Review of Related Literature

Conventionally, resistance exercise was used as method by increasing muscle size and
polishing ones skill in the field of sports. ( Howley, E.T., & Thompson, D.L.2012). Resistance
training is any form of active exercise in which dynamic or static muscle contraction is resisted
by an outside force applied manually or mechanically (Colby et.al.2013). It can be used as
adjunct method of rehabilitating muscular dysfunction or enhancing your muscle performance.
Designing a resistance training program is the main key in meeting ones goal. Thus prescribing
this , should be based on sound principle and requires seven design variables : Needs analysis
,Exercise selection, Training frequency, Exercise order, Training load and repetitions, Volume ,
Rest periods. To begin with the formerly mentioned that whatever your goal is whether for
resistance , speed , etc all should be based on three principles : overload, specificity and
progression.( ( Howley, E.T., & Thompson, D.L.2012). Overload Principle is the guiding
principle in enhancing muscle performance by providing a stimulus to your metabolic capacity
of your muscle. Meaning your muscles must be put to test to perform activities beyond its
comfort zone. Progressive loading of the muscles is core of the overload principle. For instance
by changing the intensity ( amount of weight that will be introduce to your muscle) and
manipulating the volume of exercise like the total number of repetitions of lifting weights and
the frequency of exercise.
In Strength training program, the amount of resistance applied to muscle is
incrementally and progressively increased . For endurance training, more emphasis is
place on increased the time a muscle contraction is sustained or the number of repetitions
performed than on increasing resistance. ( Colby et.al.2013)
Specificity as stated by Delorme in 1945, is a type of intervention that athletes are
specifically trained to produced a specific training outcome. As stated by Colby et al (2012) that

in specificity of training, workouts that are integrated in the program should mimic the
anticipated function. For instance, if the goal of certain functional activities requires the use of
more muscular endurance than muscular strength then time and intensity should be based on
development muscular endurance. According to Howley et al.(2012) .
In the latterly mentioned of making a resistance program which composes of seven key
parameters. To start with, there should be a Need Analysis of a client which consist of a twostage process that comprises an evaluation of the requirements and characteristics of the sport
and an assessment of the athlete. The overall evaluation of the recommended test are the
determinants for primary training goal of the clients for instance improving the muscular
endurance, accelerating muscular strength or revamping the muscular hypertrophy or boosting
muscular power. Subsequently, there should be an Exercise Selection depending on the
movement and muscular requirements of the sport, the athletes exercise technique experience,
the equipment available, and the amount of training time available. To be followed by Training
Frequency for instance the number of session the athlete should perform in one week. Moreover,
coach should look at the training background of the athlete. Next, there should be an Exercise
Order, meaning the array of the resistance exercise an athelete should perform. One of the most
common sequences are the following : Power, Other Core, lastly Assistance Exercises. Then,
there should be determinants of Training Load and Repetitions. It should be noted that :
The number of times an exercise can be performed (repetitions) is inversely related to the
load lifted; the heavier the load, the lower the number of repetitions that can be
performed.
Second to the last steps is gauging the Volume which comprises of the overall load a
person can lift and the sets meaning a faction of repetitions that is executed before the athlete

stops to rest. Training Volume is based on the clients primary goal which can be assess on Step 1
on the Needs of Analysis. For instance when it comes to developing muscular endurance it
involves many repetitions per set. Where as in improving muscular strength fewer repetitions
per set. Lastly, is the Rest Periods, meaning giving time to recovery between exercise and sets.
The duration of restoration between exercise and sets are strongly reliant on training goal of the
athlete. For instance, when the clients training goal is focusing on strength, his rest period is 2-5
minutes and the same goes for athletes aim is to polishing muscle power. In comparison to this,
less than or equal to 30 seconds are the required resting period for a client whos objective is
boost up his muscular endurance.
According to Haff, G. & Haff, E (2012) The ability to induce specific adaptations is
dependent on the ability to induce an overload and on targeting the specific training
outcomes by manipulating volume and intensity of training . Additionally, it is essential
that progression and variation be structured into the training plan to facilitate the adaptive
responses necessary to achieve the clients goals. The design of the training plan must
address one of four goals: muscular endurance, hypertrophy, muscular strength, or
muscular power.
Resistance training addressing muscular endurance is usually coined with strength
muscular endurance which the specific muscles able to contract at submaximal level of
repetitions for prolong period of time. Muscular endurance is the ability of your body to sustain
multiple muscle contraction in a prolong period of time without experiencing signs of exhaustion
(O.Sullivan, Schimtz & Fulk.2014) enhanced muscular endurance are beneficial to both athlete
and non-athlete in physiological and psychological ways. The formerly mentioned has proven to
have significant impact to improvement in ones stamina in basic (functional mobility, self-

feeding, hygiene, grooming) and instrumental activities of daily living. In addition to this, Fahey
et.al., (2013) stated that it can boost up the release of endorphins . Furthermore, there can be a
decrease rate of pre-mature death and prevention of injury and osteoporosis especially on the
elderly, it can be a method of weight management. In the latter, it can enhance self-esteem. A
person can develop his muscular endurance thru endurance training. Colby, L.A., & Krisner.C
(2013) emphasized that endurance exercise is characterized by having a muscle contract and lift
or lower a light load for many repetitions or sustain a muscle contraction for an extended period
of time. Endurance exercise should focus on low-intensity muscle contractions, a large number
of repetitions, and a prolonged time . Productive Endurance on any types of people must produce
a cardiovascular response. Obtaining this response are dependent on the elements of exercise
program: intensity, duration and frequency.
Traditionally, the common dogma resistance Training is not safe or inappropriate when
it comes to applying it to children. There have been many myths that still exist for instance the
resistance training stunts the growth of children, it is not safe for them. These myths have been
refuted with facts ( Faigenbaum et al .2012 ) When there is close supervision and proper
prescription of the strength training program., there are a lot of advantages of resistance exercises
such as accelerated muscle strength, power and muscular endurance, provides positive feedback
about self and body-image, increase bone mineral density and motor skill performance
( jumping, throwing, and sprinting),and better performance athletic ability. Before prescribing a
workout for children, instructors should have a thorough assessment and evaluation of the
emotional maturity of the child such as the ability to follow instructions and understand the
advantages and dangers of strength training. The essence of teaching should be enjoyable and
always provide a positive feedback with a friendly environment. In addition to this, coaches

should inspire their students to embrace their accomplishment instead of competing one another.
When designing a workout, coaches should always underrate their capabilities of lifting rather
than overrate it since some of a novice would seems to be curious how much load they can lift on
the first day. There are guidelines to follow such as that there should close supervision, a proper
warm-up and cool down should be observed, the program should be individualized and
progression of two to three set of repetitions should be applied.
According to Meredith, M., & Welk, G. (2013) the FITNESSGRAM curl-ups test is a
standardized test for measuring the abdominal strength and endurance of the muscles for
children. This kind of test is more beneficial and less dangerous for a child to perform since
helps activates the internal and external oblique muscles the same time it lessens the assistance
of hip flexor muscles and lessens the movement of fifth lumbar disc over the sacral vertebrae. In
addition to this, the FITNESSGRAM 900 is the highly recommended for measuring the upper
body strength and endurance since it doesnt involve any device and it can be adapted to
conditioning activity or self-test.
Because of the common belief about resistance training in children there have been a few
studies about resistsnce in children to address these concerns to start with in 1999 Faigenbaum,
A.D., Westcott, W.L., Rita LaRosa Loud, R.L., Long, C. performed The Effects of Different
Resistance Training Protocols on Muscular Strength and Endurance Development in Children.
The purpose of this study was to find out the effectiveness of low repetition heavy load
resistance training program and a high repetition moderate load resistance training program in
the progress of muscular strength and muscular endurance in children. The subjects were
children aging between 5.5-11.8 years old, there were 11 girls and 32 Boys. The total population
was divided into 3 categories. ( Hirep, Lo rep, and control group ) . Fifteen of the said

candidates executed one set of six to eight repetitions with a heavy load, while sixteen of them
performed one set of thirteen to fifteen repetitions with a moderate load on child-size exercise
machines. Both of these group were on the resistance training for four months with twice a week
of session. On the other hand, twelve of them were not on resistance workout. It was concluded
that any kind of dynamic exercise can magnify the childrens muscular strength and endurance.
Subsequently . Faigenbum M.D., Myer G.D. (2010) conducted a literature review of
Resistance training among young athletes: safety, efficacy and injury prevention effects . In this
journal, both authors gathered numerous case reports and conducted survey among young
athletes who participated in competitive sports of power lifting. The gist of these study was to
evaluate the safety of resistance , the relative cause of injuries and address other common myths
of resistance training among children. Upon a thorough review, it was concluded that resistance
training on children and adolescent have a low incidence of injury provided that there is proper
supervision from a qualified instructor. Moreover, evaluation maximum muscle strength such as
performing of 1 Repetition Maximum among children aging 6-12 years old is proven to be
inviolable provided that appropriate testing procedures had been followed. Lastly, the common
dogma by some people that resistance training might have the possibility of causing injury on
epiphyseal plate on growing children or might stunt their growth. In this journal, it was
addressed that the most common incident of injuries are the following: improper lifting,
unqualified coach or lack of knowledge in choosing training load. Furthermore, there is no
evidence that resistance training can affect the height of young lifters.