity, as in the
lossless case, are given by

The propagation constant


We have,

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j j ________(11)

Page 173

Field Theory

10ES36

2 j 2 2 j 2 j 2 ________(17)
2

2 2 2 ;

2 2 2 ________(18)


________(19)
2
Therefore (19) in (18) gives:
2


2


4
4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 0
2

2 2 2
4

2 4 2 2 2 2 2
2

2 2
1

2
2
2 2

1 1 2 2
2

2

2
1 2 2

1 _________(20)

and

2
1 2 2

1 ___________(21)

We choose some reference point on the wave, the cosine function,(say a rest). The
value of the wave ie., the cosine is an integer multiple of 2 at erest.

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10ES36

k0 z 2m

at mth erest.

Now let us fix our position on the wave as this mth erest and observe time
variation at this position, nothing that the entire cosine argument is the same
multiple of 2 for all time in order to keep track of the point.
ie.,

t k0 0 z 2m t z / c

Thus at t increases, position z must also increase to satisfy eqn. (

). Thus the

wave erest (and the entire wave moves in a +ve direction) with a speed given by
the above eqn.
Similarly, eqn. ( ) having a cosine argument t 0 z describes a wave that
moves in the negative direction (as + increases z must decrease to keep the
argument constant). These two waves are called the traveling waves.
Let us further consider only +ve z traveling wave:
We have

0
x
Ex

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0
y
Ey

z
0

Page 175

Field Theory

10ES36

Es j H s
E y
Ex
i
k0 j iH 0 x j by
j
z
z

Exs

j H 0 y
z
0
1
H oy
Ez 0 e jk0 z E x 0
e j 0 z
j
0

H y z , t Ex 0
Ex

Hy

cos t 0 z

0 377 120

Ey and Hx are in phase in time and space. The UPW is called so because is
uniform thought any plane Z = constant.
Energy flow is in +Z direction.
E and H are perpendicular to the direction of propagation; both lie in a plane that
is transverse to the direction of propagation. Therefore also called a TEM wave.

direction is 250 V/m. If E


11.1. The electric field amplitude of a UPW in the az

and = 1m rad/sec, find (i) f (ii) (iii) period (iv) amplitude of H


= Ex ax

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Field Theory

10ES36

2 f
106
f

159.155 KHz
2
2
2
C
1.88495 km
f
1
period
6.283 s
f
E
amplitude of H y x 120
Hy

Hy

Ex
250

0.6631 A / m
120
120

11.2. Given

3200 ay
e j 0.07 z A / m
H s 2 400 ax

for a certain UPW

traveling in free space.

Find (i), (ii)Hx at p(1,2,3) at t = 31ns and (iii) H at t = 0 at the orign.

Wave propagation in dielectrics:


For an isotopic and homogeneous medium, the wave equation becomes

2 Es k 2 s
k

k0

r r 0

r r

For Ex component
We have

d 2 Exs
k 2 Exs
2
dz

for Ex comp. Of electric field wave traveling in Z

direction.
k can be complex one of the solutions of this eqn. is,
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Page 177

Field Theory

10ES36

jk j
Exs Ex 0 e z e j z
Therefore its time varying part becomes,

Exs Ex 0e z cos t z
This is UPW that propagates in the +Z direction with phase constant but losing its
amplitude with increasing Z e z . Thus the general effect of a complex valued k
is to yield a traveling wave that changes its amplitude with distance.
If is +ve

= attenuation coefficient if is +ve wave decays

If is -ve

= gain coefficient

In passive media, is +ve

wave grows
is measured in repers per meter

In amplifiers (lasers) is ve.

Wave propagation in a conducting medium for medium for time-harmonic


fields:
(Fields with sinusoidal time variations)
For sinusoidal time variations, the electric field for lossless medium ( = 0)
becomes

2 E 2 E
In a conducting medium, the wave eqn. becomes for sinusoidal time variations:

2 E 2 j E 0
Problem:
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Field Theory

10ES36

Using Maxwells eqn. (1) show that

.D 0

in a conductor

if ohms law and sinusoidal time variations are assumed. When ohms law and
sinusoidal time variations are assumed, the first Maxwells curl equation is

H E j E
Taking divergence on both sides, we get,

H E j E 0

E j 0

or D j 0

, & are

constants and of finite values and 0

D 0

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Page 179

Field Theory

10ES36

Wave Propagation in a loss less medium:


Definition of uniform plane wave in Phasor form:
In phasor form, the uniform plane wave is defined as one for which the equiphase
surface is also an equiamplitude surface, it is a uniform plane wave.
For a uniform plane wave having no variations in x and y directions, the wave
equation in phasor form may be expressed as

2 E
2

E
Z 2

2 E
2

E
________ (i )
Z 2

0r

where . Let us consider eqn.(i) for, the Ey component, we get

2 Ey
Z

2 Ey

E y has a solution of the form,

Ey C1e j z C2e j z ________ (2)


Where C1 and C2 are arbitrary complex constants. The corresponding time varying
form of E y is

E y z , t Re E y z e j t
Re C1

e j z C2

e j z e jt _______ (3)

If C1 and C2 are real, the result of real part extraction operation is,

Ey z, t C1 cos t z C2 cos t z _______ (4)


From (3) we note that, in a homogeneous lossless medium, sinusoidal time
variation results in space variations which is also sinusoidal.
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Field Theory

10ES36

Equations (3) and (4) represent sum of two waves traveling in opposite directions.
If C1 = C2, the two wave combine to form a standing wave which does not
progress.

Phase velocity and wavelength:


The wave velocity can easily obtained when we rewrite Ey as a function and

z t , as in eqn. (4). This shows that

________(5)

In phasor form, identifying a some reference point on the waveform and observing
its velocity may obtain the same result. For a wave traveling in the +Z direction,
this point is given by t z a constant.

dz

, as in eqn. (5)
dt

This velocity of some point on the sinusoidal waveform is called the phase
velocity. is called the phase-shift constant and is a measure of phase shift in
radians per unit length.

Wavelength: Wavelength is defined as that distance over which the sinusoidal


waveform passes through a full cycle of 2 radius.
ie.,

2
2
2
2

;
________(7)
2 f f

f ,
f in Hz
________(8)
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT

Page 181

Field Theory

10ES36

For the value of given in eqn. (1), the phase velocity is,

0 C

0 _______(9)

C 3 108 m / sec

Wave propagation in conducting medium:


The wave eqn. written in the form of Helmholtz eqn. is

2 E 2 E 0 _______(10)
where

2 2 j j j _______(11)

, the propagation constant is complex = + j _________(12)


We have, for the uniform plane wave traveling in the z direction, the electric field

E must satisfy

2 E
2

E
_______(13)
Z 2
This equation has a possible solution

E Z E0e Z _______(14)
In time varying form this is becomes

E z, t Re E0
= e

Re E0

e Z

e jt _______(15)

e j t z ________(16)

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Field Theory

10ES36

This is the equation of a wave traveling in the +Z direction and attenuated by a


factor e Z . The phase shift factor and the wavelength phase, velocity, as in the
lossless case, are given by

The propagation constant


We have,

j j ________(11)

2 j 2 2 j 2 j 2 ________(17)
2

2 2 2 ;

2 2 2 ________(18)


________(19)
2
Therefore (19) in (18) gives:

Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT

Page 183

Field Theory

10ES36


2


4
4 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 0
2

4 2 2
2

2 2 2
4

2 4 2 2 2 2 2
2

2 2
2 2 1

2 2
1 1 2 2

2
1

1 _________(20)

2 2

and

2
1 2 2 1 ___________(21)

We choose some reference point on the wave, the cosine function,(say a rest). The
value of the wave ie., the cosine is an integer multiple of 2 at erest.

k0 z 2m

at mth erest.

Now let us fix our position on the wave as this mth erest and observe time
variation at this position, nothing that the entire cosine argument is the same
multiple of 2 for all time in order to keep track of the point.
ie.,

t k0 0 z 2m t z / c

Thus at t increases, position z must also increase to satisfy eqn. (

). Thus the

wave erest (and the entire wave moves in a +ve direction) with a speed given by
the above eqn.

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10ES36

Similarly, eqn. ( ) having a cosine argument t 0 z describes a wave that


moves in the negative direction (as + increases z must decrease to keep the
argument constant). These two waves are called the traveling waves.
Let us further consider only +ve z traveling wave:
We have

0
x
Ex

z
0

0
y
Ey

Es j H s
E y
Ex
i
k0 j iH 0 x j by
j
z
z

Exs

j H 0 y
z
0
1
H oy
Ez 0 e jk0 z E x 0
e j 0 z
j
0

H y z , t Ex 0
Ex

Hy

Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT

cos t 0 z

0 377 120

Page 185

Field Theory

10ES36

Ey and Hx are in phase in time and space. The UPW is called so because is
uniform thought any plane Z = constant.
Energy flow is in +Z direction.
E and H are perpendicular to the direction of propagation; both lie in a plane that
is transverse to the direction of propagation. Therefore also called a TEM wave.

direction is 250 V/m. If E


11.1. The electric field amplitude of a UPW in the az

and = 1m rad/sec, find (i) f (ii) (iii) period (iv) amplitude of H


= Ex ax

2 f
106
f

159.155 KHz
2
2
2
C
1.88495 km
f
1
period
6.283 s
f
E
amplitude of H y x 120
Hy

Hy

Ex
250

0.6631 A / m
120
120

11.3. Given

3200 ay
e j 0.07 z A / m
H s 2 400 ax

for a certain UPW

traveling in free space.

Find (i), (ii)Hx at p(1,2,3) at t = 31ns and (iii) H at t = 0 at the orign.

Wave propagation in dielectrics:


For an isotopic and homogeneous medium, the wave equation becomes
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Field Theory

10ES36

2 Es k 2 s
k

k0

r r 0

r r

For Ex component
We have

d 2 Exs
k 2 Exs
2
dz

for Ex comp. Of electric field wave traveling in Z

direction.
k can be complex one of the solutions of this eqn. is,

jk j
Exs Ex 0 e z e j z
Therefore its time varying part becomes,

Exs Ex 0e z cos t z
This is UPW that propagates in the +Z direction with phase constant but losing its
amplitude with increasing Z e z . Thus the general effect of a complex valued k
is to yield a traveling wave that changes its amplitude with distance.
If is +ve

= attenuation coefficient if is +ve wave decays

If is -ve

= gain coefficient

In passive media, is +ve

wave grows
is measured in repers per meter

In amplifiers (lasers) is ve.

Wave propagation in a conducting medium for medium for time-harmonic


fields:
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT

Page 187

Field Theory

10ES36

(Fields with sinusoidal time variations)


For sinusoidal time variations, the electric field for lossless medium ( = 0)
becomes

2
E E
2

In a conducting medium, the wave eqn. becomes for sinusoidal time variations:

2 E 2 j E 0
Problem:
Using Maxwells eqn. (1) show that

.D 0

in a conductor

if ohms law and sinusoidal time variations are assumed. When ohms law and
sinusoidal time variations are assumed, the first Maxwells curl equation is

H E j E
Taking divergence on both sides, we get,

H E j E 0

E j 0

or D j 0

, & are

constants and of finite values and 0

D 0

POLARISATION:
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Field Theory

10ES36

It shows the time varying behavior of the electric field strength vector at some point in
space.

Consider of a UPW traveling along Z direction with E and H vectors lying in the xy plane.

0 and only Ex
is present, the wave is said to be polarized in the xIf Ey
direction.

is present, the wave is said to be polarized in the y = 0 and only Ey


If Ex
direction.

Therefore the direction of E is the direction of polarization

are present and are in phase, then the resultant electric


and Ey
If both Ex

.
and Ey
field E has a direction that depends on the relative magnitudes of Ex

The angle which this resultant direction makes with the x axis is tan-1

Ey
; and this

Ex

angle will be constant with time.


(a) Linear polarization:
In all the above three cases, the direction of the resultant vector is constant with time
and the wave is said to be linearly polarized.

are not in phase ie., they reach their maxima at different instances of
and Ey
If Ex
time, then the direction of the resultant electric vector will vary with time. In this case

it can be shown that the locus of the end point of the resultant E will be an ellipse and
the wave is said to be elliptically polarized.

have equal magnitudes and a 900 phase


and Ey
In the particular case where Ex

difference, the locus of the resultant E is a circle and the wave is circularly polarized.

Linear Polarisation:
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT

Page 189

Field Theory

10ES36

Consider the phasor form of the electric field of a UPW traveling in the Z-direction:

E0 e j z

Its time varying or instanious time form is

E Z , t Re E0e j z e jt
The wave is traveling in Z-direction.

Therefore E z lies in the x-y plane. In general, E0 is a complex vector ie., a vector
whose components are complex numbers.

Therefore we can write E0 as,

E0 Er jE0i

Where E0 and E0i are real vectors having, in general, different directions.
At some point in space, (say z = 0) the resultant time varying electric field is

E 0, t Re E0 r j E0i e j t

E0 r cos t E0i sin t

Therefore E not only changes its magnitude but also changes its direction as time
varies.

Circular Polarisation:
Here the x and y components of the electric field vector are equal in magnitude.
If Ey leads Ex by 900 and Ex and Ey have the same amplitudes,

j ay
E0
Ie., Ex E y , we have, E ax

The corresponding time varying version is,


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Field Theory

10ES36

cos t ay
sin t E0
E 0, t ax
Ex E0 cos t
and E y E0 sin t
Ex2 E y2 E02

Which shows that the end point of E 0 0, t traces a circle of radius E0 as time

progresses.
Therefore the wave is said to the circularly polarized. Further we see that the sense or
direction of rotation is that of a left handed screw advancing in the Z-direction ( ie., in
the direction of propagation). Then this wave is said to be left circularly polarized.
Similar remarks hold for a right-circularly polarized wave represented by the complex
vector,

j ay
E0
E ax

It is apparent that a reversal of the sense of rotation may be obtained by a 180 0 phase
shift applied either to the x component of the electric field.

Elliptical Polarisation:

Here x and y components of the electric field differ in amplitudes E x E y .


Assume that Ey leads Ex by 900.
Then,

A j ay
B
E0 ax
Where A and B are +ve real constants.
Its time varying form is

Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT

Page 191

Field Theory

10ES36

cos t ayB
sin t
E 0, t axA
E A cos t
x

E y B sin t

E x2
A2

E y 2
B2

Thus the end point of the E 0, t vector traces out an ellipse and the wave is

elliptically polarized; the sense of polarization is left-handed.


Elliptical polarization is a more general form of polarization. The polarization is
completely specified by the orientation and axial ratio of the polarization ellipse and y
the sense in which the end point of the electric field moves around the ellipse.
UNIT -8: REFLECTION AND REFARACTION OF PLANE WAVES
Reflection of uniform plane waves at normal incidence, Reflection of uniform plane
waves at normal incidence, SWR, Plane wave propagation in general directions
Recommended readings:
1.

Energy Electromagnetics, William H Hayt Jr . and John A Buck, Tata


McGraw-Hill, 7th edition,2006.

2.

Electromagnetics with Applications, John Krauss and Daniel A Fleisch


McGraw-Hill, 5th edition, 1999

3.
Electromagnetic Waves And Radiating Systems, Edward C. Jordan and Keith
G Balmain, Prentice Hall of India / Pearson Education, 2nd edition, 1968.Reprint
2002
4.

Field and Wave Electromagnetics, David K Cheng, Pearson Education Asia,


2nd edition, - 1989, Indian Reprint 2001.

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Field Theory

10ES36

UNIT -8
REFLECTION AND REFARACTION OF PLANE WAVES
REFLECTION BY A PERFECT CONDUCTOR:
NORMAL INCIDENCE:
When an em wave traveling in one medium impinges upon a second medium having a
different , or , then the wave will be partially transmitted, and partially
reflected.
When a plane wave in air is incident normally on the surface of a perfect conductor

the wave is for fields that vary with time, neither E nor H can exist within a
conductor., therefore no energy of the incident wave is transmitted.
As there can be no loss within a perfect conductor; therefore none of the energy is

obsorbed. Therefore, the amplitudes of E and H in the reflected wave are the same
as in the incident wave; the only difference is in the direction of power flow.
Let Ei e j x ________(1) be the incident wave.
Let the boundary, the surface of the perfect conductor be at x = 0.

The reflected wave is Er e j x __________(2)


Er must be determined from the boundary conditions.
With respect to,
(i)
(ii)

Etan is continuous across the boundary

E is zero within the conductor.

Therefore at the boundary, ie., at x = 0, the electric field is zero. This requires that, the
sum of the electric field strengths in the initial and reflected waves add to give zero
resultant field strength in the plane x = 0.
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT

Page 193

Field Theory

10ES36

Er Ei _______(3)
The amplitude of the reflected electric field strength is equal to that of the incident
electric field strength but its phase has been reversed on reflection.
The resultant electric field strength at any point at any point a distance x from the x
= 0 plane is the sum of the field strengths of the incident and reflected wave at that
point, given by

ET x Ei e j x Er e j x

2 jEi e j x e j x
2 jEi sin x _______ 4

Its time varying version is


ET x , t Re 2 jEi sin x e j t

2 Ei sin x sin t , if Ei real _______ 5

1. Eqn. (3) shows that (1) the incident and reflected waves combine to produce a
standing wave, which does not progress.
2. The magnitude of the electric field varies sinusoidally with distance from the
reflecting plane.
3. It is zero at the surface and at multiples of half wave lengths from the surface.
4. It has a maximum value of twice the electric field strength of the incident
wave at distances from the surface that are odd multiples of a quarter
wavelength.

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In as much as the BCs require that the electric field is reversed in phase on reflection
to produce zero resultant field at the boundary surface.

Therefore if follows that H must be reflected without phase reversal. (otherwise if

both are reversed, on reversal of direction of energy propagation), which is required in


this case).
Therefore the phase of the mag field strength is the same as that of the incident mag
field strength Hi at the surface of reflection.

HT x H i e j x H r e j x

2 H i e j x e j x
2 H i cos x _______ 6

Hi is real since it is in phase with Ei

Further,

H T x, t Re HT x e jt
2 H i cos x cos t ______ 7

The resultant magnetic field strength H also has a standing was distribution. This
SWD has maximum value at the surface of the conductor and at multiples of a half
from the surface, where as the zero points occur at odd multiples of a quarter
wavelength from the surface. From the boundary conditions for H its follows that
there must be a surface current of Js amperes per such that JS = HT (at x = 0).
Since Ei and Hi were in phase in the incident plane wave, eqns. (6) and (7) show that
ET and HT are 90 0out of time phase because of the factor j in eqn. (4).
This is as it should be, for it indicates no average flow of power. This is the case when
the energy transmitted in the forward direction is equaled by that reflected back.
Let us rewrite eqns. (4) and (6)

Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT

Page 195

Field Theory

10ES36

ET x, t Re 2 Ei sin x e j / 2 e jt 2 Ei sin x cos t / 2 _______ 8


HT x, t 2 H i cos x cos t _______ 9

Eqns. (8) and (9) show that ET and HT differ in time phase by 900.

REFLECTION BY A PERFECT CONDUCTOR OBLIQUE INCIDENCE:


TWO SPACIAL CASES:
1. Horizontal Polarisation: (also called perpendicular polarization) Here the
electric field vector is parallel to the boundary surface, or perpendicular to the
plane of incidence.
( Transverse electric TE)
2. Vertical Polarisation: (also called parallel polarization) Here the magnetic
field vector is parallel to the boundary surface, and the electric field vector is
parallel to the plane of incidence. (Transverse magnetic TM)
TE or TM are used to indicate that the electric or magnetic vector respectively is
parallel to the boundary surface/plane.
When a wave is incident on a perfect conductor, the wave is totally reflected with the
angle of incidence equal to the angle of reflection.
Case 1: E perpendicular to the plane of incidence: (perpendicular Polarisation)
The incident and reflected waves have equal wavelengths and opposite directions
along the Z axis, the incident and reflected waves form a standing wave distribution
pattern along this axis.

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Field Theory

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In the y direction, both the incident and reflected waves progress to the right (+y
direction) with the same velocity and wavelength and so there will be a traveling
wave along the +y direction.
The expression for reflected wave, using the above fig, is

Erefelected Er e j y sin z cos ______ 8


and Eincident Ei e j y sin z cos ______ 9
j y sin z cos
j y sin z cos

E Ei e
e

2 jEi sin z cos e j y sin


2 jEi sin z z e

j y y

_______ 10

From the BCs we have,


Er = - Ei

Therefore total electric field strength E is given by

Erefelected Er e j y sin z cos ______ 8

and Eincident Ei e j y sin z cos ______ 9


j y sin z cos
j y sin z cos

E Ei e
e

2 jEi sin z cos e j y sin

2 jEi sin z z e

j y y

_______ 10

Where,

Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT

Page 197

Field Theory

10ES36

Phase shift constant of the incident wave,


z cos = Phase shift constant in the Z direction.


y sin = Phase shift constant in the y direction.

: wavelength: distance twice between modal points of


cos cos

the standing wave distribution.


The planes of zero electric field strength occur at multiples of

z
from the reflecting
2

surface.
The planes of max electric field strength occurs at odd multiples of

z
from the
4

surface.
The whole standing wave distribution of electric field strength is seen from eqn. (10)
above to be traveling in the y direction with a velocity,

y sin sin

This is the velocity with which a erest of the incident wave moves along the y axis.
The wavelength in this direction is,

sin

Case 2: E parallel to the plane of incidence: (parallel polarization)

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Field Theory

10ES36

Here, Ei and Er will have the instantaneous directions shown above, because the
components parallel to the perfectly conducting boundary must be equal and opposite.

The magnetic field strength vector H will be reflected without phase reversal.

The magnitudes of E and H are related by

Ei
E
r
Hi H r
For the incident wave, the wave expression for the magnetic field strength would be

H incident H i e j y sin z cos

and for the reflected wave,

H reflected H r e j y sin z cos


Therefore Hi = Hr
The total magnetic field H is,

H 2 H i cos z z e
where
z cos

j y y

and

y sin
The magnetic field strength has a standing wave distribution in the Z-direction with
the planes of maximum H located at the conducting surface and at multiples of

z
2

from the surface. The planes of zero magnetic field strength occur at odd multiples of

z
from the surface.
4
For the incident wave,
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT

Page 199

Field Theory

10ES36

Ei Hi , Ez sin Hi ; Ey cos Hi
For the reflected wave,

H r Hi , Ez sin H r ; Ey cos H r
The total z component of the electric field strength is,

Ex 2 sin

H i cos z z e

j y y

The total y component of the electric field strength is,

E y 2 j cos

H i sin z z e

j y y

Both Ey and Ez have a standing wave distribution above the reflecting surface.

However, for the normal or z components of E , the maxima occur at the plane and

multiples of z
from the plane, whereas for the component E parallel to the
2
reflecting surface the minima occur at the plane and at multiples of z

from the

plane.

REFLECTION BY PERFECT DIELECTRICS


Normal incidence:
In this case part of the energy is transmitted and part of the energy is reflected.
Perfect dielectric: = 0. no absorption or loss of power in propagation through the
dielectric.
Boundary is parallel to the x = 0 plane.
Plane wave traveling in +x direction is incident on it.

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Field Theory

10ES36

Ei 1 H r
We have,

Er 1 H r
Et 2 H t

BC: Tang comp. Of E or H is continuous across the boundary.


ie.,

Hi H r H z
Ei Er Et
Hi H r

Ei Er H z

1
2 Ei Er 1 Ei Er

Ei Er

Ei 2 1 Er 2 1

Er 2 1

Ei 2 1

Also,

Et
E Er
E
21
i
1 r
c
Ei
Ei 1 2

Further ,

Hr
E
2
r 1
Ht
E 1 2
H t 1 Et
21

H i 2 Ei 1 2

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Page 201

Field Theory

10ES36

The permeabilities of all known insulators do not differ appreciably from that of free
space, so that,

1 2

Er

Ei

Et

Ei
Hr

Hi
Ht

Hi

0 / 2
0 / 2

0 / 1

0 / 1

1 2
1 2

2 1
1 2
2 1
2 1
2 2
1 2

REFLECTION BY PERFECT DIELECTRIC:


OBLIQUE INCIDENCE:
1. There is a transmitted wave, reflected wave and the incident wave.
2. The transmitted wave is refracted 9direction of propagation is altered)

1 ______ vel. Of wave in medium (1)

2 ______ vel. Of wave in medium (2)

Then from figure, we get

CB 1

AD 2
Now CB = AB sin1 and AD = AB sin2.

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Field Theory

10ES36

2 2
2

1
1 1

sin 1 1

sin 2 2

In addition,
AE = CB
sin1 = sin3
or 1= 3
The power transmitted =

E2

E and H are perpendicular to each other.

Incident power striking AB

Reflected power leaving AB

The power transmitted =

1
1

E12 cos 1

E22 cos 1

Et2 cos 2 .

Therefore by conservation of energy we get

Et2 cos 1

Et2 cos 1

Et2 cos 2

Er2
1 Et2 cos 2
1
Et2
2 Ei2 cos 1
1

2
1

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Et2 cos 2
Ei2 cos 1

Page 203

Field Theory

10ES36

Case 1:
Perpendicular polarization (HP):

( E is perpendicular to the plane of incidence parallel to the reflecting surface)

Let Ei propagate along +x direction, so as the direction of Er and Et.


According to BCs. Etan and Htan are continuous. Across the boundary.

Ei E r Et

Et
E
1 r
Ei
Ei

But we have,

E r2
1
E i2

2 E t2 cos 2
2
1 E i cos 1

E r2
1
E i2

2
1

E
1 r
Ei

cos 2
cos 1
2

cos 2
cos 1

E r2
1 2
Ei

2
1

E
1 r
Ei

Er

Ei

2
1

E cos 2
1 r
E i cos 1

Er

Ei

1 cos 1 2 cos 2
1 cos 1 2 cos 2

But we have,

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Field Theory

sin 1
2

sin 2
1

10ES36

2 cos 2 2 1 sin 2 2 2 1 sin 2 1


1 cos 1 2 1 sin 2 1
Er

Ei
1 cos 1 2 1 sin 2 1
cos 1

2
sin 2 1
1

cos 1

2
sin 2 1
1

This equation gives the ratio of the reflected to incident electric field strength for the
case of a perpendicular polarized wave.
.
Case II:
Parallel Polarisation:

Here E is parallel to the plane of incidence.

H is parallel to the reflecting surface.


The BCs on tangential components give
Htan = Etan is continuous across the boundary.
Therefore this BC when applied, we get

Ei Er cos 1 Et cos 2

Et
E cos 1
1 r
Ei
Ei cos 2

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Page 205

Field Theory

10ES36

But we already have

2 E t2 cos 2
E r2

2
E i2
1 E i cos 1

2
E r2
E r2 cos 2 2 cos 2

E i2
Ei2 cos 2 1 cos 1
1

E r2
1 2
Ei

2
E r2 cos 1
1 2
Ei cos 2
1

Er

Ei

2
E cos 1
1 r
E i cos 2
1

Er
Ei

2 cos 1
1

1 cos 2

Er

Ei

2 cos 1
1
1 cos 2

2 cos 1 1 cos 2
2 cos 1 1 cos 2

But from Snells law we get

1 sin

2 cos 1 1 1 sin 2 2
2 cos 1 1

sin 2 2 1 / 2 sin 2 1

Therefore we get

Er

Ei

/ 1 cos 1

2
sin 2 1
1

/ 1 cos 1

2
sin 2 1
1

This equation gives the reflection coefficient for parallel or vertical polarization, ie.,

the ratio of reflected to incident electric field strength when E is parallel to the plane
of incidence.

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Field Theory

10ES36

BRESNSTER ANGLE:
We have

Er

Ei

/ 1 cos 1

2
sin 2 1
1

/ 1 cos 1

2
sin 2 1
1

When Nr = 0, Er = 0.
Therefore no reflection at all.
Therefore for zero reflection condition, we have,

2
cos 1
1

2
sin 2 1
1

22
2
2
cos

sin 2 1
1
2
1
1
22 22
2
2

sin

sin 2 1
1
2
2
1
1 1
22 22 sin 2 1 12 12 sin 2 1

2
1

22 sin 2 1 2 1 2

2 1 2 sin 2 1 2 1 2

sin 2 1

2
1 2

cos 2 1

1
1 2

tan 1

2
1

At this angle, which is called the Bresoster angle, there is no reflected wave when the
incident wave is parallel (or vertically) polarized. If the incident wave is not entirely
parallel polarized, there will he some reflection, but the reflected wave is entirely of
perpendicular (or horizontal) polarization.
Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT

Page 207

Field Theory

10ES36

Note:1
For perpendicular paolarisation, we have

E
Ei

cos 1 2 / 1 sin 2 1
cos 1 2 / 1 sin 2 1

putting

N r 0, we get

cos 1 2 / 1 sin 2 1
cos 2 1 2 / 1 sin 2 1
or 2 1

ie., there is no corresponding Bresvster angle for this polarization.

Note 2:
For parallel polarization,
We can show that

Er
tan 1 2

Ei
tan 1 2
and for perpendicular polarization, we can show that,

Er
sin 2 1

Ei
sin 2 1

TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION:


If 1 2 , then, both the reflection coefficients given by equations,

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Field Theory

Er

Ei

10ES36

2
sin 2 1
1

cos 1

( perpendicular polarization )

2
cos 1
sin 2 1
1

and

Er

Ei

2
sin 2 1
1

2 / 1 cos 1

( parallel polarization )

2
2 / 1 cos 1
sin 2 1
1

become complex numbers when, sin 1

2
1

a jb
and thus have a unit magnitude. In other
Both coefficients take the form
a jb
words, the reflection is total provided that 1 is great enough and also provided that
medium (1) is denser than medium. (2) but total reflection does not imply that there is
no field

in

medium

(2).

In medium

(2), the

fields

have

the form,

e j 2 y sin 2 Z cos 2
Snells law gives the y variation as, e

j 2 y 1 /2

And the Z variation as,

j 2 Z cos2

j 2 Z

e
e

1sin

j 2 Z j 1

2Z

Dept. Of ECE/SJBIT

sin 2 1 1

sin 2 1 1

Page 209

Field Theory

10ES36

In the above expression, the lower sign must be chosen such that the fields decrease
exponentially as Z becomes increasingly negative.

ie.,

cos 2 j 1
2

sin 2 1 1

j 1
2

sin 2 1

2
2

Therefore under the condition of TIR, a field does exist in the rarer medium.
However, this field has a phase progression along the boundary and decreases
exponentially away from it. If is thus the example of a non-uniform plane wave.
The phase velocity along the interface is given by ,

1
sin 1
2

Which, under the conditions of TIR is less than the phase velocity

of a UPW in
2

medium (2).
Consequently, the non-uniform plane wave in medium (2) is a slow wave. Also, since
some kind of a surface between two media is necessary to support this wave, it is
called a surface wave.

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Page 210

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