WHAT IS SAMPLING?

Sampling is the process of choosing a representative

portion of a population.
A sample is a subset of individuals from which data are
collected to make inferences about the characteristics of
the population.
Ideally, the sample corresponds to the larger population on
the characteristic(s) of interest. In that case, the
researcher's conclusions from the sample are probably
applicable to the entire population.
This type of correspondence between the sample and the
larger population is most important when a researcher

WHY SAMPLE?
We know what the target population is, why not simply use
the whole population?
In some cases, where the target population is relatively
small, and where the need to generalize beyond the
sample isn't a requirement, then the whole population could
indeed be used.
- Time
and funding
constraints.
In
reality
there are
a number of reasons for not using the
whole
population:
- Sampling
beyond a certain point is wasteful because nothing
else will be gained.

BASIC SAMPLING CONCEPTS

Population
- It is the collection of ALL the items about which we want to
know some characteristics.
- Examples of populations are hospital patients, road
accidents, pet owners, unoccupied property or bridges.
Target Population
- It is the entire group a researcher is interested in; the
group about which the researcher wishes to draw
- conclusions.
Suppose we take a group of men aged 35-40 who have
suffered an initial heart attack. The purpose of this study
could be to compare the effectiveness of two drug regimes
for delaying or preventing further attacks. The target
population here would be all men meeting the same
general conditions as those actually included in the study

BASIC SAMPLING CONCEPTS

Sampling Population
- It refers to the population from which sample will actually
be taken as determined by the sampling frame.
Sampling Frame
- It is a list of all elements in the population of interest (e.g.,
names of individuals, telephone numbers, house
- addresses,
The sampling
censusframe
tracts).operationally defines the target
population from which the sample is drawn and to which
the sample data will be generalized.
Elementary Units
- It refers to the units that make up a population.

BASIC SAMPLING CONCEPTS

Sampling Units
- It refers to the units that make up a population.
Independent Samples
- These are samples selected from the same population, or
different populations, which have no effect on one another.
That is, no correlation exists between the samples.
Matched or Related Samples
- Those samples in which the same attribute, or variable, is
measured twice on each subject, under different
circumstances. Commonly called repeated measures.
Examples include the times of a group of athletes for
1500m before and after a week of special training; or the
milk yields of cows before and after being fed a particular
di t

BASIC SAMPLING CONCEPTS

Sampling Variability
- It refers to the different values which a given function of the
data takes when it is computed for two or more samples
drawn from the same population.
Sampling Error
- It is the standard deviation of the values of a given function
of the data (parameter), over all possible samples of the
same size.
Bias
- It refers to how far the average statistic lies from the
parameter it is estimating, that is, the error which arises
when estimating a quantity.

BASIC SAMPLING CONCEPTS

Probability Sampling
- A general approach to sampling where all elements (e.g.,
persons, households) in the population have the same
opportunity of being included in the sample, and the
mathematical probability that any one of them will be
selected can be calculated.
Non-probability
- Samples areSampling
obtained using some form of random
- Itsampling.
is a sampling strategy where population elements are
selected on the basis of their availability (e.g., because
they volunteered) or because of the researcher's personal
judgment that they are representative.
- Random sampling is not used.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING MAY NOT

BE USED WHEN. . . . . .
A scientist can demonstrate that a particular trait occurs in
a population by documenting a single instance.
For example, the assertion that all lesbians are mentally ill
can be refuted by documenting the existence of even one
lesbian who is free from psychopathology.
A researcher wishes to describe a particular group in an
exploratory way.
For example, interviewing 25 people with AIDS (PWAs)
about their experiences with HIV could provide valuable
insights about stress and coping, even though it would not
yield data about the proportion of PWAs in the general
population who share those experiences.

FACTORS IN SELECTING WHICH

SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
Availability of and access to the individuals in the
representative group.
Availability of resources to use in the selection of the
sample.
Technical expertise of those involved in the data collection.

ADVANTAGES OF USING A SAMPLE

It is faster and cheaper.
It can yield more comprehensive information because a
small sample can be thoroughly investigated whereas the
cost of such thoroughness would be prohibitive for a large
population.
It is more accurate because a small highly skilled group of
workers is likely to make fewer errors in the collection and
handling of data than a large census would.
Because of the savings it permits in time and money, the
sample survey makes possible the study of much larger
and much more varied populations than would be possible
for the same expenditure if one were making a complete

SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING ERROR

In most cases, there is no prior knowledge about the

variance of the population. In such a case, the best thing
that can be done is simply to take a certain percentage of
the whole population, say 2, 5, 10, 20, or 50 percent of N.
Some pointers maybe used as guides in selecting the
(a) When the population (N) is large, a small percentage is
percentage to be used:
recommended.

(b) When the population (N) is small, a large percentage is

recommended.
(c) The sample size should be preferably not smaller than 30. An
n=30 enables one to assume that the characteristics are
normally distributed. But even if it is not normally distributed,
for as long as you have n=30 or more the statistics will behave
like normal.

SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING ERROR

The rule to follow is: use as large samples as possible.

This is because the larger the sample, the safer is the
assumption that the sample is representative of the
population.

By representative sample we mean that the sample has

approximately the characteristics of the population
relevant to the research in question.

Although we can never be completely sure that a random

sample is representative of the population, the larger the
sample, the safer is the assumption of
representativeness.

SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING ERROR

Large

ERROR

Small

Large

SIZE OF SAMPLE

SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING ERROR

Whenever a mean, a percentage, or other statistics is

calculated from a sample, a population value is being
estimated. The question is: How much error is there
likely to be in the statistics calculated from samples of
different sizes?

The curve in the figure roughly expresses the relations

between sample size and error, error meaning deviation
from population values. The curve says that the smaller
the sample, the larger the error and the larger the sample,
the smaller the error. This is because statistics
calculated from large samples are more accurate, other
things being equal, than those calculated from small
samples.

SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING ERROR

All other things being equal, smaller samples (e.g., those

with fewer than 1,000 respondents) have greater
sampling error than larger samples.

The sampling error is a number that describes the

precision of an estimate from any one of those samples. It
is usually expressed as a margin of error associated with
a statistical level of confidence.

For example, a presidential preference poll may report

that the incumbent is favored by 51% of the voters, with a
margin of error of plus-or-minus 3 points at a confidence
level of 95%. This means that if the same survey were
conducted with 100 different samples of voters, 95 of
th
ld b
t d t h th i
b tf
d

SAMPLE SIZE AND SAMPLING ERROR

If you increase your n, you decrease standard error (SE)

resulting to higher statistics.

This results to the rejection of the null hypothesis (Ho).

Including Design Efficiency (Deff) factor in your sampling
and survey design will correct this. In most cases, without
Deff, you overestimate statistics that result to outright
rejection of the Ho.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Simple Random Sampling
Systematic Sampling (with a random start)
Stratified Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Multi-stage Sampling

SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

It is a sampling technique wherein every element in the
sampled population is given an equal non-zero chance of
entering the sample.
It is sampling wherein all possible samples of fixed size n
have the same probability of being selected
A sample drawn at random is unbiased in the sense that no
member of the population has any more chance of being
selected than any other member. Random methods of
selection do not allow our own biases or any other
systematic selection factors to operate.
May be either: (a) with replacement or (b) without
replacement

ADVANTAGES OF SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

The sample mean is an unbiased estimate of the
population mean (samples are used to estimate population
parameters).
Estimation methods are simple and easy.

DISADVANTAGES OF SIMPLE
RANDOM SAMPLING
The sample chosen may be widely spread, thus, entailing
high transportation cost (especially if the respondents are
geographically dispersed.
A population frame or list is needed.
Hard to achieve in practice.

WHEN TO USE SIMPLE RANDOM SAMPLING

If the population is not widely spread geographically.
If the population is more or less homogenous with respect
to the characteristics under study (Use stratified sampling if
individuals are heterogenous).

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
It is a method of selecting a sample by taking every kth unit
from an ordered population, the first unit being selected at
random.
k refers to the sampling interval
n/N refers to the sampling fraction.
How do you do systematic sampling?
- Number the units in the population from 1 to N
- Decide on the n (sample size) that you want or need
- Determine sampling interval (k = N/n)
- Randomly select an integer (or sample) between 1 to k

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING
Let's assume that we have a population that only has
N=100 people in it and that you want to take a sample of
n=20. To use systematic sampling, the population must be
listed in a random order.
The sampling fraction would be f = 20/100 = 20%. In this
case, the interval size, k, is equal to N/n = 100/20 = 5. Now,
select a random integer from 1 to 5.
In our example, imagine that you chose 4. Now, to select
the sample, start with the 4th unit in the list and take every
k-th unit (every 5th, because k=5).
You would be sampling units 4, 9, 14, 19, and so on to 100
and you would wind up with 20 units in your sample

SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING: AN ILLUSTRATION

ADVANTAGES OF SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

Selection of the sample is administratively easier, quicker,
and cheaper than simple random sampling.
It is possible to select a sample in the field without a
sampling frame.
It may also be more precise than simple random sampling.
There is simply no easier way to do random sampling in
some situations.

DISADVANTAGES OF SYSTEMATIC SAMPLING

A systematic sample may give poor precision when
unsuspected periodicity is present in the population (e.g.
every 25th household in the sample or population is rich).
If the population is not in random order, one cannot validly
estimate the parameters of the population.
It may also be more precise than simple random sampling.
There is simply no easier way to do random sampling in
some situations.

STRATIFIED SAMPLING
There may often be factors which divide up the population
into sub-populations (groups/strata) and we may expect the
measurement of interest to vary among the different subpopulations.
This has to be accounted for when we select a sample from
the population in order that we obtain a sample that is
representative of the population. This is achieved by
stratified sampling.
A stratified sample is obtained by taking samples from each
stratum or sub-group of a population.

WHEN TO USE STRATIFIED SAMPLING

When the population is heterogeneous, or dissimilar.
Where certain homogeneous, or similar, sub-populations
can be isolated (strata).
When we want to reduce the cost per observation in the
survey.
When estimates of the population parameters may be
wanted for each sub-population.
When increased accuracy at given cost is desired.

ADVANTAGES OF STRATIFIED SAMPLING

It is more efficient than simple random sampling.
It allows for more comprehensive data analysis since
information may be provided for each stratum or
subpopulation.
It is administratively convenient.

DISADVANTAGES OF STRATIFIED SAMPLING

Stratification of the population may mean the nee for
additional prior information about the population and its
subpopulations.
A separate frame is needed is needed for each stratum.
Difficulty in identifying appropriate strata.
More complex to organize and analyze results.

HOW TO DO STRATIFIED SAMPLING

Stratified sampling may be done thru:
(a) Proportional Allocation
(b) Quota/Non-proportional Allocation
In proportional allocation, we determine the size of each
stratum and the sample in each stratum is determined in
terms of their percentage to the total sample size.
Example: Suppose that in a company there are the
following staff: (A) male, full time=90, (B) male, part
time=18, (C) female, full time=9, and (D) female, part
time=63. You want to have a sample size of n=80.
A= 90/180 x 80 = 40
C= 9/180 x 80 =4
B= 18/180 x 80 = 8
D= 63/180 x 80 =28

CLUSTER SAMPLING
Cluster sampling is a sampling technique where the entire
population is divided into groups, or clusters, and a random
sample of these clusters are selected. All observations in
the selected clusters are included in the sample.
Cluster sampling is typically used when the researcher
cannot get a complete list of the members of a population
they wish to study but can get a complete list of groups or
'clusters' of the population.
It is also used when a random sample would produce a list
of subjects so widely scattered that surveying them would
prove to be far too expensive.
This sampling technique may well be more practical and/or

CLUSTER SAMPLING
Example 1
Suppose we would like to investigate the use of pesticides by
farmers in a barangay. A cluster sample could be taken by
identifying the different sitio or purok as clusters. A sample of
these sitio or purok (clusters) would then be chosen at random,
so all farmers in those sitio/purok will be included in the sample.
It can be seen here then that it is easier to visit several farmers
in the same purok/sitio than it is to travel to each farm in a
random sample to observe the use of pesticides.
Example 2
In conducting a poll of voter preferences for a nationwide
election, we can randomly select congressional districts (or
some other applicable grouping of voters), and then conduct the
poll among the people in the chosen congressional district.

CLUSTER SAMPLING
Similar to to strata in stratified random sampling, clusters
are mutually exclusive subpopulations which together
comprise the entire population. Unlike strata, however,
clusters are comprised of heterogenous elements so that
each cluster is typical of the population.
The sample clusters maybe chosen by random sampling or
by systematic sampling with a random start.
Clusters are either of equal or unequal size.
In the field, one basic criteria employed is cluster of
houses.

ADVANTAGES OF CLUSTER SAMPLING

There is no need to construct a list of elements in the
population as one must do in random or stratified random
sampling; the frame for cluster sampling is simply a list of
the clusters.
It is cheaper because field cost would be minimized by the
elements being physically closer together than elements
selected by random or stratified sampling.

DISADVANTAGES OF CLUSTER SAMPLING

It is not as effective as random or stratified random
sampling in ensuring representativeness. In actual field
applications, for example, adjacent households tend to
have more similar characteristics than do households
distantly apart. This affects the representativeness of the
sample.
Larger sampling error than simple random sampling.

MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING
It In multistage sampling, we combine several techniques of
sampling into two or more phases of selection.
For example, in a household survey, you wish to select a
sample of 30 households from a certain town. Suppose
further that the town can be divided into N=10 blocks of
M=10 households per block. The units need not have the
same number of elements. A sample of N=5 blocks is
selected either by simple random sampling or by
systematic sampling with a random start. Then, from each
selected block, a sample of m=6 households is selected.
Note that sampling is done at each stage. This is an
example of two-stage sampling with blocks as first stage or

ADVANTAGES OF MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING

It is more efficient and flexible than single stage sampling.
Except for the first stage units, a sampling frame is required
only for those units selected in order to sample the
subunits.
Transportation costs are greatly reduced especially when
first stage units are geographically distant from one
another.

DISADVANTAGES OF MULTI-STAGE SAMPLING

The major disadvantage of multistage sampling is its
complexity in theory, which maybe difficult to apply in the
field. The estimation procedures are difficult for nonstatisticians to follow.

NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING TECHNIQUES

Quota Sampling
Purposive Sampling
Accidental Sampling
Snowball Sampling

QUOTA SAMPLING
This is usually done in surveys where the sampling frame is
not used at all and the choice of the actual sample units to
be interviewed is left to the discretion of the interviewer.
The interviewer is given quota controls. A control maybe
socioeconomic variables such as age, income, sex,
occupation, place of residence, etc.
It is widely used in opinion polling and market research.
Interviewers are each given a quota of subjects of specified
type to attempt to recruit for example, an interviewer might
be told to go out and select 20 adult men and 20 adult
women, 10 teenage girls and 10 teenage boys so that they
could interview them about their television viewing.
It suffers from a number of methodological flaws, the most
basic of which is that the sample is not a random sample

PURPOSIVE SAMPLING
This is characterized by the use of judgment by the
researcher and a deliberate effort to obtain representative
samples by including presumably typical areas or groups in
the sample. Use this method with extreme care.
Maybe used in scientific research in combination with
probability sampling techniques.

ACCIDENTAL OR CONVENIENCE SAMPLING

This a form of non-probability sampling technique in which
one takes available samples at hand. This form of
sampling should not be used at all.
Because some members of the population have no chance
of being sampled, the extent to which a convenience
sample regardless of its size actually represents the
entire population cannot be known.

SNOWBALL SAMPLING
Snowball sampling may simply be defined as a technique
for finding research subjects. One subject gives the
researcher the name of another subject, who in turn
provides the name of a third, and so on (Vogt, 1999).
Snowball sampling contradicts many of the assumptions
underpinning conventional notions of sampling but has a
number of advantages for sampling populations such as
the deprived, the socially stigmatised and elites.
This strategy can be viewed as a response to overcoming
the problems associated with sampling concealed
populations such as the criminal and the isolated (Faugier

SNOWBALL SAMPLING
Although they violate the principles of sampling, the use of
snowball strategies provides a means of accessing
vulnerable and more impenetrable social groupings.
This process is based on the assumption that a bond or
link exists between the initial sample and others in the
same target population, allowing a series of referrals to be
made within a circle of acquaintance (Berg, 1988).

DEFICIENCIES OF SNOWBALL SAMPLING

Problems of representativeness and sampling principles.
Finding respondents and initiating chain referral.
Engaging respondents as informal research assistants.