CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Today the world is facing two major challenges which include the energy
(fuel) crisis and environment degradation. The costs of crude oil products depend
on international markets and petroleum reserves are limited to nearly 40 years with
current consumption rate. Many countries all over the world have been developing
new crops since the mid-1970s in order to increase the biomass resource base for
production of bio energy. Indias economy has often been unsettled by its need to
import about 70% of its petroleum demand from the highly unstable and volatile
world oil market. India is projected to become the third largest consumer of
transportation fuel in 2020, after the USA and China, with consumption growing at
an annual rate of 6.8%.
In India 90% of imported oil is consumed for the transportation and energy
generation and its economy are highly depending on the import of crude oil.
Therefore role of bio fuel as a transportation fuel will play a very vital role. The
idea of using vegetable oil as a substitute for diesel fuel was demonstrated by the
inventor of the diesel engine, Rudolph Diesel, around the year 1900, when
vegetable oil was proposed as fuel for engines. The oil use as diesel fuel was
limited due to its high viscosity (near 10 times of the gas oil).
In order to adapt the fuel to the existing engines the properties of vegetable
oil had to be modified. Various products derived from vegetable oils have been
proposed as an alternative fuel for diesel engines.

In the 1980s and 1990s significant R&D was conducted to evaluate a variety
of biodiesel blending stocks, develop emissions data, assess engine/vehicle
performance, and develop cost-effective manufacturing processes. The main
commodity sources of biodiesel in India are non edible oils obtained from plant
species such as jatropha, pongamia, pinnata, rubber seed, sunflower etc.
Biodiesel can be blended at any level with petroleum diesel to create a
biodiesel blend or can be used in its pure form. Just like petroleum diesel, biodiesel
operates in compression ignition engine; which essentially require very little or no
engine modifications because biodiesel has properties similar to petroleum diesel
fuels. It can be stored just like petroleum diesel fuel and hence does not require
separate infrastructure.
The use of biodiesel in conventional diesel engines results insubstantial
reduction of un-burnt hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide (CO) and particulate
matters. But uses of biodiesel slightly increase nitrogen oxide (NO x) which can be
reduced by incorporating EGR system. Biodiesel is considered as a clean fuel since
it has almost no sulphur, no aromatics and has about 10% built in oxygen, which
helps it to burn fully. Its higher cetane number improves the ignition quality even
when blended in the petroleum diesel. Due to the fact that vegetable oils are
produced from plants, their burning leads to a complete recyclable CO 2 (green
house gas).
There are also some drawbacks in the bio diesel fuel as compared to
petroleum fuels which includes high cost of biodiesel which is around 1.5 times to
that of petroleum diesel, unavailability at large scale, and requirement of large area
of land. Now a days various techniques have been developed for producing
biodiesel. Some of them are mechanical stirring, ultrasonic cavitation,
hydrodynamic cavitation and supercritical methanol.
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Advantages of the bio-diesel over petroleum based diesel fuel are given below:
Biodiesel is a good lubricant about 66% better than petro diesel.
Biodiesel produce less smoke and particulate maters as it is free of sulphur
and aromatics.
Biodiesel has higher cetane number having well anti knocking property.
Produce lower carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emissions.
Bio-diesel is renewable, biodegradable and non-toxic.
In comparison with petroleum-based diesel fuel, biodiesel is characterized by:

Lower heating value

Higher cetane value
No aromatics contents
Better lubricant
Higher viscosity
Higher freezing temperature (higher cloud point and pour point)
Higher flash point
No toxicity or low toxicity
Biodegradability
Different corrosive properties
Some of the above properties, such as the high cetane value or good

lubricity, are obvious advantages of biodiesel while others, including the lower
heating value, high freezing point (and inferior flow properties at low
temperature), or corrosion properties are its drawbacks. Biodiesel changes the
character and can increase the intensity of the odour of diesel exhaust.

1.1.1 SOURCES OF BIODIESEL

In general, biodiesel can be produced from any of the following: pure
vegetable oil (edible or non- edible), rendered animal fats, or waste cooking oil and
3

greases. Straight edible vegetable oils such as sun flower oil, olive oil, soya bean
oil, palm oil can be used to prepare biodiesel as fuel in diesel engines.
The vegetable oils also include cotton seed oil, lin seed to significantly
reduce particulate emission relative to petroleum diesel. There are more than 350
oil bearing crops identified whose cetane number and calorific value are
comparable with those of diesel fuels and are compatible with material vehicle fuel
system. Various types of oil bearing plants and their availability in India have been
discussed in the following portion. Jatropha carcus oil, known as ratanjyot can be
used as diesel substitute in India. It can be cultivated in arid and semi arid area
conditions. About 1500 litres of oil can be extracted from the yield per acre of
5000 kg of Jatropha carcusin irrigated area and 400 litres of oil from 2000 kg yield
per acre in arid area. Jatropha is being adopted as a major feedstock oil option to
producd biodiesel worldwide.
Jatropha curcas (Euphorbiaceae) is a genus comprising 70 species
distributed in tropical and sub- tropical parts of the world, of which nine species
occur in India. The plant thrives on any type of soil (semi arid and arid with
minimal care), can survive a long period of drought and thermal left after
extraction of the oil is an excellent manure. Biodiesel manufactured from canola
oil is also blended with diesel and used as fuel in diesel vehicles.
The bulk of biodiesel comes from domestically grown rape seed and
Linseed. Scientists are looking to make fuel out of palm oil and other crops to feed
the automobile industry's growing hunger. Palm oil has a yield of biodiesel up to
500 gallons/acre.
1.1.2 FEEDSTOCKS FOR BIODIESEL
A variety of oils can be used to produce biodiesel. These include:
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 Virgin oil feedstock; rapeseed and soybean oils are most commonly used, in
USA and EU.
Waste vegetable oil (WVO), collected from food chain.
Animal fats including tallow, lard, yellow grease, chicken fat, and the byproducts of the production of Omega-3 fatty acids from fish oil.
Algae, which can be grown using waste materials such as sewage.
Acid oil.
As 80% of the price of bio diesel is attributed to feedstock cost, it shall be
relevant to explore cheaper feed stocks for biodiesel production economically and
acid oil seems to be most promising cheaper feedstock for biodiesel production.
Acid oil is made from soap stock which is a by- product of edible oil refining
process and available in bulk in India.
1.2 NEED FOR ALTERNATE FUELS
Fossil fuel emissions from vehicles damage the environment and contribute
to air pollution. Several major environmental problems are caused by the use of
fossil fuels: Global warming, also known as the "Greenhouse Effect", is caused by
an accumulation of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions that do not leave the Earths
lower atmosphere. CO2 is the gas responsible for keeping the Earths climate warm
because it absorbs radiation that would otherwise leave the Earths atmosphere and
disperse into the upper atmosphere. CO2, in moderate amounts, is necessary in
order to maintain a certain temperature that supports life on Earth. However, an
excess amount of CO2 in the Earths atmosphere is building up due to fossil fuel
emissions that contain large quantities of CO2.
It is important to note that the warming and cooling process of the Earth is a
delicate process. The Suns rays are the main source of warmth for the Earths
surface. However, these rays are extremely strong and are hot enough that they
only need to have contact for a brief period with the Earths surface in order to
5

warm it. These rays, after hitting the Earth, are then supposed to bounce back into
the atmosphere and this allows the Earth to remain at an optimal temperature that
is comfortable for all life on the planet and ideal for the established global climate.
With the occurrence of the CO2 blanket and the accumulation of UV rays near the
Earths surface, the temperature on Earth is rising because the natural process of
the rays only remaining long enough to warm the surface has been disturbed.
1.2.1 ADDITIVES FOR OXIDATIVE STABILITY OF BIODIESEL
Oxidative stability is a major industry issue for diesel and biodiesel fuels.
Some biodiesels are more stable than others and some unstable biodiesel contain
stability additives that perform very well. The tendency of a fuel to be unstable can
be predicted by the Iodine number (ASTM D 1510) but the test method may not
pick up the presence of stability additives. Iodine number actually measures the
presence of C=C bonds that are prone to oxidation.
The general rule of thumb is that instability increases by a factor of 1 for
every C=C bond on the fatty acid chain; thus, 18:3 are three times more reactive
than C18:0. Stability can be predicted from knowledge of the feedstock only if you
know the proportion of C18:2 and C18:3 fatty acids present in the fuel and know
whether or not the fuel has been treated for stability. High fractions of those two
types of fatty acids can adversely affect fuel stability if additives are not used. Poor
stability can lead to increasingly high acid numbers, increasing viscosity, and the
formation of gums and sediments that can clog filters.
Comparing the fuels acid number and viscosity over time can provide some
idea about whether or not the fuel is oxidizing, but you need to take a sample at the
beginning when the fuel is fresh and then sample on a regular basis after that.
Long-term storage in the presence of diesel fuel, diesel additives, water, sediments,
heat, and air has not been adequately documented in the field. Biodiesel and blends
6

of biodiesel and diesel fuel should not be stored for longer than 6 months in either
storage tanks or vehicles until better field data is available. If it becomes necessary
to store biodiesel longer than 6 months, or the storage conditions are poor, use
antioxidants.
The common antioxidants that work with biodiesel are TBHQ (t-butyl
hydroquinone), Tenox 21, and tocopherol (Vitamin E). Most of these are sold by
food additive firms. Powdered antioxidants are difficult to mix into biodiesel. A
trick used is to heat a small amount of biodiesel (1 gal or so) up to 37.7 C or until
all the powdered antioxidant is dissolved.
1.3 TYPES OF ALTERNATE FUELS
1.3.1 NATURAL GAS
Natural gas, although a fossil fuel, is considered to be an alternative energy
source because it is a preferable alternative to oil. You may say, "Why is natural
gas considered to be an alternative fuel? Isnt gas a fossil fuel?" You are right
natural gas is a fossil fuel but it is different from gasoline, petroleum and coal
because it does not contain the same harmful compounds found in other fossil
fuels. Unlike gasoline, petroleum and coal, natural gas has a negligible sulfur
dioxide content, does not contain lead, has a low nitrogen dioxide content, a low
particulate content, and a low carbon monoxide content. As well, natural gas does
not require carcinogenic (cancer- causing) additives to boost octane levels because
natural gas is naturally high in octane.
1.3.2 BIO-FUELS
Ethanol is the main bio-fuel used today. It is made from an alcohol
derivative that is obtained from the cooking and fermenting process of grain
(usually corn). Most ethanol available is called E-85 and this is a combination of

85% ethanol and 15% gasoline. All Ford Taurus manufactured after 1998 are E85
compatible.
1.3.3 ELECTRICITY
Electricity is used to power vehicles by an electric motor. The electricity is
provided to the vehicle by batteries that store electricity. These batteries are recharged every day (normally in the evening hours when the vehicle is not being
used). The owner of an electric vehicle (EV) must re- charge the vehicle from
home using a small re-charging station because, currently, no infrastructure for recharging stations exists in North America. Only one state, California, has set- up
re-charging stations in some areas. Therefore, EVs cannot be used for travelling
long distances as there is difficulty in locating re-charging stations.
1.3.4 HYDROGEN
Hydrogen as an energy source for vehicles is still being developed but is
extremely promising. Hydrogen is a gas that can be created through electrolysis
the process of combing water and oxygen. Therefore, hydrogen is not only clean, it
is also a renewable energy source (no fear of its depletion). In a vehicle powered
by hydrogen, hydrogen fuel cells are contained in the vehicle and are replenished
with hydrogen, just as gasoline is replenished into the tank of a traditional vehicle.
Consumers may even be able to fill up at home if an appliance that generates
hydrogen is developed so that it is small enough and safe enough to store in a
garage.
No distribution system currently exists for hydrogen as a vehicular fuel
source. This is because hydrogen powered vehicles are not being marketed to
consumers at this time. The "Big Three" US auto manufacturers as well as the
Japanese and Europeans are working to further develop and refine hydrogen
8

powered automobiles. Once these vehicles are "consumer ready", there will be
development of a hydrogen distribution system.
1.3.5 CASTOR OIL
Castor oil is a vegetable oil obtained by pressing the seeds of the castor oil
plant.The common name "castor oil", from which the plant gets its name, probably
comes from its use as a replacement for castoreum, a perfume base made from the
dried perineal glands of the beaver (castor in Latin).
Castor oil is a colorless to very pale yellow liquid with a distinct taste and
odor once first ingested. Its boiling point is 313 C (595 F) and its density is 961
kg/m3. It is a triglyceride in which approximately 90 percent of fatty acid chains
are ricinoleate. Oleate and linoleates are the other significant components.
Castor oil and its derivatives are used in the manufacturing of soaps,
lubricants, hydraulic and brake fluids, paints, dyes, coatings, inks, cold resistant
plastics, waxes and polishes, nylon, pharmaceuticals and perfumes.
It is extracted from the seeds of palma christi.
It contains approximately 47% of oil.
It readily dissolves in alcohol.
It is converted into biodiesel even at low temperature.
It is less expensive.
It contains over 85% of ricinoleic acid.

1.3.5.1 TWO-STAGE BIODIESEL PRODUCTION PROCESS

The moisture was measured by direct coulometric Karl Fischer titration
according to ASTM D 6304. The moisture in the fish oil was 0.24%. The FFA for
the fish oil was 0.28%. The fish oil was precisely quantitatively transferred into the
9

reaction flask and preheated by the hot plate to the desired reaction temperature
(55C) before the reaction started. The calculated amount of potassium hydroxide
(base amount 0.95 wt%) was dissolved in the methanol required (keep
methanol/oil molar ratio at 6/1).
The solution of KOH and methanol was preheated to the reaction
temperature; 60 vol. % of the methanolic solution was added to the fish oil at the
first-stage 30-min reaction with constant stirring speed. After the first-stage
reaction, allow the reaction mixture to settle for 1 h, then decant the top layer and
transfer to the preheated reaction vessel. Add the remaining potassium methoxide
solution into the partially reacted fuel mixture. It took 1 h for the second stage
reaction to be completed. After reaction, the reaction mixture was poured into a
separatory funnel and allowed to settle overnight. After settlement, the top layer,
methyl esters, was first washed with water, then magnesol treatment was
performed.
1.3.5.2 Analytical Methods
An automatic cool on column injection gas chromatograph (GC,
Agilent Technologies, USA, 5890 Series II) was used for the determination of
mono-, di-, and triglycerides and free glycerol in accordance with ASTM D 6584.
A capillary GC column (Restek,USA, Rtx-biodiesel column (15m0.32mm
id0.10m film)) was used in the apparatus. The temperature of the flame
ionization detector was 380C.
The initial GC oven temperature was kept at 50C for 1 min, heated at
15C/min to 180C, then heated at of 7C/min to 230C, and finally heated at the
ramp of 30C/min to 380C, at which it was kept for 10 min. About 100 mg of
biodiesel sample was weighed into a 10 mL septa vial. Exactly 100 mL of each
internal standard and MSTFA silylating agents were added to the vial. The vial was
10

shaken and allowed to sit for 15 min at room temperature. Then, 8mL of n-heptane
was added to the vial, which was then briefly shaken. A 1 L split less injection
volume was used. A calibration curve was generated from four standards (i.e.,
triolein (TG), diolein (DG), monoolein (MG), and glycerin) and two internal
standards (i.e.,1,2,4- butanetriol for glycerin and 1,2,3-tricaproylglycerol
(tricaprin) for glycerides). Each standard was injected three times at five different
concentrations. The calibration curves of the standard solutions showed good
linearity.
Table 1.1 Raw Oil Properties And Diesel Properties
Properties

Fish oil

Cotton

Density(gm/cc

0.965

oil
0.9098

0.9180

0.8359

)
Kinematic

30.5

32.7

50

3.9

Pale brown
174

N.A
250

Light Brown
56

viscosity
Colour
Dark Brown
Flash point in 230

Seed Jatropha oil

Diesel

C
N.A- Not Available

1.4 PROPERTIES OF LIQUID FUELS

1.4.1 Density
This is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the fuel at
a reference temperature of 15C. Density is measured by an instrument called
hydrometer. The knowledge of density is useful for quantity calculations and
assessing ignition quality. The unit of density is kg/m3.
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1.4.2 Specific gravity

This is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil to the
weight of the same volume of water at a given temperature. The density of fuel,
relative to water, is called specific gravity. The specific gravity of water is defined
as 1. Since specific gravity is a ratio, it has no units. The measurement of specific
gravity is generally made by a hydrometer.
Specific gravity is used in calculations involving weights and volumes. The
specific gravity of various fuel oils are given in Table 1.2
Fuel Oil

L.D.O

Specific

Light Diesel Oil

0.85- 0.87

Furnace oil

L.S.H.S

0.89- 0.95

Low Sulphur Heavy Stock

0.88- 0.98

Gravity
1.4.3 Viscosity
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow.
Viscosity depends on temperature and decreases as the temperature increases. Any
numerical value for viscosity has no meaning unless the temperature is also
specified. Viscosity is measured in Stokes / Centistokes.
Viscosity is the most important characteristic in the storage and use of fuel
oil. It influences the degree of pre-heat required for handling, storage and
satisfactory atomization. If the oil is too viscous, it may become difficult to pump,
hard to light the burner, and tough to operate. Poor atomization may result in the
formation of carbon deposits on the burner tips or on the walls. Therefore preheating is necessary for proper atomization.
1.4.4 Flash Point

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The flash point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be
heated so that the vapour gives off flashes momentarily when an open flame is
passed over it. Flash point for furnace oil is 66C.
1.4.5 Pour Point
The pour point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which it will pour or
flow when cooled under prescribed conditions. It is a very rough indication of the
lowest temperature at which fuel oil is readily pumpable.
1.4.6 Specific Heat
Specific heat is the amount of kcals needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg
of oil by 1oC. The unit of specific heat is kcal/kgC. It varies from 0.22 to 0.28
depending on the oil specific gravity. The specific heat determines how much
steam or electrical energy it takes to heat oil to a desired temperature. Light oils
have a low specific heat, whereas heavier oils have a higher specific heat.
1.4.7 Calorific Value
The calorific value is the measurement of heat or energy produced, and is
measured either as gross calorific value or net calorific value. The difference being
the latent heat of condensation of the water vapour produced during the
combustion process. Gross calorific value (GCV) assumes all vapour produced
during the combustion process is fully condensed. Net calorific value (NCV)
assumes the water leaves with the combustion products without fully being
condensed. Fuels should be compared based on the net calorific value.
The calorific value of coal varies considerably depending on the ash,
moisture content and the type of coal while calorific value of fuel oils are much
more consistent.
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1.4.8 Sulphur
The amount of sulphur in the fuel oil depends mainly on the source of the
crude oil and to a lesser extent on the refining process. The normal sulfur content
for the residual fuel oil (furnace oil) is in the order of 2-4 %. The main
disadvantage of sulphur is the risk of corrosion by sulphuric acid formed during
and after combustion, and condensing in cool parts of the chimney or stack, air pre
heater and economiser.
1.4.9 Ash Content
The ash value is related to the inorganic material in the fuel oil. The ash
levels of distillate fuels are negligible. Residual fuels have more of the ash-forming
constituents. These salts may be compounds of sodium, vanadium, calcium,
magnesium, silicon, iron, aluminum, nickel, etc.
Typically, the ash value is in the range 0.03-0.07 %. Excessive ash in liquid
fuels can cause fouling deposits in the combustion equipment. Ash has erosive
effect on the burner tips, causes damage to the refractories at high temperatures and
gives rise to high temperature corrosion and fouling of equipments.
1.4.10 Carbon Residue
Carbon residue indicates the tendency of oil to deposit a carbonaceous solid
residue on a hot surface, such as a burner or injection nozzle, when its vaporisable
constituents evaporate. Residual oil contains carbon residue ranging from 1 percent
or more.
1.4.11Water Content
Water content of furnace oil when supplied is normally very low as the
product at refinery site is handled hot and maximum limit of 1% is specified in the
standard.
Water may be present in free or emulsified form and can cause damage to
the inside furnace surfaces during combustion especially if it contains dissolved
14

salts. It can also cause spluttering of the flame at the burner tip, possibly
extinguishing the flame and reducing the flame temperature or lengthening the
flame.
1.5 DIFFERENT METHODS OF USING BIO FUELS IN ENGINE
1.5.1 Direct Biodiesel
A fuel comprised of mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty adds derived from
vegetable oils or animal fats, designated 8100, and meeting the requirements of
ASTM D 6751 Biodiesel is a diced replacement fuel that is manufactured from
vegetable oils, recycled cooking greases or oils, or animal fats.
The biodiesel manufacturing process converts oils and fats into chemicals
called long chain mono alkyl esters, or biodiesel. These chemicals are also referred
to as fatty acid methyl esters or FAME. In the manufacturing process, oils or fats
are reacted with a short chain alcohol (usually methanol) in the presence of a
catalyst (usually sodium or potassium hydroxide) to form biodiesel and glycerin.
Glycerin is a sugar, and is a co. product of the biodiesel process.
1.5.1.1 Biodiesel Production from High FFA Oil
As acid oil has high free fatty acid content. There is a need to neutralize Mc
1.FA. "There are normally to routes of neutraliation of FFA such as saponification
of FFA and esterification of FFA using acid catalyst. After neutralization of FFA.
The transesterification is carried out to convert triglycerides into mono alkyl esters.
It is also seen that the major factors which affect the conversion efficiency of the
both esterification and transesterification process are molar ratio of alcohol: oil,
amount of catalyst reaction temperature and reaction duration.
1.5.1.2 Esterification Reaction
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Free fatty acids can be esterified by alcohols in the presence of suitable

acidic catalyst. Acid catalyzed esterification is preferred for oils having high free
fatty acid content. The difficulty with alkaline- esterification of these oils is that
they contain large amounts of free fatty acids (FFA). These free fatty acids quickly
react with the alkaline catalyst to produce soaps that inhibit the separation of the
ester and glycerin. The first step, acid catalysed esterification reduces the FFA
content of the oil to less than 2%. The second step, alkaline catalysed
transesterification process converts the products of the first step to its mono- esters
and glycerol.

16

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INRODUCTION
In recent years much research has been carried out to find suitable A.F to
petroleum products. The use of renewable fuels like ethanol, biogas and bio- diesel
in diesel engine is significant in this context. The recent concern is to opt for AF
which can be produced from resources available locally with in the country such as
alcohol, bio-diesel, vegetable oil etc. This reviews the production, characterization
and current statuses of vegetable oil and biodiesel as well as the experiment
research work carried out in many countries. Ethanol is a attractive fuels because,
it is a renewable bio-based source, and it is oxygenated there by providing the
potential to reduce particulars emission in CI engines. In this review, the properties
and specification of ethanol and diesel blend are also diesel blend are also
discussed. The effect of fuel on engine performance and emissions and material
compact ability is also studied. Hydrogen will play an important role in developing
sustainable transportation in the United States, became in future it may be
produced (i.e.) virtually unlimited quantities using renewable resources. Hydrogen
has been used effectively in a number of IC engine vehicles as pure hydrogen
mixed with natural gas.
Natural gas is another important alternative fuel. It is domestically produced
and readily available to end-users throughout the utility infrastructure. It is also
clean burning and produces significantly fewer harmful emissions than
reformulated gasoline or diesel when used in natural gas vehicles.

17

2.2 HISTORY OF BIODIESEL

Much earlier, in 1853 scientists E. Duffy and J. Patrick, conducted the
transesterification of a vegetable. This was many years before the first diesel
engine even became serviceable. According to the history of biodiesel fuel, Rudolf
Diesel's prime model ran on its own power for the first time in Germany in 1893.
To honor and remember this event, August 10 has been announced "International
Biodiesel Day". Looking into the origin of biodiesel fuel, the earlier engines
worked so on earth-nut or pea-nut oil that only a few people were aware of it.
These engines were then worked on vegetable oil without making any
alterations. The French Government at the time was toying with the idea of testing
the applicability to power production of the Arachide, or earth-nut. Diesel himself
was supportive of the idea as he had conducted related tests. He believed that in
course of time the use of vegetable oils for engine fuels will become very
significant.
2.2.1 Biodiesel and its blends
Vikas Kumar et.al [2013] conducted the performance test using neem oil and
he found out that in major part of analysis the hc at the same load for diesel, b10
and b20 were found in decreasing state but in case of NOx it is increasing for the
same load. This is major drawback of using bio- diesel. During the experiment they
found that the rate of fuel consumption was lower for b20, b10 blends.
Animesh Dutta et.al [2011] studied that the heating salue of jatropha oil is
about 85% to that of diesel and the pour point is very) similar. However, the flash
point and the kinematic viscosity of jatropha oil are several times higher than
diesel the lower heating value of jatropha oil is an indication that a higher oil
consumption than that of diesel is needed tee similar power output.
18

A.SwarnaKumari et.al [2013] conducted the performance test using fish oil
and found out that the CO2, CO emission of 50% blends are higher compared with
all other blends and diesel. The NOx emission of 25% blend of fish oil is less than
the diesel 1.50% blend has less NO x emission compared with all other blends
throughout all brake power loads.
C.H. Satyanarayana et.al [2009] conducted the performance test using fish
biodiesel and he found out that the performance of the engine is increased, when
the biodiesel is injected at diesel fuel viscosity. Decrease in premixed combustion
and increase in diffused combustion is observed with preheating. The reduction in
peak value of premixed combustion leads to the reduction of no emission. The
presence of oxygen in biodiesel improves the Combustion and hence lowers the
exhaust emissions. Except smoke (soot), all the remaining emissions are reduced
significantly with preheating of fish oil biodiesel. Improvement in diffused
combustion is responsible for these increased smoke levels particularly at higher
loads.
Sunil Kutnar et.al [2012] conducted the performance test using jatropa oil
and the experimental work shows higher bsfc, exhaust temperature and lower bte
with jme blended diesel. Higher bsfc for b5, b10, b20, b50 and b100 fuel is due to
lower calorific value of jme as compared to diesel. Lower Hc, co2, co emissions
during the usage of jme blended with diesel is a positive attribute related to
lowering of regulated emissions. Considering emission nonns smoke opacity is a
possible impediment to adoption of biodiesel. Considering comparable bsfc and
bee of b20 with respect to diesel along with lower regulated emissions and lesser
noise and vibrations observed for b20 fuel from this it can be concluded that
maximum blending percentage of jme with diesel shall be kept as 20%.hc
emissions for biodiesel are significantly reduced, compared with diesel.
19

The higher oxygen content advance in injection and combustion of biodiesel

and lower aromatic compound has been regarded as the main reasons. NOS
emissions increase when using biodiesel mainly due to higher oxygen content and
octane number for biodiesel.
G.Sucharitha et.al [2013] conducted the performance test using neem oil and
they found out that the break thermal efficiency of neem oil is 24.9%, neem oil
ester is 26.39% and that of diesel is 31.4% at full load. The reduced break thermal
efficiency of neem oil is due to poor combustion as a result of high viscosity and
density the high viscosity and low volatility of neem.oil leads to larger droplet
sizes, poor mixture formation, sluggish combustion and increased smoke levels.
When neem oil operating with fad temperature at 160c (fad temperature at which
its viscosity is equal to diesel viscosity), the maximum brake thermal efficiency
obtained is closer to the brake thermal efficiency of diesel. There is a drastic
reduction in smoke emission also. The increase in brake thermal efficiency and
reduction in smoke emission with increase in fuel temperature of neem oil are due
to henna combustion of fuel air mixture as a result of improved atomization during
injection.
Nanthagopal et.al[2012] conducted the performance test using pongamia
biodiesel and found out that the performance and emissions characteristics blends
of the biodiesel from karanja were analyzed and compared with that of the diesel.
It was found out that biodiesel blends have lower brake thermal efficiency than
diesel and the emissions of NOx are found to be higher for biodiesel blends. CO, hc
and smoke emissions are lower for biodiesel blend as compared to diesel.
Saka and Kusdiana et.al [2013], have developed a catalyst-free method for
biodiesel production by employing supercritical methanol. The supercritical
treatment at 350C, 43 MPa and 240 s with a molar ratio of 42 in methanol is the
optimum condition for transesterification of rapeseed oil to bio-diesel fuel and it is
20

found that more yielding from methyl ester at this optimum condition and the
reaction time much less than any other process of bio-diesel production. The 5 ml
reaction vessel made of inconel- 625 was used in this system in which pressure and
temperature were monitored in real time covering up to 200 MPa and 5500C
respectively.
The reaction vessel is charged with given amount of rapeseed oil and liquid
methanol with a molar ratio of 1: 42 the reaction vessel was then quickly immersed
into the tin bath preheated at 350C and 400C, and kept for a set time interval for
supercritical treatment of methanol, from 10 to 250 s and then moved to water bath
to stop reaction. Treated oil was allowed to settle down for 30 min than three
phases were visible. Top phase consisting of methanol was removed. And for
remaining phase upper and lower evaporated at 90C for 20 min to remove
remaining methanol.
2.2.2 Biodiesel production techniques
In this topic literature belonging to biodiesel production is collected to
review various techniques of biodiesel production. The literature contains biodiesel
production through mechanical steering, supercritical methanol, hydrodynamic
cavitation and ultrasonic cavitation. With these literatures it can be easily analyzed
that which method is most suitable for the biodiesel production at optimum
condition.
Demirbas et.al [2011], investigated the changes in yield percentage of
methyl esters with supercritical methanol method with a molar ratio of 41. The
critical temperature and the critical pressure of methanol were 512.4 K and 8.0
MPa, respectively. In that study, it was concluded that increasing reaction
temperature, especially supercritical temperatures had a favourable influence on
ester conversion.
21

The study by Balat [2012], investigated study the yields of ethyl esters from
vegetable oils via transesterification in supercritical ethanol. The critical
temperature and the critical pressure of ethanol were 516.2 K and 6.4 MPa,
respectively.
Madras et al. [2005], investigated the transesterification of sunflower oil in
supercritical methanol and supercritical ethanol at various temperatures (2004000C) at 200 bar. For reaction in supercritical methanol and ethanol, no catalyst
is required and nearly complete conversion can achieve in very short time (2-4
min). This is because supercritical methanol and oil is in single phase. Synthesis of
bio-diesel in supercritical methanol and ethanol were conducted in an 8 ml
stainless steel reactor and the molar ratio is taken as 40:1.
Initialy, maintained the desired reaction temperature (200-4000C) and
pressure (200 bar).the reactor was put into furnace after predetermined reaction
time reactor was quenched. The result of this investigation was in methanol, the
conversion increased from 78% to 96% with increase in temperature. A similar
trend was observed for conversion in ethanol but the conversion were higher,
because the solubility parameter of ethanol is lower than that of methanol and
closer to oil, the conversion are higher in ethanol compared to conversion obtained
in methanol.
Han [2000], in this study a co-solvent was added to reaction mixture in order
to decrease the operating temperature, pressure and molar ratio of alcohol to oil.
Supercritical CO2 is good solvent for small and moderate organic molecule and it is
low cost and facile material. Therefore CO 2 is used as a co-solvent for study. The
experiment was performed in 250 ml cylindrical autoclave at maximum pressure
and temperature was 100 MPa and 4500C respectively. It was observed in the
study that with optimum reaction temperature 280C, molar ratio 24 and CO2 to
methanol ratio of 0.1, a 98% yield of methyl ester (biodiesel) was observed in 10
22

min at reaction pressure of 14.3 MPa, which make the supercritical method viable
for the industrial purpose. It is observed that supercritical methanol with co-solvent
process is superior to the conventional supercritical methanol method. CO 2 is both
add and remove from the mixture when reaction is completed. Compared to the
conventional processes less energy is required for process and reaction pressure is
reduced which make process safer and less costly.
Ji et al. [1994], performed experiments on Power Ultrasonic (PU) (19.7
kHz), Hydrodynamic Cavitation (HC), and Mechanical Stirring (MS). They use
soybean oil as vegetable oil mixed with KOH for production of biodiesel. In Power
Ultrasonic (PU) method the reactions were carried out in an ultrasonic reactor. The
temperature of the reaction mixture was controlled by a water bath. Vegetable oil
(100 g) was poured into the reactor at the beginning. The reaction started when a
quantitative amount of methanol liquor dissolved in KOH was poured into the
heated reactor.

23

CHAPTER 3
AIM AND OBJECTIVE
3.1OBJECTIVE
Production of castor oil and study the performance of various diesel/ bio
diesel mixture in a four stroke diesel engine.
Bio fuel subsidies in the United States have been justified on the
following grounds: energy independence, a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions,
improvements in rural development related to bio fuel plants, and farm income
support. The 2007 energy act emphasizes the first two objectives. In this study, we
quantify the costs and benefits that different bio fuels provide. We consider the first
two objectives separately and show that each can be achieved with a lower social
cost than that of the current policy. Current policy favors corn production and the
construction of corn- based ethanol plants. We find that favoring corn happens to
be the best way to remove land from food and feed production, thus providing
higher commodity prices and income to farmers and landowners. Next, we
calculate two sets of alternative biofuel subsidies that are targeted to meeting
income transfer objectives and either greenhouse gas emission reductions or fuel
energy reductions. The first of these assumes that greenhouse gas emissions and
high crop prices are joint objectives, and the second assumes that fuel
independence and high crop prices are the joint objectives. Finally, we infer the
social willingness to pay for bio fuel services. This, in turn, allows us to propose a
subsidy schedule that maintains (inferred) social preferences and provides a higher
incentive for farmers to choose production of cellulosic materials.

24

CHAPTER 4
MATERIALS AND METHODS
4.1 MATERIALS
4.1.1 CASTOR OIL
Castor oil is well known as a source of ricinoleic acid, a monounsaturated,
18-carbon fatty acid. Among fatty acids, ricinoleic acid is unusual in that it has a
hydroxyl functional group on the 12th carbon. This functional group causes
ricinoleic acid (and castor oil) to be more polar than most fats. The chemical
reactivity of the alcohol group also allows chemical derivatization that is not
possible with most other seed oils. Because of its ricinoleic acid content, castor oil
is a valuable chemical in feedstocks, commanding a higher price than other seed
oils
4.1.2 METHANOL
Methanol recovery can make the biodiesel production process more efficient
from both economic and environmental point of view, as it can save the input costs
for the process as well as helps to maintain the specific standard. And in designing
a cost-effective methanol recovery unit energy requirement is the most important
parameter, as high energy requirement may increase the cost of biodiesel compared
to conventional petro-diesel.
Although different research group shave done simulation and lab scale
studies on various types of biodiesel production process using various types of
feedstock and catalysts, but no attempt has been focused on the energy requirement
for methanol recovery unit. Methanol recovery unit for the biodiesel production
from comparatively high free fatty acid feedstock, a moderate feedstock with15%
free fatty acid (FFA) was assumed. In process simulation Triolein (C 57H104O6) was
25

used to represent the triglyceride for biodiesel production. And the major free fatty
acid found in vegetable oil and animal fat is oleic acid (C 18H34O2), which was
chosen to represent the free fatty acid (FFA) in this simulation. So, produced
biodiesel is methyl oleate (C19H36O2).
4.1.3 SODIUM HYDROXIDE
Several ways have been researched and demonstrated for preparing biodiesel
from virgin and waste vegetable oils, but base-catalyzed transesterification is still
the most widely used method in biodiesel production. Among the most commonly
used alkaline catalysts in the biodiesel industry are potassium hydroxide (KOH)
and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) flakes the transportation and storage, and are
preferred by small producers. Alkyl oxide solutions of sodium methoxide
(NaOCH3) or potassium methoxide (KOCH3) in methanol, which are now
commercially available, are the preferred catalysts for large continuous-flow
production processes. In transesterification, the effective species of catalysis is
themethoxide radicals (CH3O). The activity of a catalyst depends upon the
amount of methoxide radicals available for the reaction (Komerset ., ). For sodium
or potassium hydroxide, methoxide ion is prepared by reacting hydroxide and
methanol:
OH + CH3 OH CH3O + H2O
This reaction also yields water that remains in the system. Hydrolysis of
triglycerides and alkyl esters may occur due to the presence of water, which further
leads to the formation of free fatty acids and thus to undesired soap. Saponification
will also occur if a strong base, e.g., NaOH or KOH.

26

4.1.4 DIESEL
Rudolf Diesel originally designed the diesel engine using coal dust as his
fuel. He also experimented with various oils, including vegetable oil, such as
peanut oil.
Distillation is the first major process of refining crude oil. The oil is heated,
causing different hydrocarbon compounds to separate by their boiling
temperatures. The next heaviest components, called naphtha, are used for making
gasoline. The next heavier portion of crude oil coming from the distillation tower is
used to make diesel fuel.
4.1.4.1 Sulphur Levels in Diesel
Diesel fuel is typically high in many different hydro chemicals, including
sulphur, after the refining process. This was especially true in the earliest forms of
diesel. Yet, as refining techniques have improved over the past few decades, diesel
engines have become much cleaner. In fact, there are two classifications for diesel:
Ultra Low Suplhur Diesel, which must contain less than 15 parts per million of
sulphur. As of September 1, 2006 all on-road diesel vehicles in Canada are required
to be classified as Ultra Low Sulphur.
Biodiesel has a lower viscosity point than petro diesel as well, causing it to
freeze more readily in the temperatures slightly warmer than the temperature range
discussed earlier. This can be overcome by using a bio diesel/ petro diesel blend, or
by installing a fuel heater, but this is only necessary during the colder months.
In the event of fuel spills, biodiesel is easily washed away with ordinary
water and is nontoxic compared to other fuels. The second classification, Regular
Sulphur Diesel, is used in all off-road vehicles, including farm machinery, marine
vessels, or in forestry. Advantages of diesel fuel typically, diesel-powered vehicles
actually have greater fuel efficiency than gasoline engines and as a result, fewer
27

greenhouse gas emissions are produced than in a gasoline-powered vehicles.

Disadvantages of diesel fuel diesel engine no use for glow plugs for ignition,
unlike gasoline engines, because the fuel is pumped directly into the cylinder,
causing it to react (burn) when it encounters oxygen, thus producing power.
Yet a major drawback of this occurs in the winter. Diesel fuel viscosity
increases when the temperature decreases, usually between -15 degrees celsius and
-19 degrees celsius. This was a major problem on older diesel engines, and made
engines very difficult to start in the colder months of the year, but this is usually
counteracted by plugging in an engine heater, or a block heater. Another problem is
the rare runaway failure.
Since diesel engines do not require a spark to achieve ignition, they can
sustain power as long as diesel fuel is supplied to the cylinder. Fuel is typically
supplied via a fuel pump, and if the pump gets stuck in the "open" position, the
supply of fuel cannot be regulated, and the engine will "runaway", incapable of
being shut down. Modifications to engine design, and improvements to fuel pump
construction has also limited the likelihood of an engine runaway.
4.1.4.2 Biodiesel: Potential for Future Fuel Source?
Biodiesel can be obtained from vegetable oil, or animal fats; very similar to
the initial diesel engine design by Rudolf Diesel. Biodiesel is a non-fossil fuel,
which means it is a cleaner burning alternative to petrodiesel.
In this study, the production of methyl ester from crude rubber seed oil has
been successfully performed. The acid esterification-alkaline transesterification
reaction was adopted.. The first step of the process is to reduce FFA content in
vegetable oil by esterification with methanol and acid catalyst. The second step is
transesterification process, in which triglyceride (TG) portion of the oil reacts with
methanol and base catalyst to form ester and glycerol.
28

4.1.5 GLYCERIN
Biodiesel production creates glycerin as a byproduct. Although glycerin does
have its commercial uses, even the current modest biodiesel production has
outstripped US glycerin demand. We have combined this excess waste glycerin
with waste biomass to produce combustible pellets as an alternative to coal for
energy production. Our pellets produced an energy yield of 16 kJ/g, placing their
energy content within the expected range for existing fuel pellet infrastructure.
The pellets can be viably manufactured using simple manufacturing
equipment, and can be combusted as fuel in existing fuel pellet and Coal burning
facilities. This will greatly facilitate pellet production and adoption as an
alternative fuel source in our increasingly resource-conscious world.
The combining the waste glycerin from the biodiesel process with biomass
is relatively new and no other projects using this idea have been published. The
concept originated on a Biodiesel Internet forum where home brewers were
brainstorming ways to utilize their excess glycerin. Many users discussed creating
soap, lotions, and using the glycerin in food products, but many of these processes
require purification, a chemically unstable process, and are inherently low-volume
and low-demand. However one user caught our attention with the words glycerin
logs, to be burned in traditional fireplaces.
4.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE
4.2.1 MECHANISM OF TRANSESTERIFICATION PROCESS
The Procedure involved in this process: Sodium hydroxide [4g] is added to
methanol [130ml] and stirred until properly dissolved. The solution thus prepared
is called methoxide which is added to Fish oil [1000ml] and stirred at a constant
rate at 60degC for one hour. After the reaction is over, the solution is allowed to
29

settle for 4-5 hours in a separating flask. The glycerin settles at the bottom and the
methyl ester floats at the top (coarse biodiesel).
Coarse biodiesel is separated from the glycerin and it is heated above 100C
and maintained for 10-15 minutes for removing the untreated methanol. Certain
impurities like sodium hydroxide (NaOH) etc are still dissolved in the coarse
biodiesel. These impurities are cleaned two or three times by washing with 50 ml
of petroleum ether and 100 ml of water for 1000 ml of coarse biodiesel. This
cleaned biodiesel is taken up for the study.
4.2.2 MATERIALS AND TRANSESTERIFICATION
The transesterification is a chemical reaction widely used in the production
of biodiesel. It is a chemical process of reacting vegetable oils with alcohol in the
presence of a catalyst. The monoesters produced by transesterification of vegetable
oils or animal fats are known as biodiesel. Transesterification significantly reduces
the viscosity of vegetable oils without affecting the heating value of the original
fuel. Therefore, fuel atomization, combustion combustion, and emission
characteristics will display better results the pure vegetable oils if the esters of
vegetable oils are used in engines.
The most common type of alcohol used in biodiesel production is methanol.
It is because of methanol takes high yield reaction quite easy and also the price of
methanol is cheaper than the other alcohols. Indeed, the transesterification can take
place with or without presences of a catalyst.

30

Catalysts used for the transesterification of TGs are alkalies, acids, enzymes
or heterogeneous catalysts. Among these alkali catalysts like sodium hydroxide,
sodium methoxide, potassium hydroxide, and potassium methoxide are more
effective. If the oil has high FFA content andmore water, acid catalyzed
transesterification is suitable. The acids being used are sulfuricacid, phosphoric
acid, hydrochloric acid or organic sulfonic acid.30 Methanolysis of beeftallow was
studied with catalysts NaOH and NaOMe.
4.3 BIODIESEL PRODUCTION METHODOLOGY
The use of vegetable oils as an alternative source of energy, especially for
agriculture, most of which is powered by diesel engines is renewed considering the
depletion of the worlds petroleum supplies. The vegetable oils fuels must be
technically and environmentally acceptable, and economically competitive.
Various crude or refined vegetable oils, low grade, non- edible or recovered from
wastes residues of chemical operations have been tested by numerous researchers
for their utilization possibilities either straight or as diesel fuel extenders in
Compression Ignition Engines.
The neat vegetable oils have been found to be very viscous for prolonged
use in Direct Ignition Diesel Engines. Their high viscosities lead to poor
31

atomization and incomplete combustion with an unmodified fuel injection system,

can cause fuel system clogging, polymerization during storage and the blow-by
causing polymerization of the lubricating oil.
To safely negotiate the above undesirable characteristics of vegetable oils to
be used as a fuel in C.I engines, some modifications are required.
Adaptation of the engines to the fuel.
Adaptation of the fuel to the engines
The former solution doesnt fit, as it requires the changing of the fuel
injection system, injector timing, modified combustion chamber, emission treating
mechanism etc. The problems with substituting triglycerides for diesel fuels are
mostly associated with their high viscosity, low volatility and polyunsaturated
character. The problems have been mitigated by developing non-edible oils / edible
oils derivatives that approximate the properties and performance and make them
compatible with the hydrocarbon-based diesel fuels by changing the chemical
characteristics of the fuel through various techniques. The viscosity of the
vegetable oils can be overcome in various ways.
a)
b)
c)
d)

Pyrolysis.
Dilution.
Micro emulsifying the vegetable oil
Transesterification, which is the conversion of vegetable oils into simple
esters.

4.3.1 Various Techniques For Fuel Modification

4.3.1.1 Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis refers to a chemical change caused by the application of thermal
energy in the absence of air or nitrogen. It is the thermal decomposition of
vegetable oils to provide a possibility of creating a less viscous fuel with properties
more closely related to diesel fuel. Pyrolysis of the vegetable oil implies that its
molecular structure and its molecular weight are changed. The process involves the
32

rupturing of long chain hydrocarbon molecules into smaller fragments to produce a

liquid with lower molecular weight. The liquid fractions of the thermally
decomposed oil are likely to approach diesel fuels.
The pyrolyzate had lower viscosity, flash point, and pour point than diesel
fuel and equivalent calorific values. The cetane number of the pyrolyzate was
lower. The pyrolyzed oils contain acceptable amounts of sulphur, water and
sediment and give acceptable copper corrosion values but unacceptable ash, carbon
residue and pour point.
Pyrolysis processes that maximize yield are of particular interest, since
liquid products are easier to handle in subsequent utilization scheme and are of
better for retrofitting existing equipment. In addition, Pyrolysis is simple,
inexpensive to construct and is probably suitable for small-scale plants located near
a raw material source.
4.3.1.2 Blending
Diesel- fueled engines have the disadvantage of producing soot, particles
and nitrogen oxides and are now subjected to increasingly severe legislation
following revision of the standards by Auto oil. The required levels are difficult to
achieve through engine design alone. Even with high-grade fuels, catalytic systems
are being extensively investigated to remove particulates. But, there are still
problems in the operation of these.
The introduction of oxygenated compounds such as vegetable oils and
alcohols into diesel fuel is gaining momentum. Results with this technology have
been mixed and engine problems similar to those found with neat vegetable oils as
fuels were observed here also. A model on vegetable oil atomization showed that
blends of DF2 with vegetable oil should contain from 0 to 34% vegetable oil if
proper atomization was to be achieved
33

4.4 BENFITS OF BIODIESEL

There are many advantages involved in the usage of biodiesel. Some of them
are as follows:
4.4.1 Environmental Benefits
In 2000, biodiesel became the only alternative fuel in the country to have
successfully completed the EPA-required Tier I and Tier II health effects testing
under the Clean Air Act.

These independent tests conclusively demonstrated

biodiesels significant reduction of virtually all regulated emissions, and showed

biodiesel does not pose a threat to human health.
Biodiesel contains virtually no sulfur or aromatics, and use of biodiesel in a
conventional diesel engine results in substantial reduction of unburned
hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and particulate matter. A U.S. Department of
Energy study showed that the production and use of biodiesel, compared to
petroleum diesel, resulted in a 78.5% reduction in carbon dioxide emissions.
Moreover, biodiesel has a positive energy balance.

For every unit of energy

needed to produce a gallon of biodiesel, at least 4.5 units of energy are gained.
4.4.2 Energy Security Benefits
With agricultural commodity prices approaching record lows, and petroleum
prices approaching record highs, it is clear that more can be done to utilize
domestic surpluses of vegetable oils while enhancing our energy security. Because
biodiesel can be manufactured using existing industrial production capacity, and
used with conventional equipment, it provides substantial opportunity for
immediately addressing our energy security issues.
34

If the true cost of using foreign oil were imposed on the price of imported
fuel, renewable fuels, such as biodiesel, probably would be the most viable option.
For instance, in 1996, it was estimated that the military costs of securing foreign
oil was $57 billion annually. Foreign tax credits accounted for another estimated
$4 billion annually and environmental costs were estimated at $45 per barrel. For
every billion dollars spent on foreign oil, America lost 10,000 25,000 jobs.
4.4.3 Economic Benefits
The biodiesel industry has contributed significantly to the domestic
economy. The 51,893 jobs that are currently supported by the US biodiesel
industry reflect the beginning of the industrys potential to create jobs and
economic growth in the US economy. Biodiesel has the potential to support more
than 78,000 jobs by 2012.
4.4.4 Quality Benefits
Biodiesel is registered as a fuel and fuel additive with the EPA and meets
clean diesel standards established by the California Air Resources Board (CARB).
B100 (100 percent biodiesel) has been designated as an alternative fuel by the U.S.
Department of Energy and the U.S. Department of Transportation. Moreover, in
December 2001, the American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM) approved
a specification (D675) for bio diesel fuel.

4.5 ADVANTAGES OF BIODIESEL FUEL

35

 Biodiesel fuel is a renewable energy source unlike petroleum-based diesel.

An excessive production of soybeans in the world makes it an economic way
to utilize this surplus for manufacturing the Biodiesel fuel.
One of the main biodiesel fuel advantages is that it is less polluting than
petroleum diesel.
The lack of sulfur in 100% biodiesel extends the life of catalytic converters.
Another of the advantages of biodiesel fuel is that it can also be blended
with other energy resources and oil.
Biodiesel fuel can also be used in existing oil heating systems and diesel
engines without making any alterations.
It can also be distributed through existing diesel fuel pumps, which is
another biodiesel fuel advantage over other alternative fuels.
4.6 DISADVANTAGES OF BIODIESEL FUEL
At present, Biodiesel fuel is bout one and a half times more expensive than
petroleum diesel fuel.
It requires energy to produce biodiesel fuel from soy crops, plaus there is the
energy of sowing, fertilizing and harvesting.
Another biodiesel fuel disadvantage is that it can harm rubber hoses in some
engines.
As Biodiesel cleans the dirt from the engine, this dirt can then get collected
in the fuel filter, thus clogging it. So, filters have to be changed after the first
several hours of biodiesel use.

4.7 Comparison of Different Properties of Fish Oil & Diesel

The following points explain the major differences between fish oil and diesel fuel:
1) Viscosities of the fish oils are significantly higher and densities are slightly
higher.
2) Heating values of fish oil is about 10% lower (on mass basis).
36

3) The presence of molecular oxygen in fish oil raises the stochiometric fuel/
air ratio.
4) Fish oil could experience thermal cracking by the fuel spray in naturally
aspirated engines.
5) The cetane number of fish oil is 32-40% lower than diesel, while the sulphur
content is negligible in fish oil compared to 0.45% in diesel.
4.8 BIODIESEL BLENDING
Blends of biodiesel and conventional hydrocarbon-based diesel are products
most commonly distributed for use in the retail diesel fuel marketplace. Much of
the world uses a system known as the "B" factor to state the amount of biodiesel in
any fuel mix:

100% biodiesel is referred to as B10

20% biodiesel, 80% petrodiesel is labeled B2
5% biodiesel, 95% petrodiesel is labeled B5
2% biodiesel, 98% petrodiesel is labeled B2
Blends of 20% biodiesel and lower can be used in diesel equipment with no,

or only minor modifications, although certain manufacturers do not extend

warranty coverage if equipment is damaged by these blends. The B6 to B20 blends
are covered by the ASTM D7467 specification. Biodiesel can also be used in its
pure form (B100), but may require certain engine modifications to avoid
maintenance and performance problems. Blending B100 with petroleum diesel
may be accomplished by:
Mixing in tanks at manufacturing point prior to delivery to tanker truck.
Splash mixing in the tanker truck (adding specific percentages of biodiesel
and petroleum diesel).
In-line mixing, two components arrive at tanker truck simultaneously.
Metered pump mixing, petroleum diesel and biodiesel meters are set to X
total volume, transfer pump pulls from two points and mix is complete on
leaving pump.
37

4.8.1 PRODUCTION LEVELS

Biodiesel is commonly produced by the transesterification of the vegetable
oil or animal fat feedstock. There are several methods for carrying out this
transesterification reaction including the common batch process, supercritical
processes, ultrasonic methods, and even microwave methods.
Chemically, transesterified biodiesel comprises a mix of mono-alkyl esters
of long chain fatty acids. The most common form uses to produce methyl esters as
it is the cheapest alcohol available, though ethanol can be used to produce an ethyl
ester biodiesel and higher alcohols such as isopropanol and butanol have also been
used. Using alcohols of higher molecular weights improves the cold flow
properties of the resulting ester, at the cost of a less efficient transesterification
reaction. A lipid transesterification production process is used to convert the base
oil to the desired esters. Any free fatty acids (FFAs) in the base oil are either
converted to soap and removed from the process, or they are esterified (yielding
more biodiesel) using an acidic catalyst. After this processing, unlike straight
vegetable oil, biodiesel has combustion properties very similar to those of
petroleum diesel, and can replace it in most current uses.
The methanol used in most biodiesel production processes is made using
fossil fuel inputs. However, there are sources of renewable methanol made using
carbon dioxide or biomass as feedstock, making their production processes free of
fossil fuels.
A by-product of the transesterification process is the production of glycerol.
For every 1 tonne of biodiesel that is manufactured, 100 kg of glycerol are
produced. Originally, there was a valuable market for the glycerol, which assisted
the economics of the process as a whole.

38

CHAPTER 5
EXPERIMENTAL DETAILS
In the project the following work will be carried out ie, the physical
properties such as of different blends as viscosity, flash point, fire point cloud
point, carbon residue etc will be analysed using the respective equipments. Then all
the mechanical properties with different blends will be carried out at various
operating loads in a water cooled single cylinder diesel engine is coupled to a rope
pulley brake arrangement to absorb the power produced. Necessary weights and
spring balances are included to apply load on the brake drum. Suitable cooling
water lines fitted with temperature measuring thermocouples are provided for the
engine cooling. A fuel measuring system consisting of a fuel tank mounted on a
stand, burette, and three may cock and a stop watch is provided. Air intake is
measured using an air tank fitted with an orifice and a water manometer.
Engine Specifications
Make
Bore
Stroke
RPM
PHP
Compression Ratio
Fuel
Specific gravity
Calorific Value

Kirloskar model
85 mm
80 mm
1500
5 HP
18:1
Diesel Oil
0.83
10831 kcal/kg

39

CHAPTER 6
FUTURE WORK
Based on the above literature survey direct blending of castor oil is the best
way of using it in engine because it does not affects the efficiency of the engine,
this oil is easily available. Moreover the emissions will be comparably lower than
that of other fuels. In addition to that the process of blending is easier when
compared to other process. After the process of blending oil with diesel the
following physical properties such as viscosity, flash point, fire point, carbon
residue etc are determined. After this process the performance test are carried out
in a CI engine for various loads and the calculations are made. The obtained
efficiencies, brake power, indicated powers are plotted in graphs for various loads
with different blends. ie, B5, B10, B20 and the bet feasible blends will be selected.

40

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