Professional Documents
Culture Documents
I.
II.
B.
B.
C.
Hydride
1.
Bonding
2.
Hydrolysis
Chloride
1.
Bonding
2.
Hydrolysis
Oxide
1.
Amphoteric oxides
s-Block Elements
I.
II.
B.
C.
D.
III.
Manufacture of glass
Baking powder
Making of soap
Antacid
Slaked lime
Fireworks
p-Block Elements
I.
Halogens
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
II.
Nitrogen
1.
Unreactive nature of nitrogen
2.
Direct combination of nitrogen and oxygen
Ammonia
1.
Haber process
2.
Chemical properties of ammonia
a)
Alkaline properties
(1)
b)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
C.
D.
E.
Reducing properties
Combustion
Catalytic oxidation
With copper(II) oxide
With chlorine
Thermal decomposition of ammonia
Nitric(V) acid
1.
Ostwald Process
2.
Oxidizing properties of nitric(V) acid
a)
With copper
b)
With iron(II) ion
c)
With sulphur
Nitrate(V) salt
1.
Thermal decomposition of nitrate
2.
Brown ring test
Use of nitric(V) acid
a)
Fertilizers
b)
Explosives
c)
Nylon
d)
Dyestuffs
III.
D.
E.
F.
Allotrope of sulphur
Burning of sulphur
Sulphur dioxide / sulphate(IV) salt
1.
Reducing properties of sulphur dioxide
a)
With manganate(VII) ion
b)
With dichromate(VI) ion
c)
With bromine
2.
Oxidizing properties of sulphur dioxide
a)
With magnesium
3.
Distinguishing from carbon dioxide
Concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid
1.
Contact process
2.
Properties of concentrated sulphuric acid
Sulphate(VI) salt
1.
Test for sulphate(VI) ion
Use of sulphuric(VI) acid
1.
Fertilizers
2.
Detergents
3.
Paints, Pigments and dyestuffs
d-Block Elements
I.
II.
B.
C.
D.
E.
II.
B.
B.
C.
Hydride
1.
Bonding
2.
Hydrolysis
Chloride
1.
Bonding
2.
Hydrolysis
Oxide
1.
Amphoteric oxides
Page 1
Remark
Insoluble in water
Remark
Soluble in water
Dissolve and hydrolyse in water
Soluble in water
Dissolve and hydrolyse in warm water
In general, chlorides hydrolyse faster in alkaline medium since OH-(aq) ion is a stronger nucleophile than water. Furthermore, the
presence of alkali also shifts the equilibrium position to the right.
Cl2O(g)
ClO2(g)
Cl2O6(l)
Cl2O7(l)
Page 2
Remark
No reaction with water but it is amphoteric
Insoluble in water
neutral and insoluble but hydrolyses slowly.
Na(s) forms peroxide instead of oxide when burns in air.
MgO(s) only reacts with water very slowly due to high
lattice energy.
Not reaction with water but it is amphoteric
Not reaction with water but reacts with strong base
In general, metal oxides are basic and non-metal oxides are acidic in nature. The basic oxides could be neutralized by acid while the
acidic oxides could be neutralized by alkali. The exceptions are BeO(s) and Al2O3(s). They are called amphoteric because they react with
both acid and alkali.
In Acid
Oxide
BeO(s)
Al2O3(s)
Reaction
BeO(s) + 2H+(aq) Be2+(aq) + H2O(l)
Al2O3(s) + 6H+(aq) 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Remark
Amphoteric oxide
Amphoteric oxide
In Alkali
Oxide
BeO(s)
Al2O3(s)
Reaction
BeO(s) + 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) [Be(OH)4]2-(aq)
Al2O3(s) + 2OH-(aq) + 3H2O(l) 2[Al(OH)4]-(aq)
Remark
Amphoteric oxide
Amphoteric oxide
Page 3
Bond energy
E(XO) in kJmol-1
(with oxygen)
Bond energy
E(XCl) in kJmol-1
(with chlorine)
358
214
144
346
466
469
464
432.0
Unit 1
Topic
Reference
Reading
8.0
Chemistry in Context, 3rd Edition ELBS pg. 3741
A-Level Chemistry, 3rd Edition, E.N. Ramsden pg. 4345
Page 1
Unit 1
Assignment
Syllabus
Notes
I.
It is important to notice that the modern periodic table was developed by a Russian scientist Mendelev in 1867 by
comparing the physical and chemical properties of different elements. However, the electronic configuration of
atoms were only discovered by Bohr in 1913. Indeed, the periodic table aided the discovery of electronic
configuration of atom and some new elements.
In the periodic table, elements are arranged according to the atomic number, not the atomic mass. For example, the
atomic mass of 18Ar is 39.9 while the atomic mass of 19K is 39.1; the atomic mass of 52Te is 127.6 while the atomic
mass of 53I is 126.9. With such arrangement, elements with similar chemical properties are grouped in columns
called groups.
Furthermore, elements can be classified into s-block, p-block, d-block and f-block elements depending on the
orbital that the vacant electrons are filling.
Glossary
Past Paper
Question
Unit 1
Page 2
91 2B 4 a i
94 1A 2 f
91 2B 4 a i
4a i
Briefly explain what is meant by periodicity in the chemical properties of the elements.
Elements in same group have similar chemical properties.
Properties recur after an interval (period).
also accept element properties are periodic functions of atomic number
2
1 mark
1 mark
94 1A 2 f
2f
The relative atomic mass of potassium is less than that of argon. State the reason why potassium follows argon in
the Periodic Table.
In the Periodic Table, the elements are arranged in order of atomic number / no. of proton, but not in order of
atomic mass.
mark
K has one more proton than Ar does.
mark
Unit 2
Topic
Reference
Reading
8.1
Chemistry in Context, 3rd Edition ELBS pg. 4250, 191201
Inorganic Chemistry, 4th Edition, T.M. Leung pg. 421
A-Level Chemistry, 3rd Edition, E.N. Ramsden pg. 333336
Page 1
Unit 2
Assignment Chemistry in Context, 5th Edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. pg. 3537, 4249, 169, 176177
Reading
Syllabus
Notes
Variation in electronegativity
1.
Both melting point and boiling point reflects the strength of attraction among the particles. In general, boiling point
serves as a better indication of the strength of attraction than melting point does. In the boiling process, the
randomly arranged liquid particles are vaporized to randomly arranged gaseous particles. However, in the melting
point process, the more regularly arranged particles are melted to randomly arranged liquid particles. Besides the
attraction, melting point is also depending on the arrangement of particles in the structure.
Unit 2
Page 2
For example, boiling point of unbranced alkane increases smoothly with increasing molecular size. Although
melting point also shows a general increasing trend, it forms an zig-zag line instead. This is because the alkane
with even no. of carbon (except methane) are more symmetrical than the ones with odd no. of carbon. They are
packed more regularly in the solid, thus a little bit higher melting point.
Key -
Glossary
s.m.s.
g.m.s.
g.c.s.
Past Paper
Question
91 2B 4 a ii
92 2B 6 Aa ii
Unit 2
Page 3
92 2B 6 Ba ii
91 2B 4 a ii
4a ii Draw diagrams showing the variations in melting point (or boiling point) and first ionization energy, for the
elements from lithium to argon.
Explain the change in ionization energy between nitrogen and oxygen.
For I. E.
Graph shows decrease in ionization energy down the group
Graph shows 2,3,3 pattern
(not labelling each axis -)
Explanation:
p3 for N (p4 for O not necessary)
stability of half-filled subshell
92 2B 6 Aa ii
6Aa
ii Describe the structure and the bonding in nitrogen, N2, and in white phosphorus, P4.
N2: NN
structure:
(linear) diatomic molecule
bonding:
intramolecular, covalent
intermolecular, van der Waals
1 mark
mark
mark
1 mark
1 mark
mark
mark
2
mark
mark
mark
mark
P
P
white P4:
structure:
bonding:
discrete tetrahedral
intramolecular, single covalent
intermolecular, van der Waals
92 2B 6 Ba ii
6Ba
ii Describe the structure and the bonding in oxygen, O2, and in rhombic sulphur, S8.
mark
mark
mark
mark
S
S
S S S
S
S
S8:
structure:
bonding:
Unit 2
Page 4
mark
mark
mark
mark
mark
mark
mark
Unit 3
Page 1
Topic
Reference
Reading
8.2.0
Chemistry in Context, 3rd Edition ELBS pg. 200208
Inorganic Chemistry, 4th Edition, T.M. Leung pg. 2133
A-Level Chemistry, 3rd Edition, E.N. Ramsden pg. 338340
Unit 3
Assignment Chemistry in Context, 5th Edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. pg. 177178
Reading
Syllabus
Notes
II. Periodic relationship among the oxides, chlorides and simple hydrides of the elements Li to Cl (Elements
3-17)
Besides similarity in chemical properties among the elements within the same group, some elements show similar
chemical properties to another element in another group. e.g. Li and Mg; Be and Al, B and Si. This relationship is
called diagonal relationship.
The chemical properties of a particle is depending on its ability to attract or donate electron. i.e. electronegativity of
the element and charge density of the ion. Consider lithium and magnesium, Li+ ion is smaller than Mg2+ ion but
Z+
Mg2+ ion carries higher charges than Li+ ion. Consequently, the two ions share similar charge density( r ) and
+
polarizing power. This makes Li compound behave similarly as the Mg compound rather than other group I metal
compounds.
e.g. All group I carbonates are stable to heat except lithium carbonate.
Lithium carbonate decomposes upon heating like magnesium carbonate.
Li2O(s) + CO2(g)
Li2CO3(s) heat
MgCO3(s) heat
MgO(s) + CO2(g)
However, diagonal relationship does not apply to non-metals. This is because period 2 non-metals do not have low
energy vacant d-orbital but period 3 non-metals can expand its octet and use the low energy vacant d-orbital to
accept electrons from the others species.
This explains why CCl4 is stable in water but PCl3 hydrolyse in water readily.
water
no reaction
CCl4(l)
PCl3(l) + 3H2O(l) H3PO3(aq) + 3HCl(aq)
Furthermore, the electronegativity difference among the non-metals are larger than the difference among the
metals.
Glossary
diagonal relationship
charge density
polarizing power
electronegativity
Past Paper
Question
Unit 3
Page 2
92 2B 5 a ii
92 2B 5 a ii
5a ii Explain why there is no apparent diagonal relationship in the properties of carbon and phosphorus.
The question is difficult; reasonable answer might cite:
C electronegativity (2.5); P (2.05) not similar
Properties differ because of d-electron availability in P bonding.
Charge density
Polarizing power
Any one; 1 mark
C
This question required application of knowledge to an unfamiliar situation, and was poorly answered by most
candidates. Reasons such as the different electronegativities of C and P, the different charge densities, or the
availability of d orbitals for bonding in P were considered reasonable.
Unit 4
Topic
Reference
Reading
8.2.1
Inorganic Chemistry, 4th Edition, T.M. Leung pg. 6980
A-Level Chemistry, 3rd Edition, E.N. Ramsden pg. 339, 352353
Page 1
Unit 4
Assignment
Reading
Syllabus
Properties of hydrides
Notes
A. Hydride
1.
Bonding
s-block hydrides are ionic in nature, consisting of metal ion and hydride ions H-. p-block hydrides are covalent in
nature consisting of simple molecule.
For sure, the energetic stability of a compound is depending on the strength of the intramolecular forces. In
general, period 2 hydrides are more stable than period 3 hydrides since the period 2 elements have smaller atomic
sizes and form stronger bond with hydrogen.
Unit 4
Page 2
Hydrolysis
s-block hydrides are highly reactive toward water and the hydride ion hydrolyses readily in water to form an
alkaline solution and hydrogen.
O H +
H
+
O H + H2
The properties of p-block hydrides are rather complicate. Even the hydrides of the elements in the same group do
not show similar properties. e.g. CH4 is stable in water but SiH4 hydrolyses in water to give hydrogen.
NH3 is alkaline but PH3 is neutral in water.
H2S is acidic in water.
Both HF and HCl are acidic in water but the acidity of HF is much lower.
The reactivity of p-block hydrides towards water is depending on several factors :
i. polarity of the molecule
ii. availability of low energy vacant d-orbital
iii. Bond strength and difference in electronegativity (bond polarity)
i.
Comparatively, N is more electronegative than H but P has similar electronegativity as H. Although both of them
are pyramidal in shape, PH3 is a less polar molecule. Consequently, NH3 is a much stronger Lewis base than PH3.
+
H
+ H N
H
+
O H +
H
+
+
H N H + O H
H
H
H
+ H +
+
P
H
Finally NH3 will hydrolyze in water but PH3 is insoluble and has no reaction with water at all.
H
H +Si H
H
O H +
H
+
Unit 4
Page 3
Difference in E.N.
1.5
0.3
1.5
2.0
Hydrolysis in water
H2O(l) + H2O(l) d H3O+(aq) + OH-(aq)
H2S(aq) + 2H2O(l) d 2H3O+(aq) + S2-(aq)
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
HF(l) + H2O(l) d H3O+(aq) + F-(aq)
HF(l) + H+(aq) d H2F+(aq)
However, sometimes, it is difficult to predict whether a molecule will behave as a base or an acid.
As an acid
As a base
HX + HOH d X- + H2OH+
HX + HOH d H2X+ + OH-
Indeed, it is mainly depending on the relative strength of HX and OH bonds but it is also depending on the
hydration energy of the ions formed.
The acidity of HF is exceptionally low comparing with other hydrogen halide due to 2 factors :
i. strong HF bond, which does not favour the dissociation of the bond.
ii. the formation of hydrogen bond between HF(l) and H+(aq), this lowers the concentration of free H+(aq) in the
solution, thus the acidity.
Glossary
hydride
Past Paper
Question
91 1A 3 a
93 2B 4 b iii
95 1A 2 d i ii iii
99 2A 3 c ii iii
91 2B 5 b
93 2B 6 d
91 1A 3 a
3a
Explain why NaH(s) is more reducing than HCl(g) whilst HCl(g) is more acidic than NaH(s).
NaH(s) is an ionic compound and its reducing properties is due to the hydride anion which can undergo the
reaction, H- H2 + e-, i.e. releasing electrons in an overall redox reaction.
1 mark
mark
HCl(g) does not undergo such reaction to release electron.
HCl(g) is acidic because it is a proton donor in the presence of a base.
e.g. HCl(g) + H2O(l) H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq).
1 mark
mark
NaH(s) is not acidic because it is not a proton donor.
91 2B 5 b
5b
Explain why SiH4 is hydrolysed by alkali, whereas CH4 is not, and give an equation for the hydrolysis.
Reason A: electronegativity difference
1 mark
nucleophilic attack by OH- only on Si
1 mark
Reason B: state any one of the XO, XH bond strengths
1 mark
activation energy higher for breaking C-H
1 mark
Reason C: C no 2d orbital, Si has 3d (or accept C has no d orbitals)
1 mark
Si can form activated complex (or Si accept lone pair/nucleophile)
1 mark
Any one of the 3 reasons acceptable. Answer must have the fact (1 mark) and then deduction (1 mark). If 2 facts
from different reasons are mixed, then award only 1 mark
Equation
1 mark
SiH4 + (n+2)H2O SiO2nH2O + 4H2 (SiH4 + 2OH- SiO32- + 2H2O + H2)
or SiH4 + 2H2O SiO2 + 4H2 (SiH4 + H2O Si(OH)4 + H2
(need not be balanced. Accept SiO32-. Miss out H2 -)
Page 4
95 1A 2 d i ii iii
2d i
State whether the following hydrides would react with water under room temperature and atmospheric pressure. If 3
there is a reaction, give the balanced equation.
CH4
SiH4
H2S
HCl
CH4 : no reaction
mark
SiH4 : SiH4 + 4H2O Si(OH)4 + 4H2 (or SiO2nH2O or SiO2)
( mark for correct product, mark fro balanced reaction)
H2S + 2H2O d 2H3O+ + S2H2S : H2S + H2O d HS- + H3O+ OR
( mark for correct product, mark fro balanced reaction)
mark
HCl : HCl + H2O H3O+ + Clii Explain the difference in reactivity with water between CH4 and SiH4.
1
Kinetic aspect
mark
In CH4, there is almost no polarity in the CH bonds
CH4 is not affected by polar molecules of water
In SiH4, the bond polarity is Si+H-.
mark
OR
mark
There is no empty / vacant low energy d-orbital in C
lone e- pair in water will not attack CH4.
mark
OR
mark
In Si, there is low energy empty d-orbital.
it can accept lone electron pair from water
mark
H
H
+
Si H
H
H
Si OH + H2
etc.
H
O H
H
Thermodynamic aspect
CH bond is strong when compared with SiH bond
substitution of H in CH4 is energetically unfavourable.
(Max. 1 mark, 3 points must not be in the same aspect)
iii Explain the difference in reactivity with water between SiH4 and H2S.
In H2S, the polarity is H+S-.
nucleophilic attack of H2O on H2S gives H3O+ and HS-,
whereas SiH4 gives an alkaline solution since the polarity is Si+H-.
mark
mark
mark
1
mark
mark
mark
Page 5
Unit 5
Page 1
Topic
Unit 5
Reference
Reading
8.2.2
Chemistry in Context, 3rd Edition ELBS pg. 202203
Inorganic Chemistry, 4th Edition, T.M. Leung pg. 2529, 50-68
A-Level Chemistry, 3rd Edition, E.N. Ramsden pg. 403405
Chemistry in Context, 5th Edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. pg. 179180
B. Chloride
1.
Bonding
The bonding of chlorides is similar to that of hydrides. s-block chlorides are ionic in nature and p-block chlorides
are covalent in nature.
Chlorides of phosphorus are very special comparing with the others. PCl3(l) is a liquid possessing molecular
structure where PCl5(s) is a solid possessing ionic structure. However, in gaseous state, PCl5(g) also possesses a
molecular structure.
+
Cl
P
Cl
Cl
Cl
P
PCl3(l)
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
P
Cl
Cl
Cl
PCl5(s)
P
Cl
Cl
Cl
PCl5(g)
Unit 5
Page 2
Hydrolysis
s-block chlorides are basically ionic and only dissolve in water without going through hydrolysis. However, owing
to the high charge density of the metal ion, the highly covalent BeCl2, BCl3 and AlCl3 hydrolyse readily in water.
[Be(H2O)4]2+(aq) + H2O(l) [Be(H2O)3(OH)]+(aq) + H3O+(aq)
BCl3(l) + 3H2O(l) H3BO3(aq) + 3HCl(aq)
AlCl3(s) + 6H2O(l) [Al(H2O)6]3+(aq) + 3Cl-(aq)
[Al(H2O)6]3+(aq) + H2O(l) d [Al(H2O)5OH]2+(aq) + H3O+(aq)
[Al(H2O)5OH]2+(aq) + H2O(l) d [Al(H2O)4(OH)2]+(aq) + H3O+(aq)
[Al(H2O)4(OH)2]+(aq) + H2O+(l) d [Al(H2O)3(OH)3](s) + H3O+(aq)
N.B.
For simplicity, sometimes the ligand water will be omitted is the formula, the formula [Al(H2O)3(OH)3](s)
would be written as Al(OH)3(s) despite of the fact that Al3+ usually co-ordinates with 6 ligands.
The reactivity of p-block chlorides towards water is similar to that of hydrides. The main difference is that Cl is
much more electronegative than H. Therefore, the central atom will always carry the + instead of -.
Glossary
ligand
Past Paper
Question
90 2B 5 a
91 1A 3 b i
92 1A 3 e
93 1A 2 a iv
94 1C 2
96 1A 2 e i
91 2B 4 b
90 2B 5 a
5a
Give the structures of, and indicate the types of bonding in, LiCl, AlCl3, PCl3 and K2NiCl4.
Also, discuss their physical and chemical properties in terms of structure and bonding.
LiCl
colourless ionic solid with Li+, Cl-.
Cl
AlCl3
PCl3
P
Cl
Cl
Al
Cl
Cl
Al
Cl
Cl
, undergoes sublimation.
Cl
Cl
2-
Ni
Cl
Cl
.
K2NiCl4 coloured ionic solid with complex anion,
LiCl and K2NiCl4 are ionic solids whereas AlCl3 and PCl3 are covalent molecules.
LiCl and K2NiCl4 do not react with water.
Whereas AlCl3 and PCl3 are hygroscopic and readily hydrolysed by water.
About the bonding: LiCl,
ionic chloride
AlCl3, covalent Cl- as ligand
covalent bond between P and Cl
PCl3,
NiCl42-, dative covalent bond.
Physical properties
e.g. melting point/boiling point; sublimation; solubility in water/organic solvent; colour of complex, etc.
Chemical properties
e.g. hydrolysis; ease of oxidation; complex ion in equilibrium with water, etc.
Marking Scheme
Overall presentation - highlight on their differences (in table form -1)
2 marks
Structure and bonding (1 mark each, for structure and for bonding)
4 marks
Physical and chemical properties (1 mark each, for physical and for chemical)
4 marks
10
Page 3
1 mark
91 2B 4 b
4b
Give the formula of one chloride for each of the elements N, O and S.
Write an equation for the reaction (if any) of each chloride with water.
Draw the electronic structure of a molecule of each chloride and describe the molecular shape.
formula
3 = 1 mark
equation
3 = 1 mark (need not be balanced, must write + H2O)
electronic structure 3 = 1 mark (must show lone pair(s) on N, O and S)
shape
3 = 1 mark (draw and/or name, if either one is correct, then mark)
Example: NCl3
NCl3(l) + 3H2O(l) NH3(aq) + HOCl(aq)
Cl
N Cl
Cl
pyramidal
Example: Cl2O
Cl2O(g) + H2O(l) 2HOCl(aq)
Cl
Cl
V-shaped
or 6ClO2 + 3H2O 3HClO2 + 3HClO3 or Cl2O6 + H2O HClO4 + HClO3
ClO3 is the same as Cl2O6, which is a solid ClO2+ClO4ClO2 + H2O stable in dark
sunlight
6ClO2(g) + 3H2O(l)
HCl(aq) + 5HClO3(aq)
Lewis and Waller give:
ClO2(g) + 3H2O(l) 2ClO-(aq) + 2H3O+(aq)
2ClO2(g) + 3H2O(l) ClO2-(aq) + ClO3-(aq) + 2H3O+(aq)
Cl2O6(l) + 3H2O(l) ClO3-(aq) + ClO4-(aq) + 2H3O+(aq)
Cl2O4(l) + 3H2O(l) 2ClO4-(aq) + 2H3O+(aq)
Cl2O7(l) + H2O(l) 2HClO4(aq)
For oxygen chlorides, accept disproportionation reaction for oxidation states 2,4,6 but not -1 or 7 for Cl.
For ClO2 accept eitherClO2 + H2O HCl + HClO3 or
ClO2 + H2O stable (hydrate)
ClO2 + H2O HClO2 + HClO3
Example: S2Cl2(l)
2S2Cl2(l) + 2H2O(l) 3S(s) + SO2(aq) + 4HCl(aq)
Cl
Cl
Cl
S
Cl
Cl
Cl
Page 4
Unit 6
Page 1
Topic
Unit 6
Reference
Reading
8.2.3
Chemistry in Context, 3rd Edition ELBS pg. 204208
Inorganic Chemistry, 4th Edition, T.M. Leung pg. 27, 2931, 3449
A-Level Chemistry, 3rd Edition, E.N. Ramsden pg. 425426
C. Oxide
1.
Some oxides are acidic. e.g. CO2(g), SO2(g). When reacted with water, they form acids.
e.g. CO2(aq) + H2O(l) d H2CO3(aq)
SO2(aq) + H2O(l) d H2SO3(aq)
H
O
H
O
S
O
O
S
O
O
H O
S
O
Unit 6
Page 2
Some oxides are basic. e.g. Na2O(s), K2O(s). When reacted with water, they forms alkalis.
e.g. Na2O(s) + H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq)
K2O(s) + H2O(l) 2KOH(aq)
2-
H
O
O H
H
In general, non-metal oxides are acidic and metal oxides are basic.
A. Amphoteric oxides
There are a few oxides which reacts with both acid and alkali. e.g. ZnO(s), PbO(s) and Al2O3(s.
ZnO(s) + 2H+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + H2O(l)
ZnO(s) + 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) [Zn(OH)4]2-(aq)
white
zincate ion (colourless)
PbO(s) + 2H+(aq) Pb2+(aq) + H2O(l)
PbO(s) + 2OH-(aq) + H2O(l) [Pb(OH)4]2-(aq)
white
plumbite ion (colourless)
Al2O3(s) + 6H+(aq) 2Al3+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Al2O3(s) + 2OH-(aq) + 3H2O(l) 2[Al(OH)4]-(aq) (to be more accurate [Al(H2O)2(OH)4]-(aq)]
white
aluminate ion (colourless)
The hydroxides of zinc, aluminium and lead are also amphoteric.
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2H+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + H2O(l)
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2OH-(aq) [Zn(OH)4]2-(aq)
white
colourless
Pb(OH)2(s) + 2H+(aq) Pb2+(aq) + H2O(l)
Pb(OH)2(s) + 2OH-(aq) [Pb(OH)4]2-(aq)
white
colourless
Al(OH)3(s) + 3H+(aq) Al3+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Al(OH)3(s) + OH-(aq) [Al(OH)4]-(aq)
white
colourless
Since Zn(OH)2(s), Pb(OH)2(s) and Al(OH)3(s) are insoluble in water. If a little alkali (e.g. NaOH(aq)) is added into the
Zn2+(aq), Pb2+(aq) or Al3+(aq) solution. The hydroxides will be precipitated first. If excess alkali is added, the
hydroxide precipitate will redissolve to form a clear solution. This serves as a very good test for the three ions.
e.g. Zn2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Zn(OH)2(s)
colourless
white
Zn(OH)2(s) + 2OH-(aq) [Zn(OH)4]2-(aq)
white
excess
colourless
For a similar result, Al, Pb and Zn metals also reacts directly with strong alkali besides strong acid.
2Al(s) + 2OH-(aq) + 6H2O(l) 2[Al(OH)4]-(aq) + 3H2(g)
Zn(s) + 2OH-(aq) + 2H2O(l) [Zn(OH)4]2-(aq) + H2(g)
Pb(s) + 2OH-(aq) + 2H2O(l) [Pb(OH)4]2-(aq) + H2(g)
Unit 6
Glossary
acidic oxides
amphoteric oxides
Past Paper
Question
92 2B 5 b iii
93 1A 2 a i
95 1A 2 b ii
95 1B 4 g ii
92 2B 6 Ac ii
Page 3
basic oxides
92 2B 6 Bc ii
92 2B 5 b iii
5b iii Write equations showing the amphoteric nature of lead(II) oxide.
PbO(s) + 2HCl(aq) PbCl2(s) + H2O(l)
H2O(l) + PbO(s) + NaOH(aq) NaPb(OH)3(aq)
92 2B 6 Ac ii
6Ac
ii Which is more reactive to oxidation, NH3 or PH3? Explain your answer.
PH3, Greater stability of P(V) : P4O10
92 2B 6 Bc ii
6Bc
ii Which is more reactive to oxidation, H2O or H2S? Explain your answer.
H2S
any reasonable answer, such as more higher oxidation states available for S
or enthalpy of formation of H2O is strongly exothermic (Hf -285.9 kJmol-1) but
H2S only weakly so (Hf -20.6 kJmol-1)
2
1 mark
1 mark
2
1 mark + 1 mark
2
1 mark
1 mark
93 1A 2 a i
2a
Answer the following questions by choosing in each case one of the species listed below, putting it in the box and
giving the relevant equation(s).
Al(s), AlCl3(s), AlO2-(aq), Na(s), CO32-(aq), Cu2+(aq), P4O10(s), S(s), S2O32-(aq), Zn2+(aq)
i
Which species can react with excess dilute NaOH with effervescence, forming a solution which gives a white
precipitate on addition of dilute HCl?
2Al(s) + 2OH-(aq) + 2H2O(l) 2AlO2-(aq) + 3H2(g)
Al(s)
AlO2-(aq) + H+(aq) + H2O(l) Al(OH)3(s)
OR
2OH-(aq) + 2Al(s) + 6H2O(l) 2[Al(OH)4]-(aq) + 3H2(g)
2[Al(OH)4]-(aq) + 2H+(aq) Al(OH)3(s) + 2H2O(l)
3 marks
95 1A 2 b ii
2b ii Is the reaction below a "redox reaction" or an "acid-base reaction" ? Explain.
CaO + SiO2 CaSiO3
This is an acid-base reaction.
CaO is a basic oxide and SiO2 is an acidic oxide
The reaction does not involve a change in oxidation state.
2
mark
1 mark
mark
95 1B 4 g ii
4g
Give the observations when (ii) sodium hydroxide solution are added dropwise, until in excess, to aqueous
solutions containing Pb2+ and Cu2+ ions respectively. These experiments are carried out at room temperature.
(ii) sodium hydroxide solution
Pb2+(aq)
Cu2+(aq)
(3 marks for 8 observations; deduct mark for each incorrect observation)
(ii) sodium hydroxide solution
2+
Pb (aq)
White ppt.
Soluble in excess / Colour solution
Cu2+(aq)
Blue ppt.
Insoluble in excess
s-Block Elements
I.
II.
B.
C.
D.
III.
Manufacture of glass
Baking powder
Making of soap
Antacid
Slaked lime
Fireworks
s-Block Elements
Unit 1
Page 1
Topic
s-Block Elements
Unit 1
Reference
Reading
9.09.1
Chemistry in Context, 3rd Edition ELBS pg.
Inorganic Chemistry, 4th Edition, T.M. Leung pg. 8486
A-Level Chemistry, 3rd Edition, E.N. Ramsden pg. 360361
Assignment Chemistry in Context, 5th Edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. pg. 211213, 283
Reading
Syllabus
Notes
I.
Glossary
Group I metals
Lithium (Li)
Sodium (Na)
Potassium (K)
Rubidium (Rb)
Caesium (Cs)
Deep red
Yellow
Lilac (a purple colour)
Bluish Red
Blue
Other metals
Copper (Cu)
Bluish green
nichrome wire
flame test
Group II metals
Beryllium (Be)
Magnesium (Mg)
Calcium (Ca)
Strontium (Sr)
Barium (Ba)
no special colour
no special colour
Brick red
Blood red / Crimson red
Apple green
s-Block Elements
Past Paper
Question
Unit 1
Page 2
94 1A 2 e
96 2B 4 b ii
99 1B 7 c i ii
94 1A 2 e
2e
Why is caesium, rather than sodium, used in a photo-electric cell?
(A photo-electric cell is a device which produces electrons when irradiated by photons.)
Cs, having a lower I.E., can be ionized easily by absorption of visible light it is more suitable to be used in
making photo-electric cell.
1 mark
96 2B 4 b ii
4b
For each of the following pairs of compounds, suggest a test to distinguish one compound from the other :
ii KCl(s) and MgCl2(s).
Carry out a flame test,
1 mark
mark
KCl(s) gives a lilac flame
mark
while MgCl2(s) gives no characteristic flame colour
Or
1 mark
Add NaOH(aq) / Na2CO3(aq) / Na2HPO4(aq) to aqueous solution of the substance.
mark
MgCl2 gives white precipitate
mark
while KCl does not.
(Accept any CORRECT test for the two compounds)
99 1B 7 c i ii
7c i
Describe the procedure for a flame test.
ii Describe how to distinguish between a sodium salt and a potassium salt of the same anion by flame test.
s-Block Elements
Unit 2
Topic
s-Block Elements
Reference
Reading
9.2.09.2.2
Chemistry in Context, 3rd Edition ELBS pg. 242243
Inorganic Chemistry, 4th Edition, T.M. Leung pg. 9498, 103105
A-Level Chemistry, 3rd Edition, E.N. Ramsden pg. 363367
Page 1
Unit 2
Assignment Chemistry in Context, 5th Edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. pg. 213214
Reading
Syllabus
Notes
s-block elements are very electropositive, even more electropositive than hydrogen. When heated with hydrogen,
ionic hydride will be formed.
e.g. 2Na(s) + H2(g) 2NaH(s)
2.
Ordinary s-block elements are very reactive towards oxygen. They almost tarnish immediately to form metal oxide
when exposed to air.
e.g. 4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s) (white powder)
2Ca(s) + O2(g) CaO(s)
N.B.
Aluminium seems to be less reactive than the other metals in air because it is protective by a thin but
dense oxide layer. Once the oxide layer have been removed by dipping in mercury(II) chloride, aluminium
also reacts vigorously to form white powder of Al2O3(s) with air.
Besides the normal oxides, sodium forms peroxide, potassium and other more reactive group I metals form
superoxides when burn in air.
e.g. 2Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O2(s ) (white when cold but yellow when hot)
K(s) + O2(g) KO2(s) (yellow powder)
The hydrolysis of peroxide and superoxide is also different from that of normal oxide
Normal oxide
M2O(s) + H2O(l) 2MOH(aq)
Peroxide
M2O2(s) + 2H2O(l) 2MOH(aq) + H2O2(aq)
or 2M2O2(s) + 2H2O(l) 4MOH(aq) + O2(g)
Superoxide
2MO2(s) + 2H2O(l) 2MOH(aq) + H2O2(aq) + O2(g) or 4MO2(s) + 2H2O(l) 4MOH(aq) + 3O2(g)
3.
Electropositive s-block elements also react with electronegative chlorine to form ionic chloride.
Group I
Group II
s-Block Elements
Unit 2
4.
Page 2
s-block elements, especially group I elements, reacts readily with water with a reactivity increasing down the
group. They react with water to form an solution of metal hydroxide and hydrogen.
2M(s) + H2O(l) 2MOH(aq)
B. Thermal stability of carbonates and hydroxides
1.
Generally speaking, carbonate is unstable to heat. Upon heating, most carbonates decompose into oxides and
carbon dioxide.
M2O(s) + CO2(g)
M2CO3(s) heat
heat
MCO3(s) MO(s) + CO2(g)
O C O
C O
-
2-
Depending on the polarizing power (i.e. charge density) of the cation, different carbonates have different stability
to heat.
A carbonate containing a more polarizing cation is less stable to heat. This is because the electron cloud of the
carbonate ion will be more distorted. Furthermore, upon decomposition, it will form a more stable oxide with
stronger ionic bond within the lattice. The evolution of CO2 gas will also increase the disorderness of the system
which is favourable in nature.
The temperature of a normal bunsen flame is about 1300 K. A subtance having a decomposition temperature higher
than this temperature is usually regarded as stable to heat.
Comparatively, group I ions are much bigger than group II ions, except Li2CO3(s), group I carbonate is regarded as
stable to heat.
Li2O(s) + CO2(g)
Li2CO3(s) heat
Among the group II carbonates, the decomposition temperature increases down the group as the polarizing power
of the cation decreases.
Group II carbonates
BeCO3(s)
MgCO3(s)
CaCO3(s)
SrCO3(s)
BaCO3(s)
Decomposition temperature / C
~ 100
540
900
1290
1360
s-Block Elements
Unit 2
2.
Page 3
The decomposition of hydroxides is somehow similar to the decomposition of carbonates. Upon decomposition,
the large hydroxide ion is converted to small oxide ion with liberation of water.
Hydroxides of group 1 (except Li) are stable to heat. Those of Group 2 and lithium are decomposed by heat to form
oxides. The thermal stability of group II hydroxide is parallel to group II carbonates where the thermal stability
increases down the group.
M2O(s) + H2O(l)
2MOH(s) heat
M(OH)2(s) heat
MO(s) + H2O(l)
O H
O H
O H
Glossa ry
oxide
peroxide
Past Paper
Question
90 1A 3 e ii
91 2B 5 d
92 1A 3 a
93 2B 4 b i
95 2B 5 a v
96 2B 4 b i
99 2A 1 a iii
superoxide
2-
thermal stability
90 1A 3 f
95 2B 5 b i ii
90 1A 3 e ii
3e
Give observation, and write balanced equations for the following:
ii a small, freshly-cut piece of sodium is exposed to air for a few minutes;
a similar piece of sodium is placed on filter paper on the surface of water in a glass trough.
The surface of the sodium becomes dull (less shiny, more white)
4Na(s) + O2(g) 4Na2O(s)
The piece of sodium melts and burns with a yellow flame.
2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2Na+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g)
2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l)
4
mark
1 mark
mark
1 mark
1 mark
90 1A 3 f
3f
Account for the observation that when a piece of aluminium foil is dipped into a solution of mercury(II) chloride
and then withdrawn, it becomes very hot and disintegrates into a white powder.
The protective layer of Al2O3 is destroyed when the piece of Al is dipped in a solution of HgCl2.
1 mark
1 mark
When withdrawn from the solution, the fresh surface of Al reacts highly exothermically
1 mark
with O2(air) to form white Al2O3 powder.
91 2B 5 d
5d
Account for the observation that lithium carbonate decomposes at 700C whereas sodium carbonate is thermally
stable at this temperature.
Li+ is more polarizing than Na+
1 mark
because it is smaller, with same charge or higher charge density
1 mark
The charge cloud of the oxy-anion is more distorted, causing the anion to break up to give O2- and CO2.
O
2M+ + -
2M+O2- + O C O
Change of lattice energy from Li2CO3 to Li2O is greater than Na2CO3 to Na2O.
1 mark
2 mark
s-Block Elements
Unit 2
92 1A 3 a
3a
Give balanced equations for two different reactions that are common to the three elements: lithium, sodium and
potassium. Use the symbol M for the elements.
1 mark
2M(s) + Cl2(g) 2MCl(s)
2M(s) + 2H2O(l) 2M+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) + H2(g)
1 mark
Page 4
2
93 2B 4 b i
4b
Account for each of the following facts:
i
The decomposition temperature of MgCO3 is lower than that of CaCO3.
3
charge
When compared with Ca2+, Mg2+ has higher radius ratio and is more polarizing,
1 mark
2 CO3 in MgCO3 is polarized to a greater extent than in CaCO3.
1 mark
1 mark
Hence MgCO3 undergoes thermal decomposition to form oxide (small anion) more readily than CaCO3.
95 2B 5 a v
5a
The table below lists some properties of the alkali metals.
Standard electrode
Melting point / C
Element
Atomic
Ionic radius / nm
First ionization
potential / V
radius / nm
energy / kJmol-1
Li
0.123
0.060
520
-3.04
180
Na
0.157
0.095
495
-2.71
98
K
0.203
0.133
418
-2.92
64
Rb
0.216
0.148
403
-2.93
39
Cs
0.235
0.169
374
-2.95
29
v With reference to the standard electrode potentials and the melting points of the elements, explain why the
reactivity of the alkali metals with water increases as the group is descended.
All group I elements react with cold water to give OH- and H2.
1 mark
OR M(s) + H2O(l) MOH(aq) + H(g)
The electrode potential of group I metal increases down the group with the exception of Li, therefore, the
reactivity increase.
1 mark
For Li, the relatively high melting point reduces the reactivity Q activation energy for the reaction is higher.
2 marks
95 2B 5 b i ii
5b
Explain the following facts :
i
The thermal stability of sodium hydroxide is higher than that of magnesium hydroxide.
Mg2+ is more polarizing than Na+ due to its smaller size and greater charge. The OH- is polarized to a greater
2 marks
extent in Mg(OH)2.
OR
Because of its high charge / radius ratio, Mg2+ forms more stable lattice with small anions e.g. O2-, Mg(OH)2 is
ready to decompose to give MgO.
2 marks
ii The thermal stability of the carbonates of the alkaline earth metals increases as the group is descended.
As the group is descended, the polarizing power of the cation decreases. Therefore, cations of the lighter elements
distort the anion electron clouds to a larger extend. Anions with highly distorted electron clouds are more readily
decomposed than those with little distortion. Hence the thermal stability increases as the group is descended.
3 marks
OR
The charge / radius ratio of cation increases as the group is ascended.
Cations with high charge/radius ratio tend to form stable lattice with small anions.
3 marks
Therefore, carbonates of Be, Mg tend to decompose to form the more stable oxides.
96 2B 4 b i
4b
For each of the following pairs of compounds, suggest a test to distinguish one compound from the other :
i
Na2CO3(s) and NaHCO3(s)
NaHCO3 decomposes on heating to give CO2 /a gas
+ mark
+ mark
which can turn lime water milky but Na2CO3 does not decompose.
Or
+ mark
dissolve the solid in water, add MgSO4(aq) to the solutions
+ mark
Na2CO3(aq) gives a white ppt.; but NaHCO3(aq) does not.
99 2A 1 a iii
1a iii What would be observed when a small piece of rubidium is added to 2-methylpropan-2-ol ? Write the balanced
s-Block Elements
equation for the reaction.
Unit 2
Page 5
s-Block elements
Unit 3
Topic
s-Block Elements
Reference
Reading
9.2.3.0
Chemistry in Context, 3rd Edition ELBS pg. 142143, 183184, 243244
Inorganic Chemistry, 4th Edition, T.M. Leung pg. 105112
A-Level Chemistry, 3rd Edition, E.N. Ramsden pg. 365366
Page 1
Unit 3
Assignment Chemistry in Context, 5th Edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. pg. 127128, 162163, 215, 284
Reading
Syllabus
Solvation process
Solubility of ionic crystal
Notes
Solvation energy
The process in which the particle of the solute in gaseous state is dissolved in a solvent to
form a solution.
The process in which a solute in any physical state is dissolved in a solvent to form a
solution.
Solvation energy (Hydration energy) Enthalpy change when 1 mole of formula units of gaseous particles are
solvated to form a infinitely diluted solution. If the solvent is water, then
the enthalpy change is called hydration energy.
s-Block elements
Unit 3
Page 2
Hosoln = +5 kJmol-1
s-Block elements
Unit 3
Page 3
r +, r - :
On top of charge density, the magnitude of lattice energy is also depending on the packing efficiency of the ions in
the crystal. If the cations and anions in the crystal lattice have similar size, the packing will be more efficient and
gives a higher lattice energy.
Furthermore, lattice energy is depending on the attraction between the cation and anion, therefore the lattice energy
can be expressed as :
1
Lattice energy r + r
+
-
c)
r +, r - :
Hydration energy
1 1
( ( r + r ))
+
High
Low
High
Lattice energy
1
( r + r )
+
High
Low
Low
Solubility
Low to moderate
Low to moderate
High to moderate
In general, if the sizes of the ions in the crystal are different, the crystal will be soluble. And, if the sizes of the
ions in the crystal are similar, the crystal will be insoluble. This assumes that the crystal is purely ionic. e.g. This is
not applicable to the case of AgCl which is not purely ionic.
s-Block elements
Unit 3
2.
Page 4
Relative solubility
Soluble
Sparingly soluble
Insoluble
Insoluble
1
Lattice energy r + r
+
-
1 1
Hydration energy ( r + r )
+
-
On descending the group, magnitudes of both hydration energy and lattice energy decrease as the size of the cation
increases.
SO42- ion is a polyatomic ion with a much larger size than group II ions. This makes the magnitude of lattice
energy rather constant and decreases slower than the magnitude of hydration energy on moving down the group.
Hosoln = -Holat + Hohyd
As a result, on moving down the group, Hosoln becomes less negative and the solubility decreases.
b) Hydroxide of group II metal
Compound
Mg(OH)2
Ca(OH)2
Sr(OH)2
Ba(OH)2
Relative solubility
Insoluble
Sparingly soluble
Slightly soluble
Slightly soluble
1
Lattice energy r + r
+
-
1 1
Hydration energy ( r + r )
+
-
Once again, on moving down the group, magnitudes of both hydration energy and lattice energy decrease as the
size of the cation increases.
OH- ion is a small anion. The hydration energy is very large, and rather constant on moving down the group since
it is almost dominated by the small size of OH- ion.
Hosoln = -Holat + Hohyd
As a result, on moving down the group, Hosoln becomes more negative and the solubility increases.
N.B.
In general, a substance with a solubility lower than 10-2 mol/100g of water is considered to be not very
soluble.
s-Block elements
Unit 3
c)
Page 5
Results obtained when 0.1M solution Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+ and Ba2+ are treated with various solutions.
Difference in solubility is a useful tool in qualitative analysis. For example Ca2+(aq) and Sr2+(aq) solutions can be
distinguished by adding saturated CaSO4(aq) solution.
N.B.
Glossary
solvation
Past Paper
Question
90 2B 4 e
91 2A 1 b iii
93 2B 4 b ii
96 2B 4 c
98 1A 3 b iii
99 1A 1 b ii
hydration
solution
91 2B 5 c
90 2B 4 e
4
Account for the following observations.
4e
Lithium salts generally have high solubilities in water.
Li+ has very high charge density because of the small ionic radius.
there formation of Li(H2O)n+ involve high hydration energy.
Li salts - lattice energy is low because of the crystal packing is not efficient.
3
1 mark
1 mark
1 mark
91 2A 1 b iii
iii When solid sodium chloride is dissolved in water, the process is endothermic. Explain this observation.
The dissolving of a salt in water is a case of an enthalpy change accompanying a chemical process. The first
process requires an input of energy to break the lattice. The second process involves the release of energy when
new bonds are made between ions and water. The enthalpy of solution is a measure of the difference between
2 marks
these two processes. In case of NaCl, the lattice energy is larger than the enthalpy of hydration.
s-Block elements
Unit 3
Page 6
91 2B 5 c
5c
Explain why the solubility of group(II) salts of large anions decreases on descending the group, whereas the
4
solubility of group(II) salts of small anions shows the reverse trend.
1 mark
Hsoln = -HLE + HHE
HLE: Lattice energy - energy released in the formation of the solid crystal from the gaseous ions
HHE: Hydration enthalpy - energy released when the solute particles in gaseous state become associated with
water molecule to form a solution.
mark
More negative the Hsoln, more soluble would be the salt.
1
mark
Lattice energy
r+ + r
1 1
Hydration energy ( + )
mark
r+ r
On descending the group, magnitude of both hydration energy and lattice energy decrease.
mark
For large anions, the lattice energy is rather constant. The magnitude of hydration energy decreases more than
that of lattice energy as the size of the cation increases.
mark
mark
The Hsoln becomes less negative on descending the group and solubilities decrease.
For small anions with small cation, the packing efficiency is high result in higher lattice energy. The magnitude of
hydration energy decreases less than that of lattice energy as the size of the cation increases.
The Hsoln becomes more negative on descending the group and solubilities increase.
93 2B 4 b ii
4b
Account for each of the following facts:
ii MgCrO4 is more soluble in water than BaCrO4.
3
2CrO4 is a large anion
1 mark
The solubility of an ionic compound with large anion is affected more by the hydration energies of its ions than its
lattice energy.
1 mark
Mg2+ is smaller than Ba2+, it has much higher hydration energy than Ba2+, MgCrO4 is more soluble than
1 mark
BaCrO4.
96 2B 4 c
4c
Briefly explain why magnesium sulphate(VI) is soluble in water, whereas barium sulphate(VI) is almost insoluble. 2
Hydration energy of Mg2+ is more exothermic than that of Ba2+
1 mark
due to the very small size of Mg2+ cation. Therefore, the lattice of MgSO4 can easily be broken down by water.
1 mark
98 1A 3 b iii
3b
Sketch the trends for the properties mentioned in (i), (ii), and (iii) below, and account for the trend in each case.
iii solubility in water of the Group II sulphates(VI), MgSO4, CaSO4, SrSO4 and BaSO4
99 1A 1 b ii
1b
Account for each of the following :
ii The solubility in water of magnesium hydroxide is less than that of barium hydroxide.
s-Block elements
Unit 4
Topic
s-Block Elements
Reference
Reading
9.2.4
Chemistry in Context, 3rd Edition ELBS pg. 243
Inorganic Chemistry, 4th Edition, T.M. Leung pg. 104
A-Level Chemistry, 3rd Edition, E.N. Ramsden pg. 374
Page 1
Unit 4
Assignment
Reading
Syllabus
Anomaly of lithium
Notes
Glossary
anomaly
Lithium
Formation of normal
oxide
Decompose into oxide and
carbon dioxide
Decompose into oxide and
water
Decompose into oxide,
nitrogen dioxide and
oxygen
Do not form stable solid
hydrogencarbonate
Form organometallic
compound e.g. RLi
Magnesium
Formation of normal
oxide
Decompose into oxide and
carbon dioxide
Decompose into oxide and
water
Decompose into oxide,
nitrogen dioxide and
oxygen
Do not form stable solid
hydrogencarbonate
Form organometallic
compound e.g. MgR2
Insoluble phosphate,
fluoride and carbonate
Form stable nitride
Insoluble phosphate,
fluoride and carbonate
Form stable nitride
organometallic compound
Sodium
Formation of peroxide on
top of normal oxide
Stable to heat
Stable to heat
Decompose into
nitrate(III) and oxygen
only
Form stable solid
hydrogencarbonate
Do not form any stable
organometallic compound
at all
Soluble phosphate,
fluoride and carbonate
Do not form stable nitride,
s-Block elements
Past Paper
Question
Unit 4
Page 2
93 2B 4 a
96 2B 4 a
93 2B 4 a
4a
The first member of a Group in Periodic Table usually exhibits anomalous behaviour. For lithium in Group I,
give two examples of anomalous behaviour and explain how this behaviour arises.
Any two of the following examples:
1. Lithium carbonate, nitrate, hydroxide decomposes upon heating, while carbonate of other Group I elements
do not.
96 2B 4 a
4a
Give TWO reactions to illustrate the following statement :
'Lithium compounds differ in their chemical properties from compounds of other Group I elements .'
Lithium carbonate decomposes on heating to give (lithium oxide) and carbon dioxide.
+ mark
Li2CO3 Li2O + CO2
(1 mark)
1 mark
But other alkali metal carbonates do not.
mark
Lithium nitrate(V) decomposes on heating to give (lithium oxide),
mark
nitrogen dioxide / a brown gas and oxygen.
2LiNO3 Li2O + 2NO2 + O2
(1 mark)
1 mark
But other alkali metal nitrate(V) give nitrate(III) and oxygen.
2MNO3 2MNO2 + O2
(1 mark)
s-Block Elements
Unit 5
Topic
s-Block Elements
Reference
Reading
9.3
Chemistry in Context, 3rd Edition ELBS pg.
Inorganic Chemistry, 4th Edition, T.M. Leung pg. 113115
A-Level Chemistry, 3rd Edition, E.N. Ramsden pg. 369
Page 1
Unit 5
Assignment Chemistry in Context, 5th Edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. pg. 219221
Reading
Syllabus
Notes
HCO3- is a large anion with high polarizability. It only forms stable solid hydrogencarbonate with big
group I metal ions. Group II and other metal hydrogencarbonate do not exist at all.
C. Making of soap
Aqueous sodium hydroxide is used in the hydrolysis of fat (saponification) in the preparation of soap.
D. Antacid
Mg(OH)2(s) is commonly used as the antacid to neutralize the excess acid in the stomach.
s-Block Elements
Unit 5
Page 2
E. Slaked lime
Limestone (CaCO3(s)) is heated to give quicklime (CaO(s)) which is 'slaked' with water to give slaked lime
(Ca(OH)2(s)). When dissolved in water, the aqueous solution of slaked lime is called limewater.
CaO(s) + CO2(g)
CaCO3(s) heat
CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s)
Slaked lime (Ca(OH)2(s)) is used in the removal the acidity of the soil, making of mortar (slaked lime + sand +
water), bleaching powder and manufacture of calcium hydrogensulphite which is used in paper industry.
F. Fireworks
Salts of s-block metals are mixed with gunpowder in fireworks to give different colour to the fireworks.
Glossary
silica
baking powder
Past Paper
Question
94 2B 6 a
97 1A 3 a iv
slaked lime
quicklime
94 2B 6 a
6a
Self-raising flour for baking cakes and bread contains sodium hydrogencarbonate. Explain briefly, with the aid of 3
chemical equation(s), the role of sodium hydrogencarbonate in the baking process.
Sodium hydrogencarbonate in the self-raising flour undergoes thermal decomposition to give CO2 gas. 1 mark
2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(g)
1 mark
1 mark
The CO2 gas produced causes the cakes to rise.
97 1A 3 a iv
3a
For each of the following materials, identify ONE inorganic compound which is an active ingredient:
iv antacid
p-Block Elements
I.
Halogens
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
II.
Nitrogen
1.
Unreactive nature of nitrogen
2.
Direct combination of nitrogen and oxygen
Ammonia
1.
Haber process
2.
Chemical properties of ammonia
a)
Alkaline properties
(1)
b)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
C.
D.
E.
Reducing properties
Combustion
Catalytic oxidation
With copper(II) oxide
With chlorine
Thermal decomposition of ammonia
Nitric(V) acid
1.
Ostwald Process
2.
Oxidizing properties of nitric(V) acid
a)
With copper
b)
With iron(II) ion
c)
With sulphur
Nitrate(V) salt
1.
Thermal decomposition of nitrate
2.
Brown ring test
Use of nitric(V) acid
a)
Fertilizers
b)
Explosives
c)
Nylon
d)
Dyestuffs
III.
D.
E.
F.
Allotrope of sulphur
Burning of sulphur
Sulphur dioxide / sulphate(IV) salt
1.
Reducing properties of sulphur dioxide
a)
With manganate(VII) ion
b)
With dichromate(VI) ion
c)
With bromine
2.
Oxidizing properties of sulphur dioxide
a)
With magnesium
3.
Distinguishing from carbon dioxide
Concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid
1.
Contact process
2.
Properties of concentrated sulphuric acid
Sulphate(VI) salt
1.
Test for sulphate(VI) ion
Use of sulphuric(VI) acid
1.
Fertilizers
2.
Detergents
3.
Paints, Pigments and dyestuffs
I. Halgoens
Unit 1
Page 1
Topic
I. Halogens
Unit 1
Reference
Reading
10.1.010.1.2
Chemistry in Context, 3rd Edition ELBS pg. 265, 270276
Inorganic Chemistry, 4th Edition, T.M. Leung pg. 122129
A-Level Chemistry, 3rd Edition, E.N. Ramsden pg. 396, 398399
Assignment Chemistry in Context, 5th Edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. pg. 224233
Reading
Syllabus
Notes
I.
Halogens
I. Halgoens
Unit 1
Page 2
All halogens are strong oxidizing agents. Furthermore, free halogen atom also has high electron affinity. They all
accepts electron readily. Comparatively, the oxidizing power of fluorine is even stronger than potassium
manganate(VII).
Reduction half ionic equation
I2(s) + 2e- d 2I-(aq)
Br2(g) + 2e- d 2Br-(aq)
MnO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2e- d Mn2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Cl2(g) + 2e- d 2Cl-(aq)
MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e- d Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
F2(g) + 2e- d 2F-(aq)
I. Halgoens
Unit 1
2.
Page 3
Except fluorine, all halogens disproportionate in alkali. However, different halogens disproportionate differently in
alkali medium at different temperature.
Reaction of fluorine with alkali
2F2(g) + 2OH-(aq) OF2(aq) + 2F-(aq) + H2O(l)
0
-1
-1
at about 70C
F2(g) is extremely electronegative, it only behaves as an oxidizing agent but not a reducing agent.
Disproportionation of chlorine in alkali
Cl2(g) + 2OH-(aq) ClO-(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)
0
+1
-1
at room temp.
at about 70C
at room temp.
at room temp.
The difference in mode of disproportionation can be explained by the difference in electronegativity of halogen
atom. As the most electronegative element, F tends to attain an oxidation state of -1 only.
With decreasing electronegativity on moving down the group, the element disproportionates and gets a more
positive oxidation state more readily.
Glossary
disproportionation
Past Paper
Question
90 1A 3 c
91 2B 4 c ii
92 1A 3 f iii
93 2B 6 a i
94 1A 2 a ii
96 1A 2 c d I ii
97 1B 7 a
98 2B 8 d i ii
93 2B 6 a ii
94 2B 4 a
I. Halgoens
Unit 1
90 1A 3 c
3c
By means of balanced equations, illustrate the reactions of the halogens F2(g), Cl2(g) and Br2(l) with OH-(aq) at room
temperature.
1 mark
2F2(g) + 2OH-(aq) OF2(aq) + 2F-(aq) + H2O(l)
Cl2(g) + 2OH-(aq) OCl-(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(l)
1 mark
or 3Cl2(g) + 6OH-(aq) ClO3-(aq) + 5Cl-(aq) + 3H2O(l)
3Br2(l) + 6OH-(aq) BrO3-(aq) + 5Br-(aq) + 3H2O(l)
1 mark
91 2B 4 c ii
4c ii Explain what is meant by disproportionation, and write an equation involving a compound of chlorine to
illustrate your answer.
Definition : Reaction in which a single species/ion/substance is simultaneously oxidized and reduced.
(no mark for atom/element -)
1 mark
H2O + Cl2 HCl + HOCl
2NaOH + Cl2 NaCl + NaOCl + H2O
4KClO3 3KClO4 + KCl
3HOCl + 3H2O 3H3O+ + ClO3- + 2Cl3Cl2 + 6NaOH 5NaCl + NaClO3 + 3H2O
1 mark
( mark for unbalanced equation, 1 mark for balanced)
92 1A 3 f iii
3f
Complete and balance the following equations:
temperature
iii dil NaOH + Cl room
H O +
+
2
93 2B 6 a i ii
6a
Compare the reaction of aqueous alkali with each of fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine
i
at 295 K,
At 295 K, Cl2, Br2 and I2 disproportionate according to the equation
X2 + 2OH-(aq) OX-(aq) + X-(aq) + H2O(l)
OBr- and OI- are unstable and will undergo further disproportionation.
X = Br or I
3OX- d XO3- + 2XF2 is the strongest [O] agent, it will not disproportionate, instead, it will oxidize the OH- ion.
2F2 + 2OH- OF2(g) + 2F- + H2O
ii at 350 K.
At 350 K, Cl2, Br2 and I2 all disproportionate as follows
3X2 + 6OH-(aq) XO3-(aq) + 5X-(aq) + 3H2O(l)
F2 oxidizes the alkali,
F2 + 4OH- O2(g) + 4F- + 2H2O
3
1 mark
1 mark
1 mark
2
1 mark
1 mark
or 6KOH(aq) + 3Cl2(g)
5KCl(aq) + KClO3(aq) + 3H2O(l)
hot conc.
hot conc.
1 mark
94 1A 2 a ii
2a ii Write a balance equation, involving the reaction of chlorine with KOH(aq), to illustrate a disproportionation.
6OH-(aq) + 3Cl2(g)
5Cl-(aq) + ClO3-(aq) + 3H2O(l)
temperature
2NaOH (aq, dilute) + Cl 2(g) room
Page 4
1 mark
I. Halgoens
Unit 1
94 2B 4 a
4a
Describe how a sample of dry chlorine is prepared in the laboratory. State the safety precaution(s) that is/are
required.
Heating conc. HCl in the presence of manganese(IV) oxide
MnO2(s) + 4HCl(aq) MnCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2Cl2(g)
OR
Add conc. HCl to solid KMnO4
10HCl(aq) + 2MnO4-(aq) + 6H+(aq) 5Cl2(g) + 8H2O(l) + 2Mn2+(aq)
heat
Page 5
5
2 marks
Pass the Cl2 produced through cold water to remove HCl, dry the gas by passing through conc. H2SO4 and collect
2 marks
by downward delivery.
The experiment should be carried out in a fume cupboard.
1 mark
96 1A 2 c d i ii
2c
What is the oxidation state of the central atom in each of the following compounds ?
HClO4
HClO3
H2CrO4
HMnO4
HClO3 +5 or V
HClO4 +7 or VII
H2CrO4 +6 or VI
HMnO4 +7 or VII
(DO NOT accept a number preceding the charge e.g. 5+)
2d i
Explain why among the four compounds in (c), only HClO3 can undergo disproportionation.
The central atoms of the other three compounds are in their highest oxidation states
whereas in HClO3, Cl is in an intermediate oxidation state.
ii Write a balanced equation for the disproportionation of HClO3 to give HClO4 and ClO2.
3HClO3 HClO4 + H2O + 2ClO2
2
4 mark
1
mark
mark
1
1 mark
97 1B 7 a
7a
Briefly describe how a sample of dry chlorine gas can be prepared in the laboratory. Draw a labelled diagram of
the laboratory set-up and state the safety precaution(s) that is/are required.
98 2B 8 d i ii
8d i
Write the balanced equation for the reaction that occurs when chlorine gas is passed into an aqueous sodium
hydroxide solution at
(I) 298 K
(II) 343 K.
ii At each of the above temperatures, iodine solid instead of chlorine gas is added to the aqueous sodium hydroxide
solution. Would you expect the reaction of iodine with sodium hydroxide to be similar to the reaction of chlorine
with sodium hydroxide at each temperature ? If not, explain why a different reaction takes place.
I. Halogens
Unit 2
Topic
I. Halogens
Reference
Reading
10.1.3.1
Chemistry in Context, 3rd Edition ELBS pg. 276278
Inorganic Chemistry, 4th Edition, T.M. Leung pg. 129135
A-Level Chemistry, 3rd Edition, E.N. Ramsden pg. 402404
Page 1
Unit 2
Assignment Chemistry in Context, 5th Edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. pg. 233234
Reading
Syllabus
Notes
Reactions of halide
a) with halogens
The oxidizing power of halogens show a decreasing trend on moving down the group. Therefore, F2 is the halogen
with the strongest oxidizing power.
A more reactive halogen is capable to displace a less reactive halogen from its salt.
e.g.
Aqueous halogens have similar colours with different intensity ranging from yellow, orange to brown. The halogen
displaced could be identified more accurately by extracting with an organic solvent. Chlorine is pale green in
organic layer while bromine is orange and iodine is purple.
b) with conc. sulphuric(VI) acid
Conc. sulphuric(VI) acid (b.p. 338C) is an involatile acid and a strong oxidizing agent. However, its oxidizing
power is not strong enough to oxidize F- ion or Cl- ions. It can only displace HF(g) (b.p. 20C) and HCl(g) (b.p. 85C) from the salts since HF(g) and HCl(g) are very volatile.
NaF(s) + H2SO4(l) HF(g) + NaHSO4(s)
NaCl(s) + H2SO4(l) HCl(g) + NaHSO4(s)
The oxidizing powers of Br2 and I2 are weaker than conc. H2SO4(l). Therefore, conc. H2SO4(l) is capable to oxidze
Br- ion and I- ion besides displacing HBr(g) (b.p. -67C) and HI(g) (b.p. -35C) from the salts.
Moreover, I- ion is a stronger reducing agent than Br- ion. I- ion is capable to reduce conc. H2SO4(l) to H2S(g) while
Br- ion is only capable to reduce conc. H2SO4(l) to SO2(g).
NaBr(s) + H2SO4(l) HBr(g) + NaHSO4(s)
2HBr(g) + H2SO4(l) SO2(g) + Br2(g) + 2H2O(l)
NaI(s) + H2SO4(l) HI(g) + NaHSO4(s)
8HI(g) + H2SO4(l) 4I2(g) + H2S(g) + 4H2O(l)
c)
Similar to conc. H2SO4(l), conc. H3PO4(l) (b.p. 213C) is also involatile but it is non-oxidizing. Conc. H3PO4(l) is also
a viscous liquid due to the formation of extensive hydrogen bonds among the molecules. It is capable to displace
hydrogen halides form the solid halide salts without oxidizing the halide ion to halogen.
NaF(s) + H3PO4(l) HF(g) + NaH2PO4(s)
NaCl(s) + H3PO4(l) HCl(g) + NaH2PO4(s)
NaBr(s) + H3PO4(l) HBr(g) + NaH2PO4(s)
NaI(s) + H3PO4(l) HI(g) + NaH2PO4(s)
I. Halogens
Unit 2
Page 2
Glossary
displace
involatile
tetraamminecopper(II) ion
Past Paper
Question
90 2B 6 c
92 1A 3 f i ii
93 2B 6 c
94 2B 4 d i ii
95 1B 4 a
96 2B 5 c i ii iii iv
98 2B 8 b ii
99 1A 3 d ii
soluble complex
redissolve
tetraamminezinc(II) ion
diamminesilver(I) ion
I. Halogens
Unit 2
90 2B 6 c
6c
Explain why copper(II) chloride is a stable compound whereas copper(II) iodide does not exist.
Cl is much more electronegative than I / the size of I- is larger than ClCl- is more resistant to oxidation than Ior
Cu2+ is an oxidizing agent strong enough to oxidize I- to I2
or
I- is a stronger reducing agent
I- ion is polarized by Cu2+
CuI2 disproportionates, CuI2 CuI + I2
92 1A 3 f i ii
3f
Complete and balance the following equations:
temperature
i
conc H 2 SO 4 + KBr room
H 2 O +
+
ii
conc H 3 PO 4 + KBr
3
1 mark
1 mark
1 mark
temperature
2KBr(s) + 3H 2 SO 4 (conc) room
Page 3
1 mark
1
HBr(g) + KH 2 PO 4(aq)
93 2B 6 c
6c
Write the equation in each case, for the reaction of concentrated H3PO4 with NaCl and NaBr.
Will concentrate H2SO4 give a similar reaction in each case?
Explain any difference(s) in reactivity between concentrated H3PO4 and concentrated H2SO4.
Reaction between NaX and H3PO4 (X = Cl or Br)
H3PO4 + NaX HX + NaH2PO4
With H2SO4, NaCl gives similar reaction
NaBr will react to give also Br2 and SO2, 2HBr + H2SO4 2H2O + SO2 + Br2
Q conc. H2SO4 is an oxidizing agent while conc. H3PO4 is not.
94 2B 4 d i ii
4d
Write balanced equation(s) and comment on the difference for the reaction between
i
concentrated H2SO4 and NaCl, and
NaCl + H2SO4 NaHSO4 + HCl
ii concentrated H2SO4 and NaI.
NaI + H2SO4 HI + NaHSO4
8HI(g) + H2SO4(l) 4I2(s) + H2S(g) + 4H2O(l)
HI / I-, being a stronger reducing agent than HCl, will be oxidized by conc. H2SO4 to give I2.
1 mark
1 mark
1 mark
1 mark
1
1 mark
2
1 mark
1 mark
95 1B 4 a
4a
Devise an experiment to distinguish between KBr(s) and a mixture containing approximately 40% KCl(s) and 60%
KBr(s) by mass.
Prepare conc. aqueous solutions by dissolving the solids in water.
1 mark
mark
Add AgNO3(aq) to solution in test tube
mark
Add excess NH3(aq) to the precipitate
1 mark
Let the precipitate settle, decant the solution and compare the height of the precipitate.
(Note : Br- is insoluble in dil.NH3 but soluble in conc. NH3)
I. Halogens
Unit 2
Page 4
96 2B 5 c i ii iii iv
5c
Hydrogen chloride can be prepared by the action of concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid on potassium chloride.
i
Write a balanced equation for the reaction of concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid and potassium chloride.
1
1 mark
KCl + H2SO4 KHSO4 + HCl
ii Briefly describe how a sample of dry hydrogen chloride can be prepared in the laboratory using the above
6
reaction.
Draw a labelled diagram of the laboratory set-up and state the safety precaution(s) that is/are required.
Hydrogen chloride can be prepared by dropping (slow addition of) c. H2SO4 onto KCl
mark
mark
and warming the reaction mixture.
The HCl produced is tried by passing through anhydrous CaCl2 /concentrated H2SO4
mark
mark
and then collected by downward delivery / in a gas syringe.
1 mark
Precaution: carry out experiment in fume cupboard.
[2 marks for description of the expt; 1 mark for safety precaution.]
I. Halogens
Unit 3
Page 1
Topic
I. Halogens
Unit 3
Reference
Reading
10.1.3.210.1.3.3
Inorganic Chemistry, 4th Edition, T.M. Leung pg. 135139
A-Level Chemistry, 3rd Edition, E.N. Ramsden pg. 404405
Assignment
Reading
Syllabus
Notes
2.
All hydrogen halides are acidic in water. The acidity of hydrogen halide decreases on moving down the group.
HA(aq) + H2O(l) d A-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
pKa
E(HX)
EN
HF
3.2
568
3.9
HCl
-7
432
0.9
HBr
-9
366
0.7
HI
-10
298
0.4
This can be explained the decrease in bond energy despite of the increase in bond polarity. Furthermore, from the
experimental data, it can be concluded that the solvation of the halide ion is not a determining factor affecting the
strength of the acid.
HF shows exceptionally low acidity because of the very strong HF bond and the capability of the molecule to
form hydrogen bond with the free proton in the aqueous medium. This reduces the amount of the hydroxonium
ions in the solution and lowers the acidity of HF(aq).
HF(aq) + H+(aq) d H2F+(aq)
3.
Oxoacid
An acid containing oxygen is called an oxoacid. They have the forms HXO, HXO2, HXO3, H2XO3, H2XO4 etc. The
salts formed by them are called oxo-salts.
e.g.
H O Cl
O
H
O
P
O
H
The acidity of an oxoacid is depending on the no. of oxygen attaching to the atom X. Since O is an electronegative
atom, it imposes a negative inductive effect on the central atom X. This will make the -OH+ bond more polar.
The attraction between the water molecules and H+ will be strengthened and this favours the dissociation of the
proton. Therefore, the molecule will become more acidic.
Moreover, the oxoacid with more no. of O atom would also be more acidic because the anions formed would be
more stable. This is because they are capable to form more identical resonance structures which imply a more
evenly distributed electron cloud and more stable structure.
Glossary
oxoacid
oxo-salt
I. Halogens
Unit 3
Page 2
91 1A 3 c
94 1A 2 c iii iv
94 2B 5 a v
96 2B 5 b
99 1A 3 d i
Past Paper
Question
91 1A 3 c
3c
Give the formulae of two chlorine-containing salts in which the oxidation number of Cl are +1 and +5
respectively.
Suggest one common chemical properties shown by both compounds.
NaOCl and KClO3
mark each
1 mark
both are strong oxidizing agents
94 1A 2 c iii iv
2c iii Write the formulae of three oxoacids of chlorine, and arrange them in order of increasing acid strength.
HOCl < HClO2 < HClO3 < HClO4
1 mark for 3 formulae, 1 mark for order of acidity
iv Explain why the acidity of 0.1 M HF(aq) is weaker than that of 0.1 M HCl(aq)
HF is extensively hydrogen-bonded in water.
(HF)n + H2O(l) d H3O+(aq) + F-(aq)
the equilibrium lies to the L.H.S.
1 mark
The Cl- ion, having a larger size, is highly polarizable, it is stable in water.
Hence the equilibrium
1 mark
HCl(aq) + H2O(l) d H3O+(aq) + Cl-(aq) lies to the right, so HCl is a strong acid.
OR
HX bond strength is greater in HF than in HCl
1 mark
1 mark
this outweighs the reduced hydration energy from F- to ClOR
1 mark
HF slightly ionizes in H2O & HCl completely ionizes in H2O
94 2B 5 a v
5a v Draw the three-dimensional structure of the manganate(VII) ion.
Mn
O
OO
tetrahedral
1 mark
96 2B 5 b
5b
What are the highest and lowest oxidation states of bromine ?
Give one compound in which bromine is in its highest oxidation state and another compound in which bromine is
in its lowest oxidation state.
highest oxidation state = +7 / VII
mark
1 mark
example: BrO4- / HBrO4
lowest oxidation state = -1 / -I
mark
1 mark
example: Br- / HBr
(Accept any correct example of Br containing compound)
99 1A 3 d i
3d
For each of the following, state the expected observation and write the relevant balanced equation(s).
i
KIO3(aq) is added to acidified KI(aq).
I. Halogens
Unit 4
Page 1
Topic
I. Halogens
Unit 4
Reference
Reading
10.1.4
Chemistry in Context, 3rd Edition ELBS pg. 278279
Inorganic Chemistry, 4th Edition, T.M. Leung pg. 140141
A-Level Chemistry, 3rd Edition, E.N. Ramsden pg. 408410
Assignment Chemistry in Context, 5th Edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. pg. 235236
Reading
Syllabus
Notes
Fluoridation of water
Fluoridation is the addition of a chemical called fluoride to water supplies to help teeth resist decay. In the 1930's,
researchers discovered that people who grew up where water naturally contained fluoride had up to two-thirds
fewer cavities than people living in areas without fluoride in the water.
Today, about half the people of the United States drink fluoridated water. The use of fluoride tablets and
toothpastes and the application of strong fluoride solutions to the teeth by dentists can also help prevent tooth
decay.
Local governments or the people of a community often must decide whether the water supply should be
fluoridated. This means balancing the benefits, risks, and costs of fluoridation, as well as moral questions about its
widespread use. People disagree over these issues, and fluoridation has always been controversial.
Benefits, risks, and costs. Many studies have shown that fluoridation reduces tooth decay substantially. However,
rates of tooth decay also have declined in areas without fluoridated water, perhaps chiefly because of the
widespread use of fluoride toothpastes.
2.
Use of chlorine
Manufacture of poly(chloroethene)
Industrially, vinyl chloride is prepared by heating 1,2-dichloroethane at 500 C which is prepared from
addition reaction between chlorine and ethene.
H
H
C C
H H
H C
H H
Cl2
Electrophilic
addition
H C C H
Cl Cl
Heat 500 C
C H
H
C
Cl
Cl Cl
C
H
H
C
Cl
H H
R C C
Cl H
R C C
Cl H
H
C
Cl
C
H
H H H H
R C C
Cl H Cl H
I. Halogens
Unit 4
Page 2
Photographic films
Black and white film is made of emulation of silver bromide crystal in gelatin coated on a plastic base. Upon
exposure to light, silver bromide will decompose to black silver crystal. In the developing process, the unexposed
silver bromide will be washed away and a black image will be left behind to form a negative image.
Glossary
fluoridation
Past Paper
Question
96 1A 2 a
97 1A 3 a i iii
bleach
disinfectant
photographic film
96 1A 2 a
2a
State the method by which sodium hydroxide is produced industrially. Give TWO other products obtained by this
industrial process.
NaOH(aq) is produced by electrolysis of brine / concentrated NaCl(aq)
1 mark
(Deduct mark for not mentioning concentrated.)
+ mark
Other products: H2 / Cl2 / NaOCl solution (bleach solution) (any TWO)
97 1A 3 a i iii
3a
For each of the following materials, identify ONE inorganic compound which is an active ingredient:
i
photographic film
iii bleaching powder
Unit 1
Topic
Reference
Reading
10.2.010.2.2
Page 1
Unit 1
Syllabus
Notes
Comparing with other p-block elements, nitrogen is quite unreactive because of the strong NN triple bond. A very
high temperature is required to break the bond. Therefore, the reaction with N2(g) involves a very high activation
energy.
When Mg(s) is burning in air, the temperature is high enough to break the NN bond. This leads to formation of
yellow magnesium nitride.
Mg(s) + N2(g) Mg3N2(s)
NN
N=N
NN
NH
HH
CC
C=C
CC
CH
Unit 1
NO2(g) is an acid anhydride which form nitric(V) and nitric(III) acid when dissolved in water.
NO2(g) + H2O(l) HNO3(aq) + HNO2(aq)
HNO2(aq) is a weak acid which is vulnerable to air oxidation to strong HNO3(aq) acid.
2HNO2(aq) + O2(g) 2HNO3(aq)
This is why the area with heavy traffic usually has more serious acid rain problem.
Overall equation
Page 2
Unit 1
Page 3
B. Ammonia
1.
Haber process
H = -92 kJ mol-1
H = -92 kJ mol-1
yield
rate of reaction
Therefore, a high pressure is ideal for achieving both high yield and
high rate of reaction.
However, manufacturing at high pressure requires the use of a strong
reacting vessel which is costly to build and operate. Therefore, only 200
atm was chosen.
500C is chosen because if the temperature is too high, the yield will be
too low. Moreover, if the temperature is too low, the rate of reaction
will be too slow and a very long time will be required for the reactants
to react.
The conditions chosen is actually a compromise between yield and rate of reaction. At such conditions, the
production of ammonia would be most economical.
Unit 1
Page 4
a) Alkaline properties
Ammonia is a weak alkali in water. Kb of ammonia at 25C is 1.8 10-5 moldm-3.
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) d NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
(1) Laboratory preparation of ammonia
For this reason, ammonia gas is usually prepared by heating an
ammonium salt will a strong alkali in laboratory. e.g. soda lime (a
mixture of Ca(OH)2(s) and NaOH(s))
2NH4Cl(s) + Ca(OH)2(s) NH3(g) + CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
Since water is produced, it has to be removed by a drying agent.
Anhydrous calcium oxide is the only suitable common drying agent.
This is because other common drying agents e.g conc. H2SO4(l) and
anhydrous CaCl2(s), react with ammonia.
Sulphuric acid neutralizes ammonia.
2NH3(g) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)
Anhydrous calcium chloride forms complex with ammonia.
4NH3(g) + CaCl2(s) CaCl24NH3(s)
In the experimental setup, the reacting flask containing ammonium chloride and strong alkali have to be
inclined downwards to prevent the water condensed at the mouth from cracking the flask.
Moreover, ammonia is lighter than air and very soluble in water, it is collected by the method of upward
delivery (downward displacement of air) or using gas syringe.
b) Reducing properties
The nitrogen atom in ammonia has the lowest possible oxidation state of nitrogen, -3. Therefore, ammmonia can
only behave as a reducing agent in all kinds of redox reaction. Indeed, it is a fairly strong reducing agent.
(1) Combustion
Ammonia doesnt burn in ordinary air but it burns with a yellow flame
in pure oxygen to give nitrogen.
4NH3(g) + 3O2(g) 2N2(g) + 6H2O(l)
Unit 1
Page 5
4NO(g) + 6H2O(l)
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g)
H = -907 kJmol-1
Since the reaction is highly exothermic, the platinum wire will continue to
glow once the reaction has started. The initial product NO(g) is colourless
which reacts with atmospheric oxygen to form brown NO2(g).
NO(g) + O2(g) NO2(g)
Brown fume of NO2(g) will be observed at the mouth of the flask.
(3) With copper(II) oxide
Ammonia can also reduce oxides of unreactive metal to the metals with heating. e.g. CuO(s) Cu(s)
3CuO(s) + 2NH3(g) 3Cu(s) + N2(g) + 3H2O(g)
Unit 1
Page 6
Glossary
high tension
electric arc
Haber process
Le Chateliers principle
catalytic oxidation (Ostwald process)
thermal decomposition of ammonia
Past Paper
Question
90 2B 5 b
92 2B 6 Ac iii
97 2B 8 b ii iii
99 2A 1 c i
Unit 1
Page 7
97 2B 8 c i ii
99 2A 4 a iii
90 2B 5 b
5b
Outline an industrial preparation of ammonia.
Your answer should include the physico-chemical principles involved and also the role of any catalyst.
Ammonia
N2 + 3H2 d 2NH3
H < 0 / exothermic
1 mark
Conditions of reaction:
200 atm, 500C, finely divided iron catalyst
1 mark
Effect of temperature on the equilibrium constant
1 mark
Effect of pressure
1 mark } any 2
1 mark
2 marks
Effect of concentration of N2 and H2
1 mark
Catalyst - required because of the inertness of N2 and H2 molecules
1 mark
NH3 is removed from the reaction mixture
Overall presentation
1 mark
92 2B 6 Ac iii
6Ac
iii Ammonia is synthesized by the Haber Process. With reference to the availability and preparation of raw
materials, discuss the major economic aspects of this process.
N2(g) atmosphere
fractional distillation
H2(g) petroleum industry
cracking /steam reforming
locate near oil refinery to save transport costs
recycle of raw material
use of catalyst
1 mark each
97 2B 8 b ii iii
8b
The synthesis of ammonia using the Haber Process involves the following:
N2(g) + 3H2(g) d 2NH3(g) Ho = -92 kJ mol-1
ii Name a catalyst for the process and state the effect of the catalyst on the reaction.
iii State how ammonia is isolated from unreacted nitrogen and hydrogen in the process.
97 2B 8 c i ii
8c
The reaction of chlorine with excess ammonia in the gas phase to give ammonium chloride and nitrogen involves
several steps.
i
Write a balanced equation for the overall reaction.
ii Briefly explain how ammonia acts as a reducing agent and as a base in the reaction.
99 2A 1 c i
1c
For each of the following pairs of substances, suggest a chemical test to distinguish one from the other. For each
test, give the reagent(s) used and the expected observation.
i
CsCl(s) and NH4Cl(s)
99 2A 4 a iii
4a
In the Haber process, ammonia is synthesized by the exothermic reaction of nitrogen and hydrogen at around
723K.
N2(g) + 3H2(g) d 2NH3(g)
In a simulation of the process, a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen was placed in a closed container. The initial
concentrations of nitrogen and hydrogen were 0.50 mol dm-3 and 1.50 mol dm-3 respectively. When the
equilibrium was attained at 723 K, 25.0% of the original nitrogen was consumed.
iii (I) State, with explanation, the effect of temperature on Kc for the reaction.
(II) Explain why the Haber process is not operated at temperatures much higher or much lower than 723 K.
Unit 2
Topic
Reference
Reading
10.2.3
Page 1
Unit 2
Syllabus
Notes
C. Nitric(V) acid
1.
Ostwald Process
Nitric(V) acid is manufactured from NH3(g) industrially through the NO(g) and NO2(g) intermediates. The process is
called Ostwald process. Although NO(g) can be prepared by direct oxidation of N2(g) molecule, this is not
economical because the activation energy involved is very high..
NH3(g) serves as an intermediate to break the whole process into steps with lower activation energies.
N2 NH3(g) NO2(g) HNO3(aq)
Ostwald process
a.
NH3(g) is first oxidized by O2(g) in air to NO(g) in the presence of Pt(s) catalyst at 900 C and 8 atm.
Pt
4NH3(g) + 5O2(g)
4NO(g) + 6H2O(l)
H = - 950 kJmol-1
Similar to Haber process, the conditions chosen in Ostwald process is also a compromise between yield and
rate of reaction.
Since the reaction is highly exothermic, the heat generated is diverted to heat up the raw material in the heat
exchanger.
b.
c.
Unit 2
Page 2
In contrast to ammonia, nitrogen in nitric(V) acid has the highest possible oxidation state, +5. It can only behaves
as an oxidizing agent.
Depending on the concentration, nitric(V) acid shows different degree of oxidizing power and gives different
products.
Concentrated nitric(V) acid (16M)
Dilute nitric(V) acid (2M)
Very dilute nitric(V) acid (0.1M)
Very dilute nitric(V) acid behaves similarly to other aqueous acids. It has only very weak oxidizing power offered
by the H+(aq) ions.
Indeed, nitric(V) acid can also be reduced to other products with different oxidation states depending on the
condition.
NO3-(aq) + 5H+(aq) + 4e- d 2H2O + N2O
NO3-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 6e- d 2H2O + H2NOH
NO3-(aq) + 10H+(aq) + 8e- d 3H2O + NH4+
a) With copper
Concentrated nitric(V) acid is a very strong oxidizing. It even oxidizes less reactive metal like copper.
with very dilute nitric(V) acid
with dilute nitric(V) acid (with heating)
with concentrated nitric(V) acid (cold)
no reaction
3Cu(s) + 2NO3-(aq) + 8H+(aq) 3Cu2+(aq) + 2NO(g) + 4H2O(l)
Cu(s) + 2NO3-(aq) + 4H+(aq) Cu2+(aq) + 2NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Surprisingly, concentrated HNO3(aq) has no reaction with Fe(s) due to the formation of an impermeable oxide
layer. Thus, Fe(s) is said to be passive to concentrated HNO3(aq). Therefore, concentrated HNO3(aq) is usually
stored in steel tanks.
b) With iron(II) ion
3Fe2+(aq) + NO3-(aq) + 4H+(aq) 3Fe3+(aq) + NO(g) + 2H2O(l)
Concentrated nitric(V) acid oxidizes iron(II) salt to iron(III) salt. The NO(g) produced will be further oxidized
to brown NO2(g) in air.
Furthermore, the NO molecule is capable to form a brown complex [Fe(H2O)5NO]2+(aq) with Fe2+(aq). The
Fe2+(aq) solution may turn the solution brown eventually.
Unit 2
Page 3
With sulphur
Sulphur has no reaction with cold conc. HNO3(aq). But upon heating, conc. HNO3(aq) can oxidize S(s) to
sulphuric acid.
S(s) + 6HNO3(aq) H2SO4(aq) + 6NO2(g) + 2H2O(l)
Glossary
Ostwald process
Past Paper
Question
92 2B 6 Ab ii
93 2B 5 Ia
97 2B 8 a ii
passive
92 2B 6 Ab ii
What are the products of the reactions between
ii cold, concentrated nitric(V) acid and hydrogen sulphide gas?
H2S(g) + 2HNO3(conc.) S(s) + 2H2O(l) + 2NO2(g)
note: on boiling, H2SO4(aq) formed
6Ab
1
1 mark
93 2B 5 Ia
5I
For the industrial preparation of nitric(V) acid from nitrogen , give the chemical reactions and the conditions
a
under which they take place.
Pass purified N2 and H2 (ratio 1:3) over iron catalyst at 450C and 200 atm pressure.
2 marks
N2 + 3H2 d 2NH3
Ammonia is mixed with O2 (excess air) and passed over a platinum catalyst at 900C at 8 atm.
4NH3 + 5O2 4NO + 6H2O
2NO + O2 2NO2
3 marks
Resulting gaseous mixture is passed through water.
1 mark
4NO2 + O2 + 2H2O 4HNO3
97 2B 8 a ii
8a
Suggest how the following nitrogen oxides can be prepared in the laboratory. In each case, state the reactant(s)
used and the reaction conditions, and write balanced equation(s) for the reaction(s) involved.
ii nitrogen monoxide, NO
Unit 3
Topic
Reference
Reading
10.2.4
Page 1
Unit 3
Syllabus
Notes
D. Nitrate(V) salt
1.
Upon heating, different nitrate(V) salts will decompose to give different products depending on the reactivity of the
metal in the salt.
Reactivity series of metal
K, Na, Ca, Mg, Al, Zn, Fe, Pb, Cu, Hg, Ag, Au
i.
For reactive metal nitrate(V) e.g. KNO3(s) and NaNO3(s), they will decompose into nitrate(III) and oxygen.
thermal decomposition
Unit 3
Page 2
iv. Ammonium nitrate(V) NH4NO3(s) will decompose to dinitrogen oxide and water leaving no residue behind.
thermal decomposition
NH4NO3(s)
N2O(g) + 2H2O(l)
In this reaction, a solid reagent expands suddenly to gaseous products, therefore, NH4NO3(s) is potentially
explosive. It should not be heated too strongly.
N.B.
0 5 C
Recall the action of nitric(III) acid on amino group, RNH2 + HNO2(aq) N2(g) + ROH
NH4NO2(s) may be considered as a mixture of HNO2 and NH3 NH4NO2 d HNO2 + NH3
Therefore, NH4NO2(s) decomposes upon heating to give N2(g) and H2O(l) only.
thermal decomposition
NH4NO2 (s)
N2(g) + 2H2O(l)
2.
Glossary
Past Paper
Question
91 1A 3 h
97 1A 3 a ii
Unit 3
Page 3
91 1B 4 a
97 2B 8 a i
91 1A 3 h
3h
When solid ammonium nitrate(V) is transported, the vehicle must carry a sign clearly showing :
AMMONIUM NITRATE ; DANGEROUS GOODS ; NO SMOKING.
Give chemical reasons why this is necessary.
NH4NO3(s) is unstable and readily/easily decomposes to give large volumes of gaseous products (N2O and H2O)
1 mark
and is therefore explosive.
1 mark
No smoking because N2O is a supporter of combustion at elevated temperature
91 1B 4 a
4a
You are give two solid samples, one of which is sodium nitrate(V) and the other sodium bromide. Outline
laboratory tests to identify each anion positively, giving the reagents, reaction conditions and the expected
observations (Equations are not required.)
For NaNO3(s),
add conc. H2SO4 and heat / add conc. H2SO4 + Cu and heat
to give brown fumes of NO2 having no action on fluorescein (C20H12O5 yellowish to red in colour) impregnated
paper.
Add freshly prepared FeSO4 and conc. H2SO4 slowly / dropwise to give brown ring at the liquid junction.
For NaBr(s),
add conc. H2SO4 to give acid vapour of HBr which gives white fumes with NH3 and reddish brown vapours of Br2
which turns fluorescein impregnated paper red.
or
Add acidified AgNO3 solution to give pale yellow ppt which is slightly / partially / sparingly soluble in excess
NH3 or which darkens in colour on exposure to sunlight.
or
Add HOCl solution to give orange-red colour of bromine. When the solution is shaken with CS2 / CHCl3 / CCl4,
mark for each point
the Br2 dissolves in the organic solvent leaving a colourless aqueous layer.
97 1A 3 a ii
3a
For each of the following materials, identify ONE inorganic compound which is an active ingredient:
ii gun powder
97 2B 8 a i
8a
Suggest how the following nitrogen oxides can be prepared in the laboratory. In each case, state the reactant(s)
used and the reaction conditions, and write balanced equation(s) for the reaction(s) involved.
i
dinitrogen oxide, N2O
Unit 4
Topic
Reference
Reading
10.2.5
Page 1
Unit 4
Modern Organic Chemistry (4th ed.), Bell & Hyman, 154155, 320
Chemistry in Context, 5th Edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. pg. 316317
Syllabus
Notes
CH2 O NO2
CH OH + 3 HNO3
CH O NO2
CH2 OH
CH2 O NO2
propane-1,2,3-triol
(glycerol)
propane-1,2,3-triyl trinitrate
(nitroglycerine)
CH2 O NO2
12 CO2(g) + 10 H2O(g) + 6 N2(g) + O2(g)
CH O NO2
CH2 O NO2
propane-1,2,3-triyl trinitrate
(nitroglycerine)
Nitroglycerine is a colourless, oily liquid which is violently exploded on slight shock. Oxygen is present in the
molecule, and carbon dioxide, water vapour and nitrogen are liberated to produce a very large pressure.
Dynamite, invented by the Swedish chemist, Nobel, is made by allowing kieselguhr (a kind of clay from seashell)
to absorb nitroglycerin. Although it retains its explosive properties, the nitroglycerin is less sensitive to shock.
Besides nitroglycerin, many other explosives like trinitrotoluene (T.N.T., the yellow explosive), gun-cotton are also
prepared by nitration using concentrated nitric acid.
CH3
O 2N
CH2ONO2
NO2
H
H
ONO2
ONO2
NO2
methyl-2,4,6-trinitrobenzene
(trinitrotoluene, T.N.T.)
n
cellulose nitrate (nitrocellulose, gun cotton)
Unit 4
Page 2
Nylon
In industrial production of nylon, hexanedioic acid is manufactured by oxidation of a mixture of cyclohexanol and
cyclohexanone using moderately concentrated nitric acid and a copper salt as catalyst.
OH
O
60% HNO3, 60 C, cat.
HOOC
CH2CH2CH2CH2 COOH
Part of the hexanedioic acid is converted to hexane-1,6-diamine through hexanedinitrile. Hexanedioic acid and
hexane-1,6-diamine are then used to make nylon-6.6.
d) Dyestuffs
Azo dye is prepared by coupling diazonium ion with phenolic compound.
+
N N
H
N
OH
diazonium ion
+ H2O
OH
OH
naphthalen-2-ol
OH
N H
azo dye
(an orange red ppt.)
For example, the food colour Orange II is made by diazotising the sodium salt of 4-aminobenzenesulphonic acid
and coupling the product to naphthalen-2-ol :
-
SO2O Na
+-
Na OO2S
+
N N +
N N
OH
Orange II
Nitric acid is used to prepare nitrobenzene through which diazonium ion is prepared.
NO2
HNO3 , H2SO4
50 - 55
+
N N
NH2
Sn
HCl
NaNO2
HCl, 0-5
benzenamine
(an aromatic
primary amine)
diazonium ion
Glossary
nitroglycerine
Past Paper
Question
97 2B 8 b iv
Unit 4
trinitrotoluene (T.N.T.)
97 2B 8 b iv
8b iv Give TWO major uses of ammonia in industry.
Page 3
dynamite
azo dye
diazonium ion
Unit 1
Page 1
Topic
Unit 1
Reference
Reading
10.3.010.3.2
Advanced Practical Chemistry, John Murray (Publisher) Ltd., 192194
Assignment A-Level Chemistry (3rd ed.), Stanley Thornes (Publisher) Ltd., 417418, 426427
Chemistry in Context (4th ed.), Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., 348351
Reading
Syllabus
Notes
or simply
Heating of sulphur
Different forms of the same element in the same physical state are called allotropes of the element. e.g. diatomic
oxygen O2(g) and ozone O3(g) are two allotropes of oxygen
There are several different sulphur allotropes. e.g. rhombic sulphur, monoclinic sulphur and plastic sulphur
At room temperature, sulphur exists in 2 forms of crystal called rhombic sulphur and monoclinic sulphur. They
melts at 113C and 119C respectively. Thermodynamically, rhombic sulphur is more energetically stable at room
temperature while monoclinic sulphur is more stable at high temperature.
Rhombic sulphur can be prepared by evaporating a solution of sulphur in carbon disulphide at room temperature
while monoclinic sulphur can be prepared by cooling molten sulphur slowly at an elevated temperature.
Unit 1
Page 2
Unit 1
Page 3
B. Burning of sulphur
Sulphur burns in air with a blue flame to form sulphur dioxide.
S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
This can be used to prepared sulphur dioxide industrially for the contact process in the manufacturing of
sulphuric(VI) acid.
Unit 1
Page 4
Sulphur dioxide is a soluble gas, though not as soluble as HCl(g) or NH3(g). In aqueous state, SO2(g) weakly
dissociates to HSO3-(aq) or SO32-(aq).
SO2(g) + H2O(l) d H3O+(aq) + HSO3-(aq)
Since the dissociation is rather weak, H2SO3(aq) can also be written as SO2(aq) and H2O(l). And it is observed that the
redox properties of SO2(aq) and SO32-(aq) are similar.
4H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2e- d H2SO3(aq) + H2O(l)
Eo = + 0.17 V
Because SO2(aq) is a mild reducing agent it reacts with strong oxidizing agent like MnO4-(aq) and Cr2O72-(aq).
a) With manganate(VII) ion
H2SO3(aq) + H2O(l) d 4H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2e- 5
MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e- d Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l) 2
Overall 5SO32-(aq) + 2MnO4-(aq) + 6H+(aq) d 5SO42-(aq) + 2Mn2+(aq) + 3H2O(l)
Eo = - 0.17 V
Eo = + 1.51 V
Eo = + 1.34 V
Eo = - 0.17 V
Eo = + 1.33 V
Eo = + 1.16 V
With bromine
H2SO3(aq) + H2O(l) d 4H+(aq) + SO42-(aq) + 2eBr2(aq) + 2e- d 2Br-(aq)
Eo = - 0.17 V
Eo = + 1.09 V
Eo = + 0.92 V
Normally, sulphur dioxide doesnt behave as a oxidizing agent. But in the presence of a strong reducing agent. e.g.
Mg(s), SO2(g) can also be reduced to S(s).
a) With magnesium
2Mg(s) + SO2(g) 2MgO(s) + S(s)
Magnesium burns continuously in a gas jar of sulphur dioxide to from white magnesium oxide and yellow sulphur
powder.
Unit 1
Page 5
Comparatively, sulphur dioxde and carbon dioxide are quite similar in chemical properties. Both form white
precipitate with limewater, silver nitrate and barium chloride solutions.
SO32-(aq) + Ca2+(aq) CaSO3(s)
CO32-(aq) + Ca2+(aq) CaCO3(s)
SO32-(aq) + 2Ag+(aq) Ag2SO3(s)
CO32-(aq) + 2Ag+(aq) Ag2CO3(s)
SO32-(aq) + Ba2+(aq) BaSO3(s)
CO32-(aq) + Ba2+(aq) BaCO3(s)
However, they also show certain differences. Sulphur dioxide is much more soluble in water and is pungent in
smell. Moreover, the main difference between the two is that sulphur dioxide is reducing while carbon dioxide is
non-reducing. Therefore, they are be distinguished by using an oxidizing agent e.g. KMnO4/H+(aq), K2Cr2O7/H+(aq).
Glossary
atomicity
Past Paper
Question
93 2B 5 IIc
rhombic sulphur
monoclinic sulphur
plastic sulphur
93 2B 5 IIc
II
SO2 can act as an oxidant or a reductant. Give one reaction in each case to illustrate this.
c
SO2 as reducing agent :
reaction with acidified K2Cr2O7 / KMnO4
Cr2O72- + 3SO2 + 2H+ 2Cr3+ + 3SO42- + 5H2O
or MnO4- + 5SO2 + 2H2O 2Mn2+ + 5SO42- + 5H2O + 4H+
SO2 as oxidising agent :
H2S + SO2 S(s) + H2O
(any 2 appropriate examples)
2 marks
Unit 2
Topic
Reference
Reading
10.3.310.3.4
Page 1
Unit 2
Chemistry in Context (4th ed.), Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., 348350
Chemistry in Context, 5th Edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. pg. 310311
Syllabus
Notes
Contact process
1.
2.
Sulphur trioxide, SO3(g) is dissolved in conc. H2SO4(l) to form oleum, H2S2O7(l) (also called fuming sulphuric
acid).
SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) H2S2O7(l)
3.
Note :
SO3(g) is not added to the water directly because the reaction is highly exothermic. This will vaporize the
sulphuric acid formed and cause difficulty in collection of acid.
Unit 2
Page 2
H = -197 kJ mol-1
yield
rate of reaction
Actually, the condition, 1 atm and 450C with the catalyst of V2O5(s) is a
compromise between yield and rate of reaction. At this condition, the
production of SO3(g) is most economical.
2.
i.
Acid
Ionic equation
Full equation
When water is added into the reacting mixture, it turns blue because of the presence of Cu2+(aq) ion.
Unit 2
Page 3
Dehydrating properties
with copper(II) sulphate-5-water
Conc. H2SO4(l) removes the water of crystallization from CuSO45H2O(l). This turns the blue crystal to white
powder.
conc . H SO
2
4(l )
CuSO45H2O(s)
blue crystal
CuSO4(s) + 5H2O(l)
white powder
with paper
The main composition of paper is cellulose which is a carbohydrate. It has the general formula Cx(H2O)y.
Conc. H2SO4(l) is capable to extract the water from the structure of cellulose and char the paper.
conc . H SO
2
4(l )
xC(s) + yH2O(l)
Cx(H2O)y(s)
According to this principle, dil. H2SO4(aq) can be used as a magic ink. The word written on the paper can be
developed by heating the paper to evaporate the water. Once the sulphuric acid is concentrated, it will char the
paper and the word will appear.
with sugar
Similarly, sugar is another carbohydrate, it is also charred by conc. H2SO4(l).
Upon heating, conc. H2SO4(l) is also capable to oxidize the C(s) to CO2(g) and raise the spongy mass.
Oxidation half equation
Reduction half equation
Ionic equation
Full equation
Unit 2
Page 4
E. Sulphate(VI) salt
1.
SO42-(aq) is usually tested with BaCl2(aq) solution. In the presence of BaCl2(aq), SO42-(aq) ion will be precipitated as
insoluble BaSO4(s) and the solution will turn into a white suspension.
Ba2+(aq) + SO42-(aq) BaSO4(s)
However, SO32-(aq) and CO32-(aq) also form white precipitate with Ba2+(aq). They are distinguished from SO42-(aq) by
addition of acid. In acidic medium, BaSO3(s) and BaCO3(s) will redissolve.
BaSO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) BaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + SO2(g)
BaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) BaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
BaSO4(s) + HCl(aq) no reaction (the ppt. remains insoluble)
Glossary
contact process
barium chloride
vanadium(V) oxide
hygroscopic
dehydrating
Past Paper
Question
Unit 2
90 2B 5 b
92 2B 6 Bb ii
93 2B 5 IIa
98 1B 7 a iii
99 2A 1 c ii
Page 5
98 2B 8 c i ii
90 2B 5 b
5b
Outline an industrial preparation of sulphuric acid.
Your answer should include the physico-chemical principles involved and also the role of any catalyst.
Sulphuric acid
S + O2 SO2
2SO2 + O2 d 2SO3;
H < 0 very slow in the absence of catalyst
H O
SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7
2H2SO4
3 marks
Steps involved: Production of SO2, conversion to SO3, removal of SO3
Conditions of conversion: 1 atm, 450C, vanadium(V) oxide catalyst
1 mark
1 mark
Effect of [O2], removal of SO3
Effect of pressure
1 mark } any 1
Effect of temperature on the equilibrium constant
1 mark
1 mark
1 mark
Catalyst - lower the activation energy for the SO2 + O2 reaction as O2 is kinetically inert
Overall presentation
1 mark
92 2B 6 Bb ii
6Bb
What are the products of the reactions between
ii concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid and hydrogen sulphide gas?
H2SO4(conc.) + H2S(g) S(s) + 2H2O(l) + SO2(g)
1
1 mark
93 2B 5 IIa
II
For the industrial preparation of sulphuric(VI) acid from sulphur, give the chemical reactions and the conditions
a
under which they take place.
Sulphur is burnt in air.
S + O2 SO2
1 mark
A mixture of SO2 + O2 (slightly excess air) is passed over V2O5 catalyst at 450C and 1 atm. pressure. 2 mark
2SO2 + O2 2SO3
1 mark
SO3 gas is passed into conc. H2SO4 and then diluted with water
SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7
1 mark
H2S2O7 + H2O 2H2SO4
1 mark
98 1B 7 a iii
7a
Briefly describe how you would test for the presence of the following chemical species in a sample of iron alum,
(NH4)2SO4Fe2(SO4)324H2O.
iii sulphate(VI) ions
98 2B 8 c i ii
8c
The conversion of sulphur dioxide to sulphur trioxide in the Contact Process involves the following :
Ho = -98 kJmol-1
SO2(g) + O2(g) d SO3(g) with V2O5(s) catalyst
i
State, with explanation, the effect of each of the following changes on the position of the equilibrium.
(I) increasing the total pressure
(II) increasing the temperature
ii Briefly describe how sulphur trioxide is converted to sulphuric(VI) acid in this process.
99 2A 1 c ii
1c
For each of the following pairs of substances, suggest a chemical test to distinguish one from the other. For each
test, give the reagent(s) used and the expected observation.
ii Na2SO3(aq) and Na2S2O3(aq)
(4 marks)
Unit 3
Page 1
Topic
Reference
Reading
10.3.5
Unit 3
Assignment Chemistry in Context (4th ed.), Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., 350351
Chemistry in Context, 5th Edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. pg. 312
Reading
Syllabus
Notes
F. Use of sulphuric(VI) acid
a) Fertilizers
(1) By reacting with concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid, the water-insoluble calcium phosphate(V) (found in
phosphate ores) can be converted to the more soluble calcium dihydrogenphosphate(V) which can be used
as a phosphorus fertilizer.
Ca3(PO4)2(s) + 2H2SO4(l) Ca(H2PO4)2(s) + 2CaSO4(s)
(2) Ammonium sulphate(VI) is produced by the reaction of ammonia with sulphuric(VI) acid.
2NH3(g) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)
crystallization
(NH4)2SO4(s)
(NH4)2SO4(aq)
b) Detergents
Soapless detergents can be made by treating hydrocarbons from petroleum industry with concentrated
sulphuric(VI) acid followed by sodium hydroxide. For example,
CH3(CH2)11
c)
CH3(CH2)11
SO3 Na
Unit 3
Page 2
Glossary
fertilizer
calcium phosphate(V)
calcium dihydrogenphosphate(V)
ammonium sulphate(VI)
detergent
paint
pigment
dyestuff
titanyl sulphate
titanium(IV) oxide
barium sulphate(VI)
calcium sulphate(VI)
azo dye
sulphonic group
Past Paper
Question
92 2B 6 Bc iii
92 2B 6 Bc iii
iii Describe the part that H2SO4 plays in any TWO important industrial processes.
not Contact Process
Production of 'superphosphate' fertilizer
1 mark
2 marks
Ca3(PO4)2 + H2SO4 Ca(H2PO4)2 + 2CaSO4
acts as acid
1 mark
or
Production of fertilizer
1 mark
2 marks
2NH3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)
acts as acid
1 mark
or Manufacture of detergents
or Manufacture of dyestuffs
or Manufacture of drugs
or Manufacture of explosives
or Manufacture of rayon (artificial silk)
1 mark for function and 1 mark for process
or Cleaning of metal before plating/galvanizing
2 processes required
6Bc
Topic
Reference
Reading
10.0
Modern Physical Chemistry ELBS pg.
Chemistry in Context, 3rd Edition ELBS pg.
Physical Chemistry, Fillans pg.
Unit 1
Assignment
Reading
Syllabus
Notes
Glossary
Past Paper
Question
90 2B 5 b
81 2B 8 a i ii iii d
82 2B 10 b
84 2B 10 a i ii b
88 2B 6 d
89 2B 6 b
90 2B 5 b
5b
Outline an industrial preparation of EITHER ammonia OR sulphuric acid.
Your answer should include the physico-chemical principles involved and also the role of any catalyst.
Ammonia
N2 + 3H2 d 2NH3
H < 0 / exothermic
1 mark
Conditions of reaction:
200 atm, 500C, finely divided iron catalyst
1 mark
Effect of temperature on the equilibrium constant
1 mark
Effect of pressure
1 mark } any 2
1 mark
2 marks
Effect of concentration of N2 and H2
1 mark
Catalyst - required because of the inertness of N2 and H2 molecules
1 mark
NH3 is removed from the reaction mixture
Overall presentation
1 mark
Sulphuric acid
S + O2 SO2
2SO2 + O2 d 2SO3;
H < 0 very slow in the absence of catalyst
H O
2H2SO4
SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7
Steps involved: Production of SO2, conversion to SO3, removal of SO3
Conditions of conversion: 1 atm, 450C, vanadium(V) oxide catalyst
1 mark
Effect of [O2], removal of SO3
Effect of pressure
1 mark } any 1
Effect of temperature on the equilibrium constant
1 mark
Catalyst - lower the activation energy for the SO2 + O2 reaction as O2 is kinetically inert
Overall presentation
2
3 marks
1 mark
1 mark
1 mark
1 mark
81 2B 8 a i ii iii d
8a
Describe
II
8d
EITHER
the process for the conversion of ammonia gas into (68%) nitric(V) acid,
12
OR
the process for the conversion of sulphur dioxide gas into (98%) sulphuric acid.
Give the conditions under which the various steps take place and briefly discuss which of the following will
involve the highest costs:
i
energy,
ii capital investment in plant, and
iii handling.
Concentrated nitric(V) acid
1 mark
Ammonia(g) is mixed with air.
passed over a Pt gauze or (Pt/Rh)
1 mark
catalyst which is maintained at 800C and 8 atm.
1 mark
1 mark
the reaction 4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
1 mark
takes place with the evolution of heat.
The gases must be pure and avoid poisoning the catalyst.
1 mark
The NO(g) is then oxidised by further air to NO2(g)
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
1 mark
which is then absorbed in water.
1 mark
2NO2(g) + H2O(l) 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)
the NO(g) is recycled.
1 mark
Absorption may be carried out up to 68%(conc.) HNO3 which is the constant boiling mixture.
(i) energy the reaction condition of 800C is not difficult and expensive to maintain because the reaction is
exothermic.
1 mark
(ii) The catalyst is expensive and it will lose and need to be refilled from time to time so it costs a lot. ( The lost
of catalyst is due to the highly exothermic reaction produce energy which may vaporize the catalyst, Pt).
1 mark
(iii) Because NO, NO2 and HNO3 are highly corrosive and toxic, so special chemical resistant materials have to be
chosen for handling.
1 mark
Concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid
1 mark
SO2(g) is mixed with air
1 mark
and the mixture is passed over a catalyst of Pt or V2O5.
1 mark
Usually V2O5 is used because Pt is expensive and easily to be poisoned by impurities. e.g. As2O3.
The operating temperature is about 450C at 1 atm.
1 mark
1 mark
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) where the reaction is exothermic.
1 mark
The SO3(g) produced is then dissolved in 98% H2SO4 and fuming sulphuric acid (oleum) is formed.
SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) H2S2O7(l)
1 mark
1 mark
Oleum is then diluted with calculated amount of water so as to give back 98% H2SO4(l)
SO3(g) is not dissolved directly in water to form sulphuric acid because the reaction between SO3(g) and water is
violent and a mist of acid droplets forms instead of a solution.
1 mark
(i) energy the reaction condition of 450C is not difficult and expensive to maintain because the reaction is
exothermic.
1 mark
(ii) The catalyst is expensive and it will lose and need to be refilled from time to time so it costs a lot. ( The lost
of catalyst is due to the highly exothermic reaction produce energy which may vaporize the catalyst, Pt).
1 mark
(iii) Because SO2, H2SO4 and H2S2O7 are highly corrosive and toxic, so special chemical resistant materials have
to be chosen for handling.
.
1 mark
Write on the present-day uses of EITHER
concentrated nitric(V) acid,
4
OR
concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid.
Uses : 4 uses of conc. HNO3 or H2SO4.
1 mark each
conc. HNO3
Manufacture of explosive such as T.N.T.
Manufacture of fertilizers such as NH4NO3
Manufacture of dyestuffs
Manufacture of hexane-1,6-diamine which is a raw material for making nylon.
Manufacture of soapless detergents
conc. H2SO4
Manufacture of fertilizers such as (NH4)2SO4
Manufacture of explosives
Manufacture of pigments
84 2B 10 a i ii b
10a i
Give the formulae of the oxides of
EITHER
nitrogen
OR
sulphur
ii
10b
2H2SO4
Add oxide to acid then dilute with water
3
marks
88 2B 6 d
6d
Give examples of compounds of EITHER sulphur OR nitrogen to display the principal oxidation states and also
give an account of their redox reactions.
Redox chemistry of sulphur
overall presentation
1 mark
Principal oxidation states with examples
2 marks
e.g. -2(H2S), 0(S), +4(SO2) and +6(SO3 or SO42-)
Any sulphur containing compounds, upon oxidation, give SO2 or SO42SO2 through combustion of the sulphur compounds in air
1 mark
SO42- oxidation in homogeneous solution.
Upon reduction, S or H2S are usually produced
H2S is a mild reducing agent but SO42- is usually stable towards redox reactions in the absence of H+. 1 mark
Intermediate oxidation states, for example, S2O32- or S4O62-, will undergo disproportionation in water. 1 mark
Redox chemistry of nitrogen
overall presentation
1 mark
Principal oxidation states with examples
2 marks
e.g. 0(N2), -3(NH3), +4(NO2), +5(NO3-)
The highest oxidation state is +5, and NO3- is usually the final product upon oxidation of any nitrogen containing
compounds under drastic conditions.
1 mark
NO3- is stable, but in the presence of H+, it is a strong oxidizing agent, upon reduction, give N2 or NH3. 1 mark
1 mark
1 mark
1 mark
89 2B 6 b
6b
Nitric(V) acid and sulphuric(VI) acid can be reduced to form products having a variety of oxidation states of N or
S.
For EITHER nitric(V) acid OR sulphuric(VI) acid, illustrate using balanced half equations, how four possible
reduction products, having different oxidation states of N or S, may be obtained.
Explain why an aqueous solution of either Na2SO4 or NaNO3 is not a strong oxidizing agent.
Depends on the nature of the reducing agents and the reaction conditions employed:
Nitric(V) acid
NO3- + 2H+ + e- d NO2 + H2O
1 mark
1 mark
2NO3- + 12H+ + 10e- d N2 + 6H2O
1 mark
NO3- + 9H+ + 8e- d NH3 + 3H2O
1 mark
NO3- + 4H+ + 3e- d NO + 2H2O
other possible product: N2O, H2NNH2, NO21 mark
H+ is required if NO3- acts as an oxidizing agent
Sulphuric(VI) acid
SO42- + 4H+ + 2e- d SO2 + 2H2O
1 mark
1 mark
SO42- + 8H+ + 6e- d S + 4H2O
1 mark
SO42- + 10H+ + 8e- d H2S + 4H2O
1 mark
2SO42- d S2O32- or S4O62-, etc.
1 mark
H+ is required if SO42- acts as an oxidizing agent
Nitrogen
10.2.2.1
90 2B 5 b
5b
Outline an industrial preparation of ammonia.
Your answer should include the physico-chemical principles involved and also the role of any catalyst.
Ammonia
N2 + 3H2 d 2NH3
H < 0 / exothermic
1 mark
Conditions of reaction:
200 atm, 500C, finely divided iron catalyst
1 mark
Effect of temperature on the equilibrium constant
1 mark
Effect of pressure
1 mark } any 2
1 mark
2 marks
Effect of concentration of N2 and H2
1 mark
Catalyst - required because of the inertness of N2 and H2 molecules
1 mark
NH3 is removed from the reaction mixture
Overall presentation
1 mark
10.2.3.1
81 2B 8 a i ii iii
8a
Describe the process for the conversion of ammonia gas into (68%) nitric(V) acid.
12
Give the conditions under which the various steps take place and briefly discuss which of the following will
involve the highest costs:
i
energy,
ii capital investment in plant, and
iii handling.
I Concentrated nitric(V) acid
1 mark
Ammonia(g) is mixed with air.
passed over a Pt gauze or (Pt/Rh)
1 mark
catalyst which is maintained at 800C and 8 atm.
1 mark
1 mark
the reaction 4NH3(g) + 5O2(g) 4NO(g) + 6H2O(g)
1 mark
takes place with the evolution of heat.
The gases must be pure and avoid poisoning the catalyst.
1 mark
The NO(g) is then oxidised by further air to NO2(g)
2NO(g) + O2(g) 2NO2(g)
1 mark
which is then absorbed in water.
1 mark
2NO2(g) + H2O(l) 2HNO3(aq) + NO(g)
the NO(g) is recycled.
1 mark
Absorption may be carried out up to 68%(conc.) HNO3 which is the constant boiling mixture.
(i) energy the reaction condition of 800C is not difficult and expensive to maintain because the reaction is
exothermic.
1 mark
(ii) The catalyst is expensive and it will lose and need to be refilled from time to time so it costs a lot. ( The lost
of catalyst is due to the highly exothermic reaction produce energy which may vaporize the catalyst, Pt).
1 mark
(iii) Because NO, NO2 and HNO3 are highly corrosive and toxic, so special chemical resistant materials have to be
chosen for handling.
1 mark
10.2.5.0
81 2B 8 d
8d
Write on the present-day uses of concentrated nitric(V) acid.
Uses : 4 uses of conc. HNO3.
1 mark each
Manufacture of explosive such as T.N.T.
conc. HNO3
Manufacture of fertilizers such as NH4NO3
Manufacture of dyestuffs
Manufacture of hexane-1,6-diamine which is a raw material for making nylon.
10.2.4.0
84 2B 10 a i ii
10a i
Give the formulae of the oxides of nitrogen having oxidation numbers (O.N.) of +2, +4 and +6.
N: NO(+2), NO2/N2O4(+4), NO3(+6)
2 marks
ii Describe what you would observe and give a balanced equation for the reaction the oxide of nitrogen (O.N. +2)
(A) with acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution,
(B) with an appropriate iron sulphate solution,
(C) with rain, and
(D) to form the element.
Nitrogen
(A) 5NO + 3MnO4- + 4H+ 5NO3- + 3Mn2+ + 2H2O (Purple colour decolourized / colourless solution)
(B) FeSO4 + NO FeSO4NO (Brown solution formed)
(C) 2NO + O2 NO2; 2NO2 + H2O HNO3 + HNO2; 2HNO2 + O2 2HNO3 (no special observation)
(D) Electric: 2NO d N2 + O2 at 3000C (no special observation)
OR Burning white phosphorus: 10NO + 4P 2P2O5 + 5N2 (white fume)
2 marks each
10.2.3.1
84 2B 10 b
10b
Describe the industrial preparation of nitric(V) acid from nitrogen.
Nitrogen
1. Conversion of nitrogen to ammonia, N2 + 3H2 d 2NH3
450-500C; 200-1000 atmosphere; iron or iron oxide catalyst
2. Conversion of ammonia to nitrogen(II) oxide, 4NH3 + 5O2 d 4NO + 6H2O
600C; 8 atmosphere; platinium catalyst
2
8
3 marks
3 marks
3.
3 marks
10.2.4.0
88 2B 6 d
6d
Give examples of compounds of nitrogen to display the principal oxidation states and also give an account of their 6
redox reactions.
Redox chemistry of nitrogen
overall presentation
1 mark
Principal oxidation states with examples
2 marks
e.g. 0(N2), -3(NH3), +4(NO2), +5(NO3-)
The highest oxidation state is +5, and NO3- is usually the final product upon oxidation of any nitrogen containing
compounds under drastic conditions.
1 mark
NO3- is stable, but in the presence of H+, it is a strong oxidizing agent, upon reduction, give N2 or NH3. 1 mark
1 mark
N2 is the most stable form, usually chemically insert in normal condition.
1 mark
NH3 obtained by reduction of any nitrogen-containing compounds under drastic conditions.
Compounds in intermediate oxidation states such NO2 undergo disproportionation
1 mark
2NO2 + H2O d HNO3 + HNO2
10.2.3.2
89 2B 6 b
6b
Nitric(V) acid can be reduced to form products having a variety of oxidation states of N.
For nitric(V) acid, illustrate using balanced half equations, how four possible reduction products, having different
oxidation states of N, may be obtained.
Explain why an aqueous solution of NaNO3 is not a strong oxidizing agent.
Depends on the nature of the reducing agents and the reaction conditions employed:
Nitric(V) acid
NO3- + 2H+ + e- d NO2 + H2O
1 mark
+
+
12H
+
10e
d
N
+
6H
O
1 mark
2NO3
2
2
+
1 mark
NO3 + 9H + 8e d NH3 + 3H2O
1 mark
NO3- + 4H+ + 3e- d NO + 2H2O
other possible product: N2O, H2NNH2, NO21 mark
H+ is required if NO3- acts as an oxidizing agent
Sulphur
10.3.3.1
90 2B 5 b
5b
Outline an industrial preparation of sulphuric acid.
Your answer should include the physico-chemical principles involved and also the role of any catalyst.
Sulphuric acid
S + O2 SO2
2SO2 + O2 d 2SO3;
H < 0 very slow in the absence of catalyst
H O
SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7
2H2SO4
3 marks
Steps involved: Production of SO2, conversion to SO3, removal of SO3
Conditions of conversion: 1 atm, 450C, vanadium(V) oxide catalyst
1 mark
1 mark
Effect of [O2], removal of SO3
Effect of pressure
1 mark } any 1
Effect of temperature on the equilibrium constant
1 mark
1 mark
1 mark
Catalyst - lower the activation energy for the SO2 + O2 reaction as O2 is kinetically inert
Overall presentation
1 mark
2
10.3.3.1
81 2B 8 a i ii iii
8a
Describe the process for the conversion of sulphur dioxide gas into (98%) sulphuric acid.
Give the conditions under which the various steps take place and briefly discuss which of the following will
involve the highest costs:
i
energy,
ii capital investment in plant, and
iii handling.
Concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid
1 mark
SO2(g) is mixed with air
1 mark
and the mixture is passed over a catalyst of Pt or V2O5.
1 mark
Usually V2O5 is used because Pt is expensive and easily to be poisoned by impurities. e.g. As2O3.
The operating temperature is about 450C at 1 atm.
1 mark
1 mark
2SO2(g) + O2(g) 2SO3(g) where the reaction is exothermic.
1 mark
The SO3(g) produced is then dissolved in 98% H2SO4 and fuming sulphuric acid (oleum) is formed.
SO3(g) + H2SO4(l) H2S2O7(l)
1 mark
1 mark
Oleum is then diluted with calculated amount of water so as to give back 98% H2SO4(l)
SO3(g) is not dissolved directly in water to form sulphuric acid because the reaction between SO3(g) and water is
violent and a mist of acid droplets forms instead of a solution.
1 mark
(i) energy the reaction condition of 450C is not difficult and expensive to maintain because the reaction is
exothermic.
1 mark
(ii) The catalyst is expensive and it will lose and need to be refilled from time to time so it costs a lot. ( The lost
of catalyst is due to the highly exothermic reaction produce energy which may vaporize the catalyst, Pt).
1 mark
(iii) Because SO2, H2SO4 and H2S2O7 are highly corrosive and toxic, so special chemical resistant materials have
to be chosen for handling.
1 mark
10.3.5.0
81 2B 8 d
8d
Write on the present-day uses of concentrated sulphuric(VI) acid.
Uses : 4 uses of conc. H2SO4.
Manufacture of soapless detergents
conc. H2SO4
Manufacture of fertilizers such as (NH4)2SO4
Manufacture of explosives
Manufacture of pigments
4
1 mark each
10.3.2.0
84 2B 10 a i ii
10a i
Give the formulae of the oxides of sulphur
having oxidation numbers (O.N.) of +2, +4 and +6.
S: SO/S2O2(+2), SO2(+4), SO3(+6)
2 marks
ii Describe what you would observe and give a balanced equation for the reaction the oxide of sulphur (O.N. +4)
(A) with acidified potassium manganate(VII) solution,
(B) with an appropriate iron sulphate solution,
(C) with rain, and
(D) to form the element.
Sulphur
(A) 5SO2 + 2MnO4- + 2H2O 5SO42- + 2Mn2+ + 4H+ (Purple colour decolourized / colourless solution)
(B) 2Fe3+ + SO2 + 2H2O 2Fe2+ + SO42- + 4H+ (Solution change from yellow brown to pale green / colourless)
(C) SO2 + H2O H2SO3; 2H2SO3 + O2 2H2SO4 (no special observation)
(D) Burning magnesium: SO2 + 2Mg 2MgO + S (yellow / white ppt. formed)
OR Mix with hydrogen sulphide: SO2 + 2H2S 3S + 2H2O (yellow / white ppt. formed)
2 marks each
10.3.3.1
84 2B 10 b
10b
Describe the industrial preparation of sulphuric(VI) acid from sulphur.
Sulphur
1. Conversion of sulphur to sulphur dioxide, S + O2 SO2
Burning sulphur, 1 atmosphere, no catalyst required.
2. Conversion of sulphur(IV) oxide to sulphur(VI) oxide, 2SO2 + O2 d 2SO3
450C; 1 atmosphere; excess oxygen or air; platinium or vanadium(V) oxide catalyst.
12
2 marks
4 marks
3.
2H2SO4
Conversion of sulphur(VI) oxide to sulphuric(VI) acid, SO3 + H2SO4 H2S2O7 H
Add oxide to acid then dilute with water
marks
2
10.3.3.2
88 2B 6 d
6d
Give examples of compounds of sulphur to display the principal oxidation states and also give an account of their
redox reactions.
Redox chemistry of sulphur
overall presentation
1 mark
Principal oxidation states with examples
2 marks
e.g. -2(H2S), 0(S), +4(SO2) and +6(SO3 or SO42-)
Any sulphur containing compounds, upon oxidation, give SO2 or SO42SO2 through combustion of the sulphur compounds in air
1 mark
SO42- oxidation in homogeneous solution.
Upon reduction, S or H2S are usually produced
H2S is a mild reducing agent but SO42- is usually stable towards redox reactions in the absence of H+. 1 mark
Intermediate oxidation states, for example, S2O32- or S4O62-, will undergo disproportionation in water. 1 mark
10.3.3.2
89 2B 6 b
6b
Sulphuric(VI) acid can be reduced to form products having a variety of oxidation states of S.
For Sulphuric(VI) acid, illustrate using balanced half equations, how four possible reduction products, having
different oxidation states of S, may be obtained.
Explain why an aqueous solution of either Na2SO4 is not a strong oxidizing agent.
Depends on the nature of the reducing agents and the reaction conditions employed:
Sulphuric(VI) acid
SO42- + 4H+ + 2e- d SO2 + 2H2O
1 mark
1 mark
SO42- + 8H+ + 6e- d S + 4H2O
1 mark
SO42- + 10H+ + 8e- d H2S + 4H2O
1 mark
2SO42- d S2O32- or S4O62-, etc.
1 mark
H+ is required if SO42- acts as an oxidizing agent
d-Block Elements
I.
II.
B.
C.
D.
E.
d-Block Elements
Unit 1
Page 1
Topic
d-block Elements
Unit 1
Reference
Reading
11.1.011.1.1
Chemistry in Context, 3rd Edition ELBS pg. 292295
Inorganic Chemistry, 4th Edition, T.M. Leung pg. 192196
A-Level Chemistry, 3rd Edition, E.N. Ramsden pg. 490
Assignment Chemistry in Context, 5th Edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. pg. 249251
Reading
Syllabus
Notes
I.
[Ar] 3d14s2
[Ar]
[Ar]
23V
[Ar] 3d 4s
[Ar]
24Cr
[Ar] 3d54s1
[Ar]
22Ti
[Ar] 3d 4s
25Mn
[Ar] 3d 4s
[Ar]
26Fe
[Ar] 3d64s2
[Ar]
27Co
[Ar] 3d 4s
[Ar]
28Ni
[Ar] 3d84s2
[Ar]
10
29Cu
[Ar] 3d 4s
[Ar]
30Zn
[Ar] 3d104s2
[Ar]
10000
11000
11100
11111
11111
21111
22111
22211
22222
22222
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
2
Element
[Ar] 3d14s2
21Sc
[Ar] 3d24s2
22Ti
[Ar] 3d34s2
23V
[Ar] 3d54s1
24Cr
[Ar] 3d54s2
25Mn
[Ar] 3d64s2
26Fe
[Ar] 3d74s2
27Co
[Ar] 3d84s2
28Ni
[Ar] 3d104s1
29Cu
[Ar] 3d104s2
30Zn
Oxidation State
+2
+1
3+
Cu+
[Ar] 3d10
Mn2+
Fe2+
Co2+
Ni2+
Cu2+
Zn2+
[Ar] 3d5
[Ar] 3d6
[Ar] 3d7
[Ar] 3d8
[Ar] 3d9
[Ar] 3d10
Sc
Ti3+
V3+
Cr3+
Mn3+
Fe3+
Co3+
+3
[Ar]
[Ar] 3d1
[Ar] 3d2
[Ar] 3d3
[Ar] 3d4
[Ar] 3d5
[Ar] 3d6
d-Block Elements
Unit 1
Page 2
1.
Comparing Mn2+ [Ar] 3d5 and Mn3+ [Ar] 3d4, it is found that Mn2+ is the more stable one in natural environment.
This can be explained by the presence of half filled d-orbital of Mn2+. The same logical also applies to Fe2+ and
Fe3+ where Fe3+ is the more stable one.
However, considering Cu+ [Ar] 3d10 and Cu2+ [Ar] 3d9, Cu2+ is the more abundant one in nature despite of the fullfilled d-orbital of Cu+. This seems to be contradictory.
When we discussed the stability of ion, we only considered the stability of the electronic configuration of an
isolated ion only. In the nature, ions are not isolated. They may be solvated or forming compounds with the other
ions.
In aqueous state, two Cu+(aq) ions are capable to undergo disproportionation to give a Cu(s) atom and a Cu2+(aq) ion.
Cu+(aq) + e- d Cu(s)
Cu2+(aq) + e- d Cu+(aq)
Eo = +0.52 V
Eo = +0.15 V
Therefore, aqueous Cu+(aq) does not exist. Cu(I) compound only exists in solid state or if complexed.
Glossary
d-block elements
Past Paper
Question
91 2B 6 a i
92 2B 4 a i ii iii
94 2B 5 a i ii iii
95 1A 2 f i ii iii
96 2B 6 a
99 1A 3 a
half-filled orbital
full-filled orbital
91 2B 6 a i
6a i
What is the meaning of d-block element?
Element which has incompletely filled d orbital when combined in compounds
(or complete in case of Zn)
between s and p block
1
1 mark
mark
d-Block Elements
Unit 1
92 2B 4 a i ii iii
4a i
Using the electrons-in-boxes representation, give the electronic structure outside the argon core of Cu and Cr3+.
3d
4s
3d
4s
11100 0
1 mark each
Which of the two ions, copper(I) or copper(II), has the more stable electronic structure? Give an explanation.
Cu+ d10 is expected to be more stable than Cu2+ d9 since it has completely filled d-orbital.
1 mark
iii Why is the copper(I) ion unstable in aqueous solution?
29Cu
22222 1
24Cr
2Cu
2+
( aq )
Cu
disproportionation
3+
ii
+
( aq )
Page 3
+ Cu( s )
1
1
94 2B 5 a i ii iii
5a
Manganese and iron are d-block elements.
i
What do you understand by the term d-block element?
1
Elements with partially filled d-orbitals.
1 mark
2
ii Using the electron-in-boxes representation, write the electronic structure outside the argon core for Mn2+ and
Fe2+ respectively.
Mn2+ [Ar] 11111
1 mark
2+
1 mark
Fe [Ar] 21111
iii Explain briefly why Fe2+ ions are easily oxidized to Fe3+ ions, but Mn2+ ions are not readily oxidized to Mn3+ ions. 3
Mn2+ with half-filled 3d orbitals is relatively stable. Removing e- disturbs this stable configuration; relatively high
2 marks
energy is required. Therefore, Mn2+ is not readily oxidized to Mn2+.
Fe2+ with an electronic configuration of d6, after removal of an e- from the outermost shell will attain the relatively
stable e- configuration with half-filled 3d orbitals. Therefore, the Fe2+ ions are easily oxidized to Fe3+.
1 mark
95 1A 2 f i ii iii
2f i
Show the electronic configuration of a ground state Cr2+ ion by filling in the appropriate boxes below.
1s 2s
2p
3s
3p
3d
4s
4p
4d
1s
2s
2p
3s
3p
3d
4s
4p
4d
1 mark
ii
1
1
1 mark
96 2B 6 a
6a
Using the "electrons-in-boxes" representation, write the ground state electronic structure outside the argon core for 2
V2+ and Cu+ respectively.
3d
1 mark
[Ar] 11100
V2+
+
Cu
[Ar] 22222
1 mark
99 1A 3 a
3a
Deduce the number of unpaired electrons for Fe3+(g) at its ground state.
d-Block Elements
Unit 2
Topic
d-Block Elements
Reference
Reading
11.1.2
Modern Physical Chemistry ELBS pg.
Chemistry in Context, 3rd Edition ELBS pg.
Physical Chemistry, Fillans pg.
Page 1
Unit 2
Assignment Chemistry in Context, 5th Edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. pg. 251254
Reading
Syllabus
Notes
Physical properties
Main group elements (s-block and p-block) show a considerable change in properties on moving across a period.
i.e. from metallic properties to non-metallic properties. Comparing with main group elements, all elements in the
first transition period share similar properties. They are all hard, dense and comparatively less reactive. These
properties can be explained by the weak shielding effect of diffuse d-electrons and a rather constant effective
nuclear charge experienced by the valence electron on moving across the period.
a) Ionization enthalpies and electronegativity
On moving across a transition period (e.g. from Sc to Cu), comparing with the main group elements, the 1st I.E. of
d-block elements are rather constant. This can be interpreted as a rather constant effective nuclear charge
experienced by the outermost electron.
On moving across the first transition period, electrons are added to the 3d oribitals which will impose a primary
shielding effect on the 4s electrons (valence electron). This is different from the situation in the main group, where
an electron is added to s or p orbital on moving across the period and the shielding effect is only secondary in
nature. As a result of the stronger primary shielding effect, the ionization energies do not raise sharply across the
transition period.
However, unlike the change from Ne to Na, where the shielding effect is primary in nature, the I.E. doesn't drop
sharply either. The primary shielding effect of the d-electrons must not be very strong. The weak shielding effect
can be explained by the diffuse nature of d-electrons.
As a result, the increase in nuclear charge has been effectively shielded and the attraction between the nucleus and
the 4s electrons (valence electrons) would remain rather constant on moving across the period.
d-Block Elements
Unit 2
Page 2
Furthermore, the weak shielding effect also accounts for the high I.E of d-block elements (631-906 kJmol-1)
comparing with the lower 1st I.E. of s-block elements (419-516 kJmol-1). Therefore, the primary shielding effect of
the diffuse d-electrons must be not as effective as the primary shielding effect found in s-block elements.
For the same reason, the electronegativities of the d-block elements are rather constant and only shows a gradual
increase across the period. Nevertheless, comparing with s-block element, d-block elements are more
electronegative, i.e. less electropositive, thus less metallic.
[Ar] 3d 4s
22Ti
[Ar] 3d 4s
23V
[Ar] 3d34s2
24Cr
[Ar] 3d54s1
5
25Mn
[Ar] 3d 4s
26Fe
[Ar] 3d64s2
27Co
[Ar] 3d74s2
28Ni
[Ar] 3d84s2
29Cu
[Ar] 3d104s1
30Zn [Ar]
3d104s2
4s
10000
[Ar]
11000
[Ar]
11100
[Ar]
11111
[Ar]
11111
[Ar]
21111
[Ar]
22111
[Ar]
22211
[Ar]
22222
[Ar]
22222
2
[Ar]
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
d-Block Elements
c)
Unit 2
Page 3
For similar reasons, the atomic radii of d-block elements are quite small and rather constant across the period,
comparing with the s-block metals. However, a small variation is observed. On moving across the period, the
atomic size decreases gradually due to the small increase in effective nuclear change and remain constant
thereafter. On reaching the end of the transition period, the size of the atom gets larger as the repulsion among the
larger no. of electrons becomes significant.
d) Densities
Owing to the small atomic sizes, strong metallic bond and close crystal packing, the d-block metals are much
denser than the s-block metals.
structure
density
g/cm3
19K
20Ca
21Sc
22Ti
23V
24Cr
25Mn
26Fe
27Co
28Ni
29Cu
30Zn
BCC
0.86
FCC
1.55
HCP
3.0
HCP
4.5
BCC
6.1
BCC
7.2
BCC
7.4
BCC
7.9
FCC
8.9
FCC
8.9
FCC
8.9
HCP
7.1
BCC
FCC
HCP
d-Block Elements
2.
Unit 2
Chemical properties
Glossary
Past Paper
Question
Page 4
d-Block Elements
Unit 3
Topic
d-Block Elements
Reference
Reading
11.2.1
Modern Physical Chemistry ELBS pg.
Chemistry in Context, 3rd Edition ELBS pg.
Physical Chemistry, Fillans pg.
Page 1
Unit 3
Assignment Chemistry in Context, 5th Edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. pg. 254257
Reading
Syllabus
Notes
Unlike s-block metals, many transition metals are capable to form compounds with more than one oxidation state.
The no. of possible oxidation states increases from Sc and reaches the maximum at Mn due to the increase in the
number of d-electrons. Thereafter, the no. of possible oxidation states decreases from Fe to Zn as the nuclear
charge and ionization energies increase.
Concerning the energetic of formation of ion, if the difference in successive ionization energy is small, the
formation of the highest oxidation state would be preferable. e.g. Ca only forms +2 ion but not +1 ion. If the
difference in successive ionization energy is large, the formation of the lowest oxidation state would be preferable.
e.g. K only forms +1 but not +2 ion.
Therefore, formation of compounds with variable oxidation state must be due to a moderate and gradual increase in
successive ionization energies. One of the explanations to this phenomenon is the small difference in energy
between the (n-1)d and ns electrons. As the energy of (n-1)d and ns electrons are similar, once a ns electron is
removed, the energy of (n-1)d electron will decrease moderately as the p to e- ratio increase. Consequently, this
will cause a moderate increase in successive ionization energies.
d-Block Elements
Unit 3
kJmol-1
K
Ca
Mn
1st I.E.
419
590
717
Page 2
3rd I.E. ( I.E.)
4412 (1361)
4912 (3767)
3249 (1740)
a) Vanadium compound
+2, +3, +4 and +5 are the common oxidation states of vanadium compound. Their existence can be demonstrated
by shaking a solution of ammonium vanadate(V) (NH4VO3) with zinc power in dilute sulphuric acid.
VO3-(aq) + 2H+(aq) VO2+(aq) + H2O(l)
VO2+(aq) + 2H+(aq) + e- VO2+(aq) + H2O(l)
VO2+(aq) + 2H+(aq) + e- V3+(aq) + H2O(l)
V3+(aq) + e- V2+(aq)
Upon shaking, the solution will turn from yellow, blue, green and eventually violet since zinc is a very strong
reducing agent which is capable to reduce V(V) to V(II) stepwise.
d-Block Elements
Unit 3
Page 3
The following is an electrode potential - oxidation state chart which can be used to predict the energetic feasibility
of a redox reaction. Please note that the scales of both x and y axes are reversed so that the half-equations will be in
line with the definition of reduction potential and the order of the electrochemical series.
energetically feasible
energetically not feasible
Example
Fe2+(aq) can be used to reduce VO2+(aq) to VO2+(aq)
Fe2+(aq) + VO2+(aq) + H2O(l) Fe3+(aq) + VO2+(aq) + 2H+(aq)
Since the overall Eo is positive, the change is energetically feasible. However, the value of Eo doesn't tell anything
about the kinetic feasibility of the reaction.
Similarly, I-(aq) is capable to reduce VO2+(aq) to VO2+(aq) but neither Fe2+(aq) nor I-(aq) is capable to reduce VO2+(aq)
further to V3+(aq) according to the chart.
d-Block Elements
Unit 3
Page 4
2) Manganese compounds
+2, +4 and +7 are the three most common oxidation states of manganese compound.
Common manganese containing species
+2
+3
+4
+6
+7
The energetic feasibility of redox reaction involving manganese can also be predicted by using the standard
electrode potential as mentioned above.
O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 2e- d 4OH-(aq)
Cu+(aq) + e- d Cu(s)
I2(aq) + 2e- d 2I-(aq)
MnO42-(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2e- d MnO2(s) + 4OH-(aq)
2H+(aq) + O2(g) + 2e- d H2O2(aq)
MnO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2e- d Mn2+(aq) + 2H2O(l)
Mn3+(aq) + e- d Mn2+(aq)
MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e- d Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
MnO4-(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 3e- d MnO2(s) + 2H2O(l)
H2O2(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 2e- d 2H2O(l)
Eo / V
+ 0.40
+ 0.52
+ 0.54
+ 0.59
+ 0.68
+ 1.23
+ 1.49
+ 1.51
+ 1.70
+ 1.77
KMnO4(s) is one of the most popular strong oxidizing used in the laboratory. The oxidizing power of MnO4-(aq) is so
strong that it is capable to oxidize water and give O2(g) and MnO2(s) slowly. This reaction can be accelerated by
light therefore KMnO4(aq) have to be stored in a brown bottle.
4MnO4-(aq) + 4H+(aq) 4MnO2(s) + 3O2(g) + 2H2O(l)
In acidic medium, when MnO4-(aq) is reduced. It will be converted to colourless Mn2+(aq).
Eo = + 1.51 V
MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e- d Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
In less acidic or alkaline medium, MnO4-(aq) will be converted to MnO2(s) instead. From the value of Eo, MnO4-(aq)
shows a even stronger oxidizing power in less acidic medium with the formation of the brown MnO2(s) ppt.
Eo = + 1.70 V
MnO4-(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 3e- d MnO2(s) + 2H2O(l)
Therefore, when MnO4-(aq) is used as a testing agent or an ordinary oxidizing agent, acidic medium will be used. If
MnO4-(aq) is used as a very strong oxidizing agent, alkaline medium may be used.
Glossary
d-Block Elements
Past Paper
Question
Unit 3
Page 5
91 2B 6 a iv
94 2B 5 b i
91 2B 6 a iv
6a iv State the reagents you would employ to obtain
(I) vanadium(IV) and
(II) vanadium (II)
from vanadium(V) in an acidic solution of ammonium metavanadate, NH4VO3, and give the colours of the
products.
(I) by mild reductants e.g. H2S, SO2, Fe2+, oxalate, Sn2+, I1 mark
Blue
mark
(II) by Zn or Zn/HCl
1 mark
Violet
mark
94 2B 5 b i
5b
Account for each of the following:
i
KMnO4 solutions are best stored in brown bottles.
MnO4- is unstable in the presence of sunlight.
it will decompose to form brown MnO2
2
1 mark
1 mark
d-Block Elements
Unit 4
Topic
d-Block Elements
Reference
Reading
11.2.2
Modern Physical Chemistry ELBS pg.
Chemistry in Context, 3rd Edition ELBS pg.
Physical Chemistry, Fillans pg.
Page 1
Unit 4
Assignment Chemistry in Context, 5th Edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. pg. 201207, 257258, 269270
Reading
Syllabus
Notes
B. Complex formation
When an ion is placed in a polar solvent e.g. water, it will be hydrated due to the electrostatic attraction between
the ion and water molecules. Moreover, if the ion possesses a very high charge density and a low lying energy
vacant orbital, the ion may be capable to form a dative covalent bond with the lone pair from the solvent molecule.
The dative covalent bond formed in this way would be much strong than the ordinary ion-dipole attraction.
For example, when anhydrous NaCl(s) and anhydrous CoCl2(s) are dissolved in water, both of them will dissolve and
the ions will be hydrated. However, upon crystallization, anhydrous NaCl(s) crystal will be obtained from the
NaCl(aq) solution while only [Co(H2O)6]Cl2(s) will be obtained from the CoCl2(aq) solution.
Furthermore, the comparatively higher electronegativity of d-block elements also favours the formation of dative
covalent bond.
The molecules which form dative covalent bond with the ion (or an atom) are called ligands. The species with the
ion (or the atom) joining together with the ligands is called a complex. Because the ion is coordinated with ligands,
a complex is also called a coordinated compound and the dative covalent bond formed is called coordinate bond.
NC
Ag
CN
NC
Cu
2+
3-
CN
H3N
CN
H3N
Pt
NH3
NH3
CN
2+
H2O
H2O
H2O
Co
OH2
OH2
H2O
linear complex
tetrahedral complex
octahedral complex
d-Block Elements
1.
Unit 4
Page 2
H3O+
-1.74
H2O
HCl
-7
Cl-
NH4+
9.2
NH3
HCN
9.3
CN-
NH3 molecule is a strong base than H2O molecule, NH3 molecule is also a stronger ligand than H2O molecule.
At the same concentration, the strong ligand is capable to displace the weak ligand from a complex. If the
concentrations are not the same, the equilibrium position may be shifted back.
Iron(II)
[Fe(Cl)4]2-(aq)
Iron(III)
[Fe(Cl)4]-(aq)
yellow
Cobalt(II)
H2O
CN[Fe(CN)6]3-(aq)
[Fe(H2O)6]3+(aq)
d
d
colourless/yellow
red
[Co(Cl)4]2-(aq)
blue
Copper(II)
[Cu(Cl)4]2-(aq)
yellow
N.B.
H2O
CN[Fe(CN)6]4-(aq)
[Fe(H2O)6]2+(aq)
d
d
green
yellow
H2O
NH3
CN[Co(NH3)6]2+(aq)
[Co(CN)6]4-(aq)
[Co(H2O)6]2+(aq)
d
d
d
pink
deep red
H2O
NH3
CN[Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+(aq)
[Cu(CN)4]2-(aq)
[Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq)
d
d
d
blue
deep blue
Upon addition of aqueous NH3(aq), Fe2+(aq) and Fe3+(aq) do not form soluble complex with ammonia
molecules. Indeed, they will form insoluble ppt. of Fe(OH)2(s) and Fe(OH)3(s) with the hydroxide ions in
the ammonia solution and remain undissolved.
Sometimes, the complexes of Cu2+ are written as [Cu(H2O)4]2+(aq) instead of [Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq) and [Cu(NH3)4]2+(aq)
instead of [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+(aq). This is because the two water molecule ligands at axial positions are only loosely
held. The complexes are sometimes regarded as square planar instead of octahedral.
b) Chelate effect
Besides the basicity, the strength of a ligand is also depending on the no. of dative covalent bond that the ligand
can form. A ligand which is capable to form 1 dative covalent bond is called a monodentate ligand; a ligand which
is capable to form 2 dative covalent bonds is called a bidentative ligand etc.
In general, the larger the no. of bond a ligands can form, the stronger will be the ligand.
d-Block Elements
Unit 4
Page 3
bi
H2O
H2O
H2O
OH2
OH2
+ bi
H2O
H2O
H2O
OH2
H2N
n+
+ 2H2O
H2O
a bidentate ligand
bi : a bidentate ligand
In the above reaction, one bidentate ligand e.g. ethane-1,2-diamine (H2NCH2CH2NH2 or ethylenediamine or en)
displaces two water molecules from the complex. There is an overall change in the no. of particles in this reaction.
At the reactant side, there are only 2 particles but at the product side, there are 3 particles. Besides the displacement
of ligand, there is an overall increase in the no. of molecules and disorderness of the system. i.e. S increase. The
extra strength of a polydentate ligand due to increase in disorderness is called chelate effect.
2.
Stability constant
The strength of a ligand can be expressed as an equilibrium constant called stability constant, Kst.
Consider the formation of a complex in aqueous medium
Cu2+(aq) + 4NH3(aq) d [Cu(NH3)4]2+(aq)
Cu2+(aq) [Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq) [Cu(H2O)4]2+(aq)
[Cu(NH3)4]2+(aq) [Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+(aq)
[[Cu(NH3)4]2+(aq)]
Kst = [Cu2+ ][NH ]4
(aq)
3(aq)
The larger the value of Kst, the stronger would be the complexing ability of the ligand.
The displacement of the ligands may also be expressed in consecutive steps
Cu2+(aq) + NH3(aq) d [Cu(NH3)]2+(aq)
[[Cu(NH3)]2+(aq)]
K1 = [Cu2+ ][NH ]
(aq)
3(aq)
[[Cu(NH3)2]2+(aq)]
K2 = [Cu(NH )]2+ ][NH ]
(aq)
3
3(aq)
[[Cu(NH3)3]2+(aq)]
K3 = [Cu(NH ) ]2+ ][NH ]
(aq)
3 2
3(aq)
[[Cu(NH3)4]2+(aq)]
K4 = [Cu(NH ) ]2+ ][NH ]
(aq)
3 3
3(aq)
K 1 K2 K3 K4
=
[[Cu(NH3)2]2+(aq)]
[[Cu(NH3)3]2+(aq)]
[[Cu(NH3)4]2+(aq)]
[[Cu(NH3)]2+(aq)]
2+
2+
2+
[Cu (aq)][NH3(aq)]
[Cu(NH3)] (aq)][NH3(aq)]
[Cu(NH3)2] (aq)][NH3(aq)]
[Cu(NH3)3]2+(aq)][NH3(aq)]
[[Cu(NH3)4]2+(aq)]
[Cu2+(aq)][NH3(aq)]4
Kst
d-Block Elements
Unit 4
3.
Page 4
Aquation isomerism
Some coordinated compounds share the same empirical formula but when dissolved in water, they give different
number of ions. This phenomenon is called aquation isomerism. Cr(H2O)6Cl3 is one of the examples.
Structural formula
[Cr(H2O)6]Cl3
[CrCl(H2O)5]Cl2H2O
[CrCl2(H2O)4]Cl2H2O
4.
Colour
Violet
Blue-green
Green
Geometrical isomerism
Tetra-coordinated complex
Square planar complex
[MA2B2]n+
n+
B
n+
M
A
B
M
B
cis-isomer
trans-isomer
Hexa-coordinated complex
Octahedral complex
[MA2B4]n+
n+
A
B
[MA3B3]n+
M
B
N.B.
5.
cis-isomer
n+
B
B
M
A
n+
M
B
trans-isomer
n+
A
M
meridional isomer
A
A
facial isomer
The exact geometry of a complex cannot be predicted by the Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion
Theory that have been studied.
Nomenclature of complexes
Naming of a complex is based on the name of the ligand, the no. of ligands and overall charge of the complex.
1.
Like all ionic compounds, cations are named first and anions second.
2.
Ligand name of a negative ligand will end with -o, e.g. CN- cyano, Cl- chloro.
Ligand name of a neutral ligand is not changed
e.g. H2NCH2CH2NH2 is just called ethane-1,2-diamine
Exceptions : H2O is called aqua and NH3 is called ammine.
3.
The number of each ligand in the complex is indicated by the prefixes di, tri, tetra etc.
4.
5.
The negative ligands are placed before the neutral ligands in the name. (Not in alphabetical order.)
e.g. [CoCl3(NH3)3] trichlorotriamminecobalt(III)
6.
d-Block Elements
Unit 4
Other examples
K4[Fe(CN)6]
[Fe(Cl)4][Cr(Cl)4][Fe(H2O)6]3+
[Co(Cl)4]2[Cu(CN)4]2Ligand
Cl-
Fe2+
[Fe(Cl)4]2tetrachloroferrate(II)
ion
H2O
potassium hexacyanoferrate(II)
tetrachloroferrate(III) ion
tetrachlorochromate(III) ion
hexaaquairon(III) ion
tetrachlorocobaltate(II) ion
tetracyanocuprate(II) ion
Fe3+
[Fe(Cl)4]tetrachloroferrate(III)
ion
[Fe(H2O)6]3+
hexaaquairon(III) ion
Co2+
[Co(Cl)4]2tetrachlorocobaltate(II)
ion
Cu2+
Cr3+
[Cr(Cl)4]tetrachlorochromate(III)
ion
[Cu(NH3)4]2+
tetraamminecopper(II)
ion
[Cu(CN)4]2tetracyanocuprate(II)
ion
NH3
CN-
Page 5
[Fe(CN)6]2+
hexacyanoferrate(II)
ion
Glossary
Complex
ligand
ion-dipole attraction
coordinated compound
coordinate bond
tetrahedral
square planar
octahedral
chelate effect
monodentate ligand
bidentate ligand
polydentate ligand
stability constant
aquation isomerism
meridional isomer
facial isomer
Past Paper
Question
90 2B 6 a iv
91 1A 3 b i
92 1A 3 e
93 1A 2 b iv
94 1A 2 b i
95 1B 4 g
96 1A 2 e i
97 1B 7 b
99 1A 3 c
90 2B 6 b
91 1A 3 f
92 2B 4 a vi vii
91 2B 6 a ii iii
94 2B 5 b iii
96 1A 2 f i
96 2B 6 b i ii
90 2B 6 a iv
6a
The following species are either impossible to prepare or very unstable. Explain, in each case, why this is so.
iv [NaI4]3Because there is no low energy vacant orbitals for bonding / Na+ has too low charge density for complex ion
formation.
1 mark
90 2B 6 b
6b
Account for the following observations.
An aqueous solution of FeSO4 readily gives a rusty brown precipitate on standing in air, whereas an aqueous
solution of K4[Fe(CN)6] under similar conditions does not.
nH 2 O
linear
detail explanation
FeSO4 Fe(H2O)n2+/Fe2+(aq)
Fe(H2O)n2+ + O2 Fe(H2O)n3+
air oxidation
Fe(H2O)n3+ Fe2O3 or Fe(OH)3 + H+
product
Fe(CN)64- is stable because CN- is a better ligand than H2O / CN- ligands stabilize Fe2+
(no mark for Fe(CN)64- is a stable complex)
The redox potential of Fe(CN)64- is different from Fe(H2O)n2+
1 mark
1 mark
1 mark
1 mark
1 mark
91 1A 3 f
3
3f
Write equations for stepwise reactions of [Cu(H2O)4]2+(aq) with aqueous ammonia. Describe what changes you
would observe during these reactions.
1 mark
[Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq) + 2NH3(aq) [Cu(H2O)4]2+Cu(OH)2(s) + 2NH4+(aq) or Cu(OH)2(s)
[Cu(H2O)4]2+Cu(OH)2(s) + excess NH3(aq) [Cu(NH3)4]2+
1 mark
When NH3(aq) is added slowly, at first insoluble pale blue basic salt or hydroxide is formed, but these dissolve
1 mark
readily in excess NH3(aq) to give deep blue solution containing tetraaminecopper(II) ion.
d-Block Elements
Unit 4
91 2B 6 a ii iii
6a ii Give the name and formula, and draw the 3-dimensional structure of a hexa-coordinated complex of a d-block
element.
Name (must be named correctly) e.g. hexaamminecobalt(III) ion
mark
mark
Formula e.g. [Co(NH3)6)]3+
Shape e.g.
Co
NH3
NH3
NH3
1 mark
iii Why do V4+ ions react to give VO2+ ions in aqueous solution?
V4+ is small and highly charged (or has high charge density)
V4+ ion polarizes H2O molecule so strongly that it attracts the electrons shared between H and O
V4+ + O
3+
NH3
NH3
NH3
Page 6
2
1 mark
1 mark
H
2H+ + VO2+
H
92 2B 4 a vi vii
4a vi State two reasons why transition metal ions readily form complexes whereas Group I metal ions do not.
2
Atoms lose electrons to form ions, whose polarizing power increases with number of electrons lost.
Atoms have partially-filled d-orbitals that can interact with ligand orbitals by transfer of electron density
Complex ion formation is favoured by high charge density on cation
High electronegativity of cation
Available orbitals of right energy to interact with ligand orbitals
1 mark each
vii Write the chemical equation on which the overall stability constant for the reaction between the cation Cu(H2O)42+ 1
and the ligand NH3 in aqueous medium can be based.
Cu(H2O)42+ + 4NH3 d Cu(NH3)42+ + 4H2O
1 mark
93 1A 2 b iv
2b iv Write equations for the reactions described below.
The addition of an aqueous solution of KSCN to a solution containing Fe(III) ions gives a complex with a deep
red colour. The deep red colour fades when excess NaF solution is added. On the addition of dilute alkali to the
resulting solution, a brown precipitate forms.
1 mark
Fe3+(aq) + SCN-(aq) Fe(SCN)2+(aq) [deep red]
Fe(SCN)2+(aq) + 6F-(aq) [FeF6]3-(aq) + SCN-(aq)
1 mark
[FeF6]3-(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Fe(OH)3(s) [brown ppt.] + 6F-(aq)
1 mark
94 1A 2 b i
2
2b i
Explain why Ni2+ forms more complexes than K+ does.
2+
+
Ni has higher charge density / more polarizing than K / greater ability to form covalent bond (dative bond) with
ligand
Any 2, 1 mark each
Ni2+ has low lying , vacant d orbital.
94 2B 5 b iii
5b
Account for each of the following:
iii The addition of 2M NaOH to an aqueous solution of Fe3+ ions gives a brown precipitate, whereas the addition of
2M NaOH to an aqueous solution of Fe3+ ions in the presence of excess CN- ions gives no precipitate.
In aqueous solution, Fe3+ exists as aquo-complex.
Addition of OH- causes the formation of a brown ppt.
[Fe(H2O)6]3+(aq) + 3OH-(aq) Fe(OH)3(s) + 6H2O(l)
1 mark
brown ppt.
In the presence of excess CN-, Fe3+ forms a very stable complex [Fe(CN)6]3-, concentration of free Fe3+ ions is
lowered addition of 2M NaOH cannot cause [Fe3+][OH-] to exceed the Ksp of Fe(OH)3.
2
marks
d-Block Elements
Unit 4
Page 7
95 1B 4 g
4g
Give the observations when (i) ammonia solution and (ii) sodium hydroxide solution are added dropwise, until in 3
excess, to aqueous solutions containing Pb2+ and Cu2+ ions respectively. These experiments are carried out at room
temperature.
(i) ammonia solution
(ii) sodium hydroxide solution
Pb2+(aq)
Cu2+(aq)
(3 marks for 8 observations; deduct mark for each incorrect observation)
(i) ammonia solution
(ii) sodium hydroxide solution
Pb2+(aq)
White ppt.
White ppt.
Insoluble in excess
Soluble in excess / Colour solution
Cu2+(aq)
Blue ppt.
Blue ppt.
Soluble in excess / Deep blue solution
Insoluble in excess
96 1A 2 f i
2f
The complex ion [Co(H2NCH2CH2NH2)2Cl2]+ has THREE isomers. These isomers belong to TWO types of
isomerism.
i
Draw a three-dimensional structure for each isomer.
Cl
en
Co
Cl
en
en
Co
Cl
Cl
en
Cl
Cl
en
Co
en
1 + + mark
d-Block Elements
Unit 5
Topic
d-Block Elements
Reference
Reading
11.2.3
Modern Physical Chemistry ELBS pg.
Chemistry in Context, 3rd Edition ELBS pg.
Physical Chemistry, Fillans pg.
Page 1
Unit 5
Assignment Chemistry in Context, 5th Edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. pg. 259261
Reading
Syllabus
Coloured ions
Notes
C. Coloured ions
1.
The origin of the colour of an transition metal ion is similar to that of emission spectrum. Instead of emitting
radiation while the excited atom is falling back to the lower energy state, radiation is absorbed from the
illuminating radiation. The energy absorbed is eventually dissipated in form of heat. The atom returns to the lower
energy state. The colour of hydrated ion (e.g. Cu2+(aq)) is the result of absorption of light.
Most pure substances in nature are colourless or white because they do no absorb light from the visible region.
However, most substances in nature are coloured because most of them are mixtures containing a very small
percentage of coloured substance. Whether a substance would be coloured or not is solely a coincidence.
Many transition metal complexes, including aqueous
complex, are coloured because under the influence of
the ligands, the 5 degenerate d-orbitals will be split into
different levels with small gaps between them. The
degenerate energy levels split because the five 5 dorbitals are not equally arranged in space and are
affected by the ligands differently.
Eventually, if the d-orbitals are partially filled (not completely filled nor completely empty), the electron transition
will produce a colour. The electron transition is called d-d transition.
This explains why anhydrous copper(II) sulphate is white while hydrated copper(II) sulphate is blue. Sc(III) and
Zn(II) compounds are not coloured while the other transition metal compounds are usually coloured.
d-Block Elements
2.
Unit 5
Page 2
[Fe(Cl)4]2-(aq)
[Fe(Cl)4]-(aq)
yellow
H2O
CN[Fe(CN)6]4-(aq)
[Fe(H2O)6]2+(aq)
d
d
green
yellow
H2O
CN[Fe(CN)6]3-(aq)
[Fe(H2O)6]3+(aq)
d
d
colourless/yellow
red
[Co(Cl)4]4-(aq)
blue
[Cu(Cl)4]4-(aq)
yellow
Glossary
d-d transition
Past Paper
Question
93 1A 2 b i
94 1B 4 d iii
99 2A 2 d i ii
H2O
NH3
CN[Co(NH3)6]2+(aq)
[Co(CN)6]4-(aq)
[Co(H2O)6]2+(aq)
d
d
d
pink
deep red
H2O
NH3
CN[Cu(NH3)4(H2O)2]2+(aq)
[Cu(CN)4]2-(aq)
[Cu(H2O)6]2+(aq)
d
d
d
blue
deep blue
94 2B 5 b ii
93 1A 2 b i
2b i
Explain, in terms of electronic arrangement, why most transition metal ions are coloured.
1. Absorption of photon in the visible region
2. Unpaired electron or partly filled orbital
3. Small energy difference between d orbitals under the influence of the ligands
4. Transition of electron
94 1B 4 d iii
4d
This question refers to reactions which occur between the following pairs of substances.
boxes in the following table.
Substances
Reaction method
Expected observation(s)
Example: CH3COOH(l) and
Warm / reflux with
miscible, fruity odour
C2H5OH(l)
conc H2SO4
(iii)
CuSO4(aq) and 2M NH3
pale blue precipitate,
deep blue solution
Substances
Reaction method
Expected observation(s)
Example: CH3COOH(l) and
Warm / reflux with
miscible, fruity odour
C2H5OH(l)
conc H2SO4
(iii)
CuSO4(aq) and 2M NH3 Add NH3(aq) dropwise
pale blue precipitate,
(1)
deep blue solution
94 2B 5 b ii
5b
Account for each of the following:
ii Cobalt(II) chloride can be used to test for the presence of water.
Cobalt(II) chloride, in anhydrous state is blue in colour.
After absorption of water / forming complex ion with H2O,
it changes colour to pink.
2 marks
Main product(s)
CH3COOC2H5(l)
Cu(OH)2(s)
[Cu(NH3)4]2+(aq)
Main product(s)
CH3COOC2H5(l)
Cu(OH)2(s)
[Cu(NH3)4]2+(aq)
2
1 mark
1 mark
99 2A 2 d i ii
2d
For each of the following experiments, state the expected observation and write the relevant balanced equation(s).
i
Concentrated hydrochloric acid is added dropwise to an aqueous solution of copper(II) sulphate(VI) until no
further change is observed.
ii Aqueous ammonia is added dropwise, until in excess, to the resulting solution in (i).
d-Block Elements
Unit 6
Topic
d-Block Elements
Reference
Reading
11.2.411.2.5 11.2.0
Modern Physical Chemistry ELBS pg.
Chemistry in Context, 3rd Edition ELBS pg.
Physical Chemistry, Fillans pg.
Page 1
Unit 6
Assignment Chemistry in Context, 5th Edition, Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd. pg. 261262
Reading
Syllabus
Catalytic properties
Magnetic properties
Notes
Haber process
Reaction between peroxodisulphate(VI) and iodide ions
Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide
Glossary
diamagnetic
paramagnetic
ferromagnetic
d-Block Elements
Past Paper
Question
Unit 6
Page 2
90 1A 3 d
92 1A 3 h
94 2B 5 a iv
96 2B 6 c
90 1A 3 d
3d
Illustrate, with examples using nickel, two characteristic properties of transition metals.
Catalytic properties. e.g. the use of a nickel catalyst in the hydrogenation of oils to make margarine
Complex ion formation. e.g. [Ni(H2O)6]2+
Accept also colours, paramagnetic or other properties which can be illustrated.
2
1 mark
1 mark
92 1A 3 h
3h
Which two properties of transition metal ions make them suitable for use as catalyst?
I Vacant orbitals may act as electron acceptors from reactant species; full orbitals can act as electron donors to
reactant species and weak bonds (chemisorption) are formed between catalyst and reactant particles.
1 mark, either
II Variable oxidation states enable oxidation-reduction cycle of transition metal catalyst.
1 mark
94 2B 5 a iv
5a iv Explain briefly why d-block elements and their compounds are frequently used as catalysts in redox reactions.
Give one example of such a catalytic reaction.
Variable oxidation states of d-block elements allow electron transfer between reactants and products by means of
2 marks
catalyst changing between two oxidation states.
Any one example of transition metal or its compound as catalyst
V O
2 5
SO3 (redox reaction)
e.g. 2SO2 + O2
1 mark
96 2B 6 c
6c
State THREE characteristic properties of d-block elements, apart from complex ion formation. In each case,
illustrate your answer with an example involving copper or vanadium.
Any THREE of the following:
+
exhibition of variable oxidation states e.g. Cu(I) & Cu(II) / V2+, V3+, VO2+ and VO2+
mark
+ mark
formation of coloured compounds e.g. Cu2+(aq) is blue / VO2+ is yellow
+ mark
exhibition of catalytic properties e.g. V2O5 in contact process
+ mark
exhibition of paramagnetic properties e.g. Cu2+ / V2+ are paramagnetic
+ mark
formation of non-stoichiometric compounds e.g. sulphide of vanadium
( marks for each properties; marks for a correct example)