ASPHALT AT A GLANCE

Asphalt or Bitumen is a hydrocarbon product primarily obtained from the

distillation of petroleum
The major application of asphalt is in pavements
There are 3 main types of asphalt products
Asphalt Cement (Solid)
Cutback Asphalt (Liquid)
Asphalt Emulsions (Liquid)

CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS
ASPHALT

Asphalt products are graded based on their consistency using various

systems
Various tests are available for safety and quality control of asphalts since
their property may vary greatly among the sources
Asphalt products are often mixed with aggregates to make layers of flexible
pavements, each with different properties
Failures of asphalt pavement often occurred due to inappropriate grade of
asphalt or improper mixture proportion

2010 Praveen Chompreda, Mahidol University

DISAMBIGUOUS

OUTLINE

Please note the differences between the British English (UK, European
countries) and American English (North America, Thailand) usages of some
terms

British English

American English

Explanation of Terms

Bitumen

Asphalt (cement)

Thick black substance which is the

residue of distillation

Bituminous ~

Asphaltic~ or
Bituminous~

Adjective for all things relating to

asphalt

Asphalt

(Hot Mixed) Asphalt

Concrete Pavement

A kind of mixture of asphalt and

aggregates for use in road paving

Macadam

Macadam

A kind of mixture of asphalt and

aggregates for use in road paving

Introduction
Components of Asphalt
Sources of Asphalt
Applications

Types/ Grades/ Tests

Asphalt Cement
Cut-Back Asphalt
Emulsified Asphalt
3

Asphalt Mixture
Asphalt Pavement
Asphalt Mixture Design
Manufacturing

Deterioration of Asphalt &

Prevention
Source: Wikipedia

COMPONENTS OF ASPHALT
Asphalt (or bitumen) is a complicated system of hydrocarbons soluble in
trichloroethylene. In general, it is made up of 3 groups of hydrocarbons
Asphaltenes (C/H > 0.8) provides the body of the asphalt
Resins (0.6 < C/H < 0.8) contribute to adhesiveness and ductility
Oils (C/H < 0.6) contribute to viscosity and flow

INTRODUCTION
Component of Asphalt
Sources of Asphalt
Distillation of Crude Oil
Applications

Oils

Resins Asphaltenes
0.6

0.8

Carbon
Hydrogen

The fractions that are not soluble in trichloroethylene are called carbenes.
They are hard at normal temperature but soften when heated. They are
mixed with aggregates and allowed to cool to form a pavement surface
5

S OU R C E S O F A S P H A L T

S OU R C E S O F A S P H A L T

1. Native Asphalt or Natural Asphalt they are asphalt materials found in

natural states. Only few native sources in the world can produce enough
asphalt to have economical importance.
Asphalt Lake The area may be the bottom of a lake in prehistoric times.
Asphalt may be separated or mixed with water.
Tar Pit (e.g. Rancho La Brea Tar Pit in Los Angeles)
Rock Asphalt Asphalt impregnated within sedimentary rocks (limestone,
shale, or sandstone). Usually used by crushing the rock and asphalt
together.

2. Tar it is a liquid by-product from the distillation of coal to make coke

(which is used as smokeless fuel in stove or blast furnace). The use of
tar (mostly in the UK) has been declined dramatically because its vapor
was found to cause cancer

Source: Wikipedia

Coal
Source: Wikipedia

Asphalt Lake in Trinidad

Source: Wikipedia

Rancho La Brea Tar Pit

Source: Wikipedia

Coke

Source: Wikipedia

Coal Tar

Source: Wikipedia

Bituminous Sandstone

S OU R C E S O F A S P H A L T

S OU R C E S O F A S P H A L T
3. Refinery Asphalt or Petroleum Asphalt from distillation of crude oil.
It is the most popular type.
Asphalt based crude oil (easiest to obtain asphalt from)
Paraffin-based crude oil
Mixed-based crude oil

Source: Wikipedia

Bituminous Coal Layer

Source: Wikipedia

DISTILLATION OF CRUDE OIL

APPLICATIONS

Asphalt cement from residue of crude oil distillation

Pavement/ Runway
Roof Shingles (not commonly found
in Thailand)
Waterproof Coating
Expansion Joints
Joint and Crack Sealant
Higher Temperature

Higher Temperature

10

Source: Wikipedia

Source: Wikipedia
11

Source: Wikipedia

Source: Wikipedia
12

TYPES OF ASPHALT PRODUCTS

There are three main types of asphalt products used in constructions
Asphalt Cement (Penetration Grade Bitumen)
Product from distillation of petroleum
Solid

ASPHALT CEMENT

Cutback Asphalt
Asphalt Cement + Hydrocarbon Solvent
Liquid

Asphalt Cement
Grades of Asphalt Cement
Properties and Tests

Emulsified Asphalt or Asphalt Emulsions

Asphalt Cement + Emulsifier + Water
Liquid

13

ASPHALT CEMENT

14

ASPHALT CEMENT

Asphalt cement is the direct product from distillation of petroleum

It is solid at room temperature
To use it, we need to heat it until it becomes soft enough. Then we mix it
with hot aggregates, lay on the road, and compact. It becomes solid again
once it is cool. We call the product Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete (HMAC)

Asphalt
Cement
Aggregates

Heat to about 90 C
Mixer or
Paving Machine
Heat to about 150 C

Compact

Road
Surface
Cool to
ambient
temperature

Source: Wikipedia

Hot Mix Asphalt Paving Machine

Compaction of Asphalt Surface

15

Source: Wikipedia
16

GRADES OF ASPHALT CEMENT

GRADES OF ASPHALT CEMENT

Asphalt cement can be manufactured to have different consistency or fluidity

from hard to soft
Why do we need different consistencies of asphalt?

A different consistency can be achieved by 2 means

Lower the temperature during the distillation to get more oils in the residue
softer asphalt
Diluting (fluxing) some lighter oils with asphalt cement (not good)

Softer asphalt is suitable to colder climate to avoid excessive brittleness during

winter
Harder asphalt is suitable to hot climate as to avoid softening in summer
Asphalt that is too soft will not provide uniform film to bind all the aggregates
Asphalt that is too hard is difficult to mix and the resulting mixture will be
nonuniform

Source: Wikipedia

Too hard asphalt may crack

Asphalt cement is primarily graded by its consistency using one of these

systems:
Penetration (in unit of 0.1 mm) this is the oldest and most popular grading of
asphalt cement
Absolute Viscosity (in poise)
Kinematic Viscosity (in stoke)

Source: Wikipedia

Too soft asphalt may deform

18

17

GRADES OF ASPHALT CEMENT

GRADES OF ASPHALT CEMENT

Penetration (ASTM D 5) is an measure of hardness/softness of asphalt cement by

dropping a standard needle to an asphalt surface for 5 sec at temperature of 25 C

Viscosity is a more direct measurement of the fluidity of asphalt cement

Measured by counting the time it takes for a standard amount of hot asphalt (in liquid
state at standard temperature) to flow through a standard orifice
Absolute viscosity has the unit of poise (g /cm /sec)
Kinematic viscosity has the unit of stoke (cm2/sec) or centistoke (0.01 cm2/sec = 1
mm2/sec)
Absolute viscosity (ASTM D 2171) and kinematic viscosity (ASTM D 2170) differ by
the type of viscometer used but can be related (for the same test temperature).

Kinematic Viscosity =

Penetration Distance Drop (in mm) 10

Source: http://www.soiltest.com
Higher value indicates softer asphalt
Common penetration grades are AC 40-50, AC 60-70, AC 70-80, AC 80-100,
AC 120-150 (example: AC 60-70 has the penetration between 60 and 70)
This grading has been used for a very long time
There is a trend to substitute the penetration with viscosity grading system

19

Absolute Viscosity
Density of Asphalt Cement

The density of AC is about 1 g/cm3. Therefore, absolute viscosity in poise is

approximately numerically equal to kinematic viscosity in stoke
Higher viscosity value means that the asphalt does not flow well (i.e. harder
asphalt)
20

PROPERTIES & TESTS

AC SPECIFICATIONS

Once we classify asphalt cement based on its consistency, the asphalt

cement must have some other properties met the standard specifications
Standard Specifications:
. . 401/2531
. 851-2542
ASTM D 946 Standard Specifications for Penetration-Graded Asphalt Cement
for Use in Pavement Construction

21

PROPERTIES & TESTS

22

PROPERTIES & TESTS

Other relevant tests for asphalt cement:

Property to be Measured

Test Method

Fluidity (or consistency)

Penetration Test (ASTM D 5), Viscosity

Tests (ASTM D2170, 2171)

How well asphalt can bind aggregate

Ductility Test (ASTM D 113)

Temperature we need to make it sufficiently Softening Point Test (ASTM D 36, E 28)
soft
Maximum temperature that we can heat it
without catching fire

Flash Point Test (Cleveland Open-Cup or

Pensky-Marten Closed Tester) (ASTM D
92, 93)

How much impurities there are

Solubility Test (ASTM D 4, D 2042)

How much volatile constituents are

presented

Loss on Heating (ASTM D 6), Thin-Film

Oven Test (ASTM D 1754)

Specific Gravity and Density

Specific Gravity Test (ASTM D 70)

In ductility test, we pull the sample of AC

apart in a temperature-controlled bath and see
how much it can stretch without breaking, the
higher the better.
In softening point test, we use ring and ball apparatus. The
softening point is defined as the temperature at which the asphalt
sample in the ring becomes soft enough that the asphalt stretches
to the reference plate under the weight of the metal ball
23

24

PROPERTIES & TESTS

In the flash point test, the asphalt
sample is heated. A pilot flame is passed
over at regular interval. The flash point is
defined as the temperature at which the
vapor above the surface begin to ignite.

CUTBACK ASPHALT

In the solubility test, the asphalt sample

is dissolved in Trichloroethylene (it used
to be carbon disulfide) and filtered. The
materials retained on the filter are the
impurities.

Cutback Asphalt
Grades of Cutback Asphalt
Properties and Tests

In the loss on heating and thin-film oven test, we put samples in the
oven for several hours. The volatile oils will evaporate. We can weight the
sample before and after to see how much loss there is. We can also perform
Penetration and Ductility test on the residue material.
26

25

GRADES OF CUTBACK ASPHALT

CUTBACK ASPHALT
Cutback asphalt is a liquid asphalt product. It is obtained by diluting asphalt
cement in volatile oils.
It is liquid at room temperature so it can be sprayed and mixed easily
The solvent (oils) will eventually evaporated, leaving the asphalt cement on
the road
Due to the pollution and health risk of the evaporation solvent, cutback
asphalt is no longer permitted in the USA, but it is still in use in many parts
of the world, including Thailand.

Since cutback asphalt is obtained by mixing asphalt cement with solvents, it is

therefore classified based on the solvent used
Rapid Curing (RC) use gasoline as solvent + low-penetration AC
Medium Curing (MC) use kerosene as solvent + higher-penetration AC
Slow Curing (SC) use heavy oils as solvent + very high-penetration AC
or obtained directly from the distillation by cutting off early to get
residue + heavy oils
The choice of curing rate depends on:
The time desired for curing
The penetration grade of the finished pavement (after solvent has
evaporated); for example, MC will result in softer finished pavement
compared with RC due to the higher-penetration AC used, which is good
for colder climates)

Solvent
Room
Temperature
Cutback
Asphalt

Evaporation
Mixer or
Sprayer

Compact

Asphalt
Cement
on Road
27

28

GRADES OF CUTBACK ASPHALT

GRADES OF CUTBACK ASPHALT

For each type, the cutback asphalt is graded by kinematic viscosity (in
centistoke = 0.01 stoke) or Saybolt-Furol viscosity (ASTM D 88) (in
seconds; 1 SSF = 0.02 stoke)
Different viscosity is obtained by changing the amount of solvent
Common grades are RC-70, RC-250, RC-800, RC-3000, MC-30, MC-70
(example: RC-70 has kinematic viscosity between 70 and 140, MC-30 has
kinematic viscosity between 30 and 60 etc)
The choice of viscosity depends on
Application (spraying requires lower viscosity)
Aggregate used (smaller aggregates requires lower viscosity)
Cost (lower viscosity requires more solvent and cost more but it
requires less heat which saves the fuel cost)
Saybolt Furol Viscosity Test

29

GRADES OF CUTBACK ASPHALT

30

CUTBACK SPECIFICATIONS

Kinematic viscosity is in stoke or

centistoke (1 centistoke = 0.01
stoke)
Saybolt-Furol viscosity is
measured in second
1 SFS = 0.02 stoke = 2 centistoke
Saybolt-Furol Second

Grade

15-30

40-80

100-200

250-500

600-1200

1500-3000

Standard Specifications:
. . 402/2531
. 865-2544
ASTM D 2028 Standard Specifications for Cut-Back Asphalt (Rapid Curing Type)

Flow
Easily

Difficult
to Flow

31

32

PROPERTIES & TESTS

CUTBACK SPECIFICATIONS

Other relevant tests for Cut-Back Asphalt

Standard Specifications:
. . 403/2531
. 865-2544
ASTM D 2027 Standard Specifications for Cut-Back Asphalt (Medium Curing Type)

Property to be Measured

Test Method

Fluidity (or consistency)

Viscosity Tests (ASTM D 88, 2170, 2171)

Maximum temperature that we can heat

it (if needed) without catching fire

Flash Point Test (Cleveland Open-Cup or

Tag Open Cup) (ASTM D 92, 1310)

Amount of water presented (impurity)

Water Content Test (ASTM D 95)

Amount of asphalt cement

Distillation (ASTM D 402)

Fluidity (or consistency) of residue

Penetration Test (ASTM D 5), Float Test

(ASTM D 139),Viscosity Tests

How well asphalt residue can bind

aggregate

Ductility Test (ASTM D 113)

How much impurities there are in the

residue

Solubility Test (ASTM D 4, D 2042)

How much asphalt binder is presented

(for SC only)

Residue of Specified Penetration Test

(ASTM D 243)
34

33

PROPERTIES & TESTS

EMULSIFIED ASPHALT
The distillation test is used to see
how much asphalt cement there is.
After the test, we can perform tests,
such as penetration and ductility, on
the asphalt residue as well

Emulsified Asphalt
Emulsifier
Grades of Emulsified Asphalt
Properties & Tests

The flash point test using

the tag open cup is similar
to the cleveland open cup.
35

36

EMULSIFIED ASPHALT

EMULSIFIER

Emulsified Asphalt or Asphalt Emulsion is a liquid asphalt product. It is a

colloidal mixture obtained by mixing asphalt cement in water, with the help
of the emulsifier.
It is liquid at room temperature so it can be sprayed and mixed easily
The water will eventually evaporated, leaving the asphalt cement on the road
It is an alternative to cutback asphalt

The emulsifier is a long

hydrocarbon chain with ionic
part at the end
The hydrocarbon end attached
to the asphalt particle
The ionic end has an affinity for
water
The same ions repel each other,
allowing the asphalt particle to
suspend in water without
sticking to each other

Water
Room
Temperature
Emulsified
Asphalt

Evaporation
Mixer or
Sprayer

Compact

Asphalt
Cement
on Road

37

GRADES OF EMULSIFIED ASPHALT

38

Source: Illston and Domone (2001)

GRADES OF EMULSIFIED ASPHALT

Since Emulsified Asphalt is obtained by mixing the asphalt cement with

water and emulsifier, they are graded by the types of emulsifier.
Anionic Emulsions the asphalt cement particle has negative (-) charge
(good for limestone aggregate, which has positive charges)

For each type, the emulsified asphalt is graded by kinematic viscosity (in
centistoke = 0.01 stoke) or Saybolt-Furol viscosity (ASTM D 88)
Common grades are: CRS-1, CRS-2, CMS-2, CSS-1

Rapid Setting (RS)

Medium Setting (MS)
Slow Setting (SS)

Cationic Emulsions the asphalt cement particle has positive (+) charge
(good for silica aggregate, which has negative charges)
Rapid Setting (CRS)
Medium Setting (CMS)
Slow Setting (CSS)

Saybolt-Furol Second

Grade

15-30

40-80

100-200

250-500

600-1200

1500-3000

Flow
Easily

Difficult
to Flow
39

40

PROPERTIES & TESTS

PROPERTIES & TESTS

In the water content test, the emulsified is heated in a
closed container. The water will evaporate, condense in a
condenser, and be collected in the trap. The water content
is the percentage of the total water collected to the
original weight of sample.

Other relevant tests for Emulsified Asphalt

Property to be Measured

Test Method

Fluidity (or consistency)

Viscosity Tests (ASTM D 88, 2170, 2171)

Amount of water presented

Water Content Test (ASTM D 244)

Amount of asphalt cement

Distillation (ASTM D 6997), Residue by

Evaporation (ASTM D 6394)

Fluidity (or consistency) of residue

Penetration Test (ASTM D 5),Viscosity Tests

How much impurities there are in the residue

Solubility Test (ASTM D 4, D 2042)

How well it can coat aggregate and withstand

washing of water

Coating Ability and Water Resistance (ASTM D

244)

How well asphalt residue can bind aggregate

Ductility Test (ASTM D 113)

How fast the emulsified asphalt will set

Demulsibility Test (ASTM D 6936), Cement-Mixing

Test (ASTM D 6935), Silica Sand Coating Test
(ASTM D 244)

How well it withstand the addition of water

Miscibility in Water Test (ASTM D 6999)

Stability during storage

Sieve Test (ASTM D 6933), Settlement Test (ASTM

D 244), Freezing Test (ASTM D 244)

In particle charge test,

electrodes are inserted into
the liquid asphalt. If it is a
cationic emulsified asphalt
(positive charge), the asphalt
particles will adhere to the
cathode (negative side).
There will be nothing on the
anode side.
41

42

EMULSIFIED ASPHALT SPECIFICATIONS

Standard Specifications:

. . 404/2531
. 371-2530
ASTM D 977 Standard Specification for Emulsified Asphalt
ASTM D 2397 Standard Specification for Cationic Emulsified Asphalt

SUMMARY ON ASPHALT PRODUCTS

Properties & Tests
Advantages & Disadvantages

43

44

PROPERTIES & TESTS SUMMARY

Asphalt Cement

PROPERTIES & TESTS SUMMARY

Cut-Back Asphalt

Emulsified Asphalt

Penetration

On distillate residue

On distillate residue

Kinematic Viscosity

Saybolt-Furol Viscosity
Softening Point (Ring and Ball)

On distillate residue

Flash Point

Continued
Asphalt Cement
Float Test
Water Content

On distillate residue

Occasionally

Residue of Specified Penetration

Cut-Back Asphalt

Emulsified Asphalt

On distillate residue

On distillate residue

On SC only

Ductility

On distillate residue

On distillate residue

Demulsibility

Solubility

On distillate residue

On distillate residue

Cement-Mixing Test

Loss on Heating

Silica Sand Coating Test

Thin-film Oven

Miscibility in Water Test

Specific Gravity

Sieve Test

Residue by Distillation

On distillate residue

On distillate residue

Settlement Test

Freezing Test

Particle Charge Test

Residue by Evaporation

45

46

USAGE & APPLICATIONS

Advantages & Disadvantages for each type of asphalt for
pavement applications
Advantages

Disadvantages

Asphalt
Cement

Strong and durable

Require high heat to mix

Must use with dry aggregates

Cut-Back
Asphalt

Does not require high heat to use

Highly flammable
Evaporated fume is toxic
Solvent can be expensive
Must use with dry aggregates

Emulsified
Asphalt

Does not require high heat to use

Use with wet or dry aggregates
Less toxic
Non-flammable

Can be washed off by rain quite

easily

ASPHALT MIXTURES
Types of Asphalt Pavement
Applications in Pavement
Required Properties of Pavement
Asphalt Concrete Mixture
Marshall Method
Manufacturing
47

48

TYPES OF ASPHALT PAVEMENTS

TYPES OF ASPHALT PAVEMENTS

There are many types of asphalt pavement construction, ranging from lowcost, lightly traveled roads to heavily traveled highways. We first consider 2
extremes of asphalt construction, hot-mix asphalt concrete (or just
asphalt) and macadam.

Hot Mix Asphalt Concrete

Macadam

Source: Illston and Domone (2001) 49

TYPES OF ASPHALT PAVEMENTS

Source: Illston and Domone (2001) 50

TYPES OF ASPHALT PAVEMENTS

Asphalt concrete uses more asphalt and gap-graded aggregates. It is denser

and more durable, but also more expensive because more asphalt is
needed. It is typically used for heavily-traveled roads.
Macadam uses asphalt just enough to coat aggregates and provide adhesion.
Dense-graded aggregate is needed for strength. It is porous and not very
durable, but cheaper because it needs only little asphalt. It is generally used
for lightly traveled roads.
Actually, there are ranges of asphalt pavement that are somewhere
between asphalt concrete and macadam

51

Source: Illston and Domone (2001) 52

APPLICATIONS IN PAVEMENTS

APPLICATIONS IN PAVEMENTS

In typical asphalt pavement, the road structure has several layers, each
having a specific function. Different asphalt products and different
mixtures are used for different layers.

Surfacing

Asphalt Cement (Hot-Mixed or

Hot-Rolled Asphalt)
Wearing surface of new road
construction
Resurfacing or overlaying of
existing road
Surface Dressing hot asphalt is
sprayed over compacted base,
followed by a layer of graded
crush stone, and then rolled
together. Another layer may be
put on top.
Patching of surface damages

Wearing Course
Basecourse
Asphalt Materials
Roadbase

Sub-Base
Foundation

Liquid Asphalt (Cutback or

Emulsified)

Granular Materials

Patching of minor surface

damages
Surface Dressing
Tack Coat - to provide adhesion
between old and new layers
Prime Coat to prepare (base)
surface for new asphalt layer
Slurry Seal
Soil Stabilization

Capping
Subgrade

Soil

Typical Pavements

53

ASPHALT CONCRETE MIXTURE

54

PROPERTIES OF PAVEMENTS
Required properties of the pavement are:

Generally, hot-mix asphalt concrete mixture consists of asphalt cement (AC

60/70 or AC 80/100 are most common), fine aggregate (sand), and coarse
aggregate (crushed limestone)
The quality and proportion of each of these components plays an important
role in the property and durability of the finished asphalt pavement

Stability is the strength of the pavement to resist deformation under

traffic load. It comes from aggregate interlocking and asphalt cohesions
Durability is the resistance of the pavement against disintegration either
by weathering of asphalt or mechanical breakdown of aggregate.
Flexibility is the ability to withstand deformations without cracking
Skid Resistance is the ability of the pavement to provide long-lasting
nonskid surface. Pavement bleeding and aggregate polishing is the two main
sources of slippery surface

Source: Wikipedia
55

56

ASPHALT CONCRETE MIXTURE

MIXTURE PROPORTIONING

Compromise is needed for the property of asphalt, aggregate, and the

amount of air voids in the asphalt mixture

Property
Stability

Durability

Asphalt
Just enough to coat
the aggregate

Air Void

Angular shapes
Rough texture
Dense graded

Need a lot of asphalt

to coat the aggregate
and completely fill
out the voids

Flexibility
Skid Resistance

Aggregate

Factors affecting asphalt concrete pavement are:

We want to know the optimum content of asphalt for a given type and
gradation of aggregate, and the asphalt cement used to provide the best
stability, durability, flexibility, and skid resistance

Need minimal air void

to prevent oxidation
and entrance of water

There are several methods developed. Some of the more popular mixdesign methods are:

Open graded
Just enough to coat
the aggregate

Aggregate containing
many minerals in it

Quality of Asphalt Binder

Quality of Aggregates (gradation, strength, texture, shapes, etc)
Construction Processes
Mixture Proportions

Hubbard-Field (Asphalt Institute)

Marshall (U.S. Army Corps of Engineer)
Stabilometer or Hveem (California Highway Department)

Need some void

space to prevent
bleeding
57

MARSHALL METHOD

58

MARSHALL METHOD

Using 4 diameter and

2.5 high cylindrical
specimen. Specimens
are compacted using a
standard hammer
Stability (i.e. maximum
load) and flow (i.e.
deformation) is
measured using
Marshall apparatus

Source: http://www.soiltest.com

Mold
Source: http://www.soiltest.com

Hammer

Source: http://www.soiltest.com
Source: http://www.soiltest.com
59

Marshall Stability Testing Machine

Breaking Head
60

MARSHALL METHOD

MARSHALL METHOD
Stability is the maximum
load, which indicates the
strength of the asphalt
mix
Flow is the deformation
at the maximum load,
which indicates the
flexibility of the asphalt
mix

Source: Illston and Domone (2001)

Typical procedures for Marshall method:

1. Select aggregate proportions to meet specific requirements
2. Estimate optimum asphalt content for a given aggregate type
3. Prepare few asphalt concrete specimens with asphalt content above
and below the estimated optimum content according to the mix design
method used
4. Test the specimens for physical properties such as specific gravity, air
voids, stability, etc
5. Plot the above properties with asphalt content and use a guideline to
determine the range of acceptable asphalt content
6. Optimum asphalt content can be selected from that range - usually it is
the content that gives highest stability value or the most economical
one
7. The process may be repeated with different aggregate blends

Durability of the asphalt

mix is measured through
the determination of air
voids in the specimen

62

61

MARSHALL METHOD

MARSHALL METHOD

The following observations can be made:

Mix Density initially increases with asphalt content because asphalt fill
out the air voids and lubricates the aggregate movement (allow for
denser compaction). However, too much asphalt replaces the heavier
aggregates.
Stability follows the same trend as density since it is mainly a function of
aggregate interlock and, hence, the density
Compacted aggregate density (i.e. how much aggregate can be packed in
the volume) follows approximately the density curve because volume of
aggregate is the main volume of the mix
Flow increases with an increase in asphalt content because friction
between aggregate particles decreases with thicker asphalt films

We try several mixtures

with different amount of
asphalt and test the
sample for
Density of Mix (or unit
weight)
Compacted Aggregate
Density (may be plotted
as Voids in Mineral
Aggregate)
Marshall Stability
Flow

It can be seen that the optimum asphalt content for density and stability are
NOT the same so we generally average them to get the design asphalt
content. We read the flow from the flow curve.

Source: Illston and Domone (2001)

63

64

MARSHALL METHOD

MARSHALL METHOD
Optimum asphalt content to
lubricate the mix and make it easy
to compact

Asphalt completely fills the voids

Too little asphalt: have
a lot of unfilled voids

Too much asphalt: lighter asphalt

replaces the heavier aggregate,
leading to lower density

65

Source: Illston and Domone (2001)

MARSHALL METHOD

Too little asphalt: not

enough adhesions
between aggregate

Too little asphalt: mix

is dry and difficult to
compact

Too much asphalt: asphalt

replaces the aggregate, leading
to lower compacted aggregate
density

Source: Illston and Domone (2001)

66

MARSHALL METHOD

Optimum asphalt: enough asphalt

to coat aggregate
Too much asphalt reduces
friction between aggregates

Flow
increases as
asphalt
content
increases

Source: Illston and Domone (2001)

67

68

MANUFACTURING/ BATCH PLANT

MANUFACTURING

Batch Plant produce one mix at a time

Asphalt is typically manufactured (i.e. hot mixed) at a plant

and transport by truck to the construction site
The plant should be close to the construction site to
avoid the hardening of asphalt during transit

Aggregates are
weighted and mixed
according to the
gradation needed

Aggregates are
heated to remove
moisture

Two main types of asphalt manufacturing plants:

Batch Plant
Continuous Plant

Hot asphalt is mixed

with hot aggregate
and fillers in a mixer

Source: Wikipedia

The mixture is loaded in a truck

to be used or stored in a silo

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MANUFACTURING

MANUFACTURING
Continuous Plant produce asphalt mixture continuously

The choice of mixing process depends on:

Production Capacity (Continuous plant is good for large production of
one material specification whereas Batch plant is good for small
productions of different mix proportions)

The hot asphalt is mixed

with the heated aggregate
in the final portion of the
drum

Maintenance Cost (Continuous plant has lower maintenance cost)

Graded aggregates are
continuously loaded
into a drum.

Cost of Construction (Continuous plant has lower construction cost)

Environmental Issues (dusts, fumes, noise, etc)

The first portion is the drying

of aggregates.

At the end of the drum, the mixture is loaded

in a truck to be transported or stored in a silo

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DESIGN LIFE OF PAVEMENT

Asphalt pavement has a design life of 40 years (concrete structures have
about 75 years). This is the life after which we need to replace the whole thing.
However, we need to do some maintenances periodically to get that design life.

DETERIORATION OF ASPHALT
Design Life of Pavement
Failure Modes
Deterioration of Surface
Deterioration of Structure
Preventions
Remedies
Source: Illston and Domone (2001)

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FAILURES OF ASPHALT PAVEMENT

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MODES OF FAILURES

The failure of asphalt pavement is a little tricky to define because when the
pavement fails it does not collapse
So we define failure in terms of serviceablity (ability to service) or
repairability (ability to repair vs. rebuilt)
Examples of criteria
Riding Comfort (surface too rough, uneven surface, excessive noise)
Safety of Drivers on the road (slippery road, potholes)
Crack widths
Permanent deformations

The asphalt may fail in one of the two main forms

Deterioration of Road Surface the damages occur at the top of the
wearing course (top layer) of the pavement
Bleeding of asphalt
Breakdown of surface materials
Polishing of surface
Fuel spillage
Deterioration of Road Structure the damages occurs on the pavement as
a whole
Permanent Deformation
Fatigue Cracking

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DETERIORATION OF SURFACE
Bleeding of asphalt to the surface
(and sinking of aggregates to the
bottom). This occurs under
traffic pressure due to too little
air voids. This leads to reduced
skid-resistance of the road
surface.
Aggregate breakdown weak
aggregate may break into pieces
under traffic and separated from
asphalt
Aggregate polishing soft
aggregate may become polished
under traffic, resulting in slippery
road surface

DETERIORATION OF SURFACE
Aging of Asphalt this is the hardening of
asphalt (decrease in penetration or increase
in viscosity) when exposed to the
atmosphere. The asphalt becomes more
brittle and cracks more easily.
Oxidation of asphalt in which resins was
converted into asphaltenes. Because the
resin provides ductility and adhesiveness,
loosing it results in a harder material. The
pavement also turns grey
Loss of volatile constituents lighter oils
evaporated, leaving only the heavy oils on
the road. In asphalt cement, this is often
caused by too much heat during mixing.

Source: www.asphaltwa.com

Surface Bleeding

Fuel spillage oil spills from vehicles may

dilute asphalt cement

Source: www.asphaltwa.com

Aggregate polishing

Oxidation Damage

Source: www.asphaltwa.com

Fuel Spillage

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DETERIORATION OF SURFACE

Source: www.asphaltwa.com

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DETERIORATION OF STRUCTURE

Low Temperature Crack this occurs

in cold climates when the asphalt is too
hard. When the asphalt shrinks under
low temperature, it cannot deform
enough, so it cracks.

Structure failures consists of two main types

Permanent Deformation
Fatigue Failure

Source: www.asphaltwa.com

Crack from low temperature and

binder hardening
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Source: Illston and Domone (2001)

80

DETERIORATION OF STRUCTURE

DETERIORATION OF STRUCTURES

Permanent Deformations it is
the deformation of the whole
pavement structure (affect several
layers, not just the surface).
Possible causes are:
Foundation settlement due to
insufficient compaction or water
scour
Rutting under High Stress + High
temperature this occurs under
heavy traffic on hot days when
too soft asphalt is used. The
asphalt deforms permanently in
the form of wheel track. Once it
is occurred, vehicles tends to lock
into the wheel track, accelerating
the process.

Fatigue Failures this occurs

under repetitive stresses from
traffic.
Cracking usually starts at the base
of top layer
By the time it reaches the surface,
a lot of damage has occurred
Characterized by alligator skin
cracking pattern
Occurs from the use of asphalt
that is too hard

Source: www.asphaltwa.com

Deformation due to foundation settlement

Source: www.asphaltwa.com
Source: www.asphaltwa.com

Deformation due to high stress

Fatigue cracking
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PREVENTIONS

82

REMEDIES
When the pavement has deteriorated, we need to do some maintenances.
The maintenance of roads may fall into one of these categories:

To prevent or delay the failure, the followings must be done:

Use of strong and durable aggregates
Use asphalt binder with grade suitable for the geographical area to
prevent cracking
Control maximum temperature during mixing to prevent excessive
evaporation of lighter constituents, which may result in premature
hardening
Control maximum air voids in the mix to prevent water permeation and
oxidation
Control minimum air voids to prevent bleeding and slippery surface
Control the amount of asphalt in the mix (not too low and not too
high)

Patching
It is the repairs of potholes and minor damages
Surface Treatments
It is the application of liquid asphalt onto small sized stone on the
existing surface
To improve skid resistance or prevent further deterioration of the
existing pavement
We do this when the structure of the pavement is still OK
Also known as Surface Dressing, Chip Seal, Slurry Seal, etc

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REMEDIES

MODIFIED ASPHALT

Pavement Resurfacing / Overlay

This involves the laying of the new surface layer (usually hot rolled
asphalt) either after removal of the existing surface or on top (overlay)
May be laid on top of existing asphalt surface or concrete surface
Restore ride quality, skid resistance, and road profile
To prevent further deterioration of the existing pavement
Also increase the strength of the pavement due to increase thickness
Usually the most cost-effective method

In recent years, modified asphalt material has becoming more popular.

Additives are added to the asphalt binder for the purpose of:

Improve durability (reduce oxidation)

Increase stability/ stiffness / fatigue resistance
Improve aggregate adhesion
Improve workability/ viscosity/ ductility
Improve elasticity/ reduce permanent deformation
Reduce bleeding
Reduce fuel and oil damage

Dosage varies from less than 1% of the total mix to more than 20%,
depending on the additive
Examples: tar, gilsonite, carbon black, sulfur, ethylene vinyl acetate,
polyethylene, polypropylene, natural rubber, styrene-butadiene rubbersynthetic latex, styrene-butadiene-styrene, manganese catalyst, epoxy-resin,
etc

Reconstruction
This involves the removal of the construction depth and construct a
newly designed pavement
Only used at the end of service-life or when overlay is not possible

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RECAP

86

REFERENCES

Introduction
Components of Asphalt
Sources of Asphalt
Natural, Tar, Petroleum

Applications
Types
Asphalt Cement
Cutback Asphalt
Emulsified Asphalt

Grading of Asphalt
Penetration
Kinematic, Absolute, and SayboltFurol Viscosity
Curing Rate (Cutback), Setting
Rate (Emulsified)

Properties & Tests

Ductility, Solubility, Softening Point,

Flash Point, Loss on Heating,
Distillation, Solubility, Miscibility,
etc

Asphalt Mixture

Properties Required
Design Methods

Marshall Design Method

Applications

Deterioration of Asphalt &

Prevention

ASTM (1996), Annual Book of ASTM Standards, West Conshohocken, PA.

Atkinson, K. (1990), Highway Maintenance Handbook, Thomas Telford, London,
460 pp.
Hunter, R. N. (2000), Asphalt in Road Construction, Thomas Telford, London, 563
pp.
Illston, J. M., and Domone, P. L. J. (2001), Construction Materials Their Nature and
Behavior, 3rd Edition, Spon Press, London.
Krebs, R. D. and Walker, R. D. (1971), Highway Materials, McGraw Hill, New York
http://www.asphaltwa.com
http://www.doh.go.th

Causes of Failure
Prevention
Remedies

Modified Asphalt Products

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