Amr 068 03 030801

Vapor Bubble Formation, Forces,
and Induced Vibration: A Review

Manoj Kumar Gupta
Institute for Plasma Research,
Gandhinagar 382016, India;
Mechanical Engineering Department,
Institute of Technology Nirma University,
Ahmedabad 382481, India
Dharmendra S. Sharma1
Faculty of Technology and Engineering,
M.S. University,
Vadodara 390001, India
e-mail: dss_iit@yahoo.com
V. J. Lakhera
Institute of Technology Nirma University,
Ahmedabad 382481, India
Bubble-induced vibration has become vital during recent investigation and advancement
in the area of multiphase boiling. The induced vibration phenomenon can be understood
with the help of proper and detailed understanding of vapor bubble formation, growth,
collapse, and interaction with the surface. The growth mechanism for the formation of
bubbles under nucleate boiling conditions is theoretically investigated. This paper also
discusses the dynamics of vapor bubbles during flow in subcooled boiling conditions. In
the part of the vapor bubble formation, the characteristics of a bubble emerged from the
heated surface at a single nucleation site along with the flow boiling phenomena have
been considered for analysis. The bubble is considered to be of spherical shape and
detached from a heated surface due to the formation of a microlayer of liquid. The fluid
is supposed to be static far away from a vapor bubble. Using well-known models of bubble formation and detachment, equations considering various forces acting over a single
bubble have been derived. These equations monitor bubble characteristics in a definite
manner according to the derived differential equation for energy conservation developed
for the two-phase flow system. To illustrate this phenomenon, two bubble formation
mechanisms, inertia-controlled and heat transfer-controlled growth have been considered. The present investigation discusses the governing equations for the bubble growth
rate, bubble size and frequency, forces, and the well-known Rayleighs equation. Also,
the vibration characteristic has been reviewed, and the two phenomena, i.e., subcooled
boiling induced vibration (SBIV) and flow-induced vibration (FIV) have been discussed
in brief. The present review paper aims to reveal the latest evaluation done in the area of
bubble-induced vibration and to ascertain the contributions made until now as well as
the solution to the upcoming issues. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4033622]
Keywords: subcooled boiling induced vibration (SBIV), flow-induced vibration (FIV),
nucleate boiling, bubble waiting period, bubble departure diameter
Introduction
In the past few decades, comprehensive investigations have

been carried out on vapor bubble growth and its dynamics, influences on heated surface conditions, fluidstructure interaction,
and fluid properties. The bubble interaction with the surface is
crucial in many applications, e.g., laser interferometer
gravitational-wave observatory (LIGO). In this regard, the bubble
interacting with surface produces low-frequency vibrations due to
the pool boiling of liquid nitrogen. In LIGO, the strain sensitivity
of gravity wave signal level
pin the initial phase is approximately
in the order of 1019 m/ Hz at 150 Hz [1]. Hence, it becomes
necessary to investigate the vibration induced due to bubble interaction with the surface.
In many engineering applications like power plants, air-cooling
system, chemical industries, refrigeration and cryogenics, metallurgical practices, and electronic drills, boiling phenomena is an
inevitable process of heat transfer. For many industrial applications, the phenomenon of heat transfer involving nucleate boiling
is one of the most extensively used processes. These functional
sites for nucleation have the capacity to develop and assist in the
nucleation of vapor bubbles. During the nucleate boiling process,
bubbles evolve at the operational sites, develop, and ultimately
detach itself from the heating surface. Subject to saturated or subcooled conditions of the liquid, the bubble will either burst in the
bulk of the liquid or accelerate to the boundary region to interact
with the surface.
Since the 1940s, the assessment of heat transfer and liquid inertia characteristics of bubble growth has been a major area of
1
Corresponding author.
Manuscript received November 23, 2015; final manuscript received May 13,
2016; published online June 10, 2016. Assoc. Editor: Gianluca Iaccarino.
Applied Mechanics Reviews
concern. The dynamics linked with nucleate and flow boiling phenomena gives the information regarding forces, which are
involved in the bubble formation and detachment conditions.
These forces, mainly include surface tension, contact pressure,
buoyancy, and drag force. The unbalance net force will form the
conditions for the detachment. Due to the formation, detachment,
flow, and boiling phenomenon of vapor bubble, mechanical vibrations are induced in the system. Two possible cases, which could
lead to induced vibrations, are SBIV and FIV.
The present work provides a comprehensive description of the
nucleate boiling processes, detachment forces, and the vibration
induced due to bubble structure interactions.
Bubble Nucleation and Growth
The vapor bubble formation process in a liquid is called bubble

nucleation. The bubble nucleation process can be either homogeneous or heterogeneous in nature depending upon its threshold
value of the condition of supersaturation. Heterogeneous nucleation occurs due to the surface imperfection, whereas homogeneous
nucleation relies more on the superheat conditions. Homogeneous
nucleation is mostly considered in the theoretical analysis and is
quite rarely found in engineering applications [2].
Bubble nucleation process mainly depends on the magnitude of
supersaturation state and the threshold value. The nucleation
occurs when the supersaturation value in gas-supersaturated
liquids supersedes the threshold value [36]. In the case of homogeneous nucleation, the value of the threshold is governed by the
interactions between the molecules of gas and liquid existing in
the fluid medium while for heterogeneous nucleation, its value is
additionally governed by the region between solid and liquid
[7,8]. Therefore, nucleation thresholds for homogeneous and heterogeneous conditions tend to vary significantly. Moreover, the
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magnitude of the threshold for homogeneous nucleation is quite

less compared to homogeneous nucleation. The possible significance of these results has not been fully appreciated.
Homogeneous nucleation has been analyzed extensively for its
applications in micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) devices, ink jet printers, nuclear power plants, and storage of liquefied
natural gas. However, the underlying mechanism concerning homogeneous nucleation in unsteady state boiling conditions is still
in abeyance.
For governing the groups of vapor phase formation, nonequilibrium mechanical and thermal criteria have to be taken into consideration. Using this criterion, the classical version of the kinetic
theory of boiling has been appropriately improvised [9]. Oxtoby
[10] studied the recent improvised form of experimental and theoretical progress in the area of homogeneous nucleation highlighting the phase transitions in single component liquid. The
extension of classical nucleation has also been defined and linked
with new experimentations to quantify directly nucleation rates.
Jones et al. [11] detailed out the subject of bubble nucleation in
the area of nonclassical nucleation in a liquid supersaturated with
gas and the nucleation that occurs at definite sites. Bon et al. [12]
examined the significance of heat transfer rate on different metallic surfaces such as brass and stainless steel (electropolished and
unpolished) under heterogeneous nucleate boiling conditions. It
was observed that the rate of heat transfer from a polished stainless steel surface is relatively smaller than the brass surface. Gerth
and Hemmingsen [13] studied the threshold for bubble nucleation
in biological significance such as human and animal tissues.
Experiments were performed using the crystallized solids formed
from aqueous solutions cooled at pressures up to 240 atm. Both
the bubble nucleation effect at the solidliquid region involving
nitrogen, argon, and methane and the influence of cavitation in
supersaturated solutions can be estimated with and without the
crystal-like precipitates.
The growing interest of bubble nucleation in the microchannel
can be related to its microelectronic applications in cooling and
vapor bubble actuation with pulsed heating in MEMS. The effect
of thermal shocks is a mandate during the uncertainty in initiating
nucleate boiling in the case of overheating of the integrated circuit
apparatus and other potential damages. Li and Cheng [14] evaluated the consequences of heat flux, mass flow rate, and microchannel sizes on bubble cavitation in liquids. Chung et al. [15]
detailed out the recent developments in the nano/microscale of
nucleate boiling through experimental outcomes and extrapolations that provide a better understanding of unraveling the riddles
concerning critical heat flux (CHF) and nucleate boiling. More
study is required to distinguish between the heat transfer characteristics of a vapor bubble between micro and minichannel.
The fundamental mechanism of bubble nucleation in the chamber has merely been considered. However, this mechanism has
been extensively used for improving the bubble chambers and carrying out the experiments in areas related to high energy physics.
Tenner [16] presented a novel approach to generate a bubble in a
superheated liquid with the help of high energy charged particles.
The potential energy between molecules, i.e., surface energy
requirements for the formation of the vapor bubble in gasliquid
phase, is limited due to the solutesolvent interaction. Most of the
models of bubble nucleation consider the effect of cavity formation under tension. However, Kwak and Oh [17] derived a cluster
model according to the scaling transformation valid for both gas
and vapor bubble formation. While considering the phenomenon
of boiling in a superheated liquid, the coupling of energy and
momentum equation is highly essential. Moreover, the coupling
of equations is also a mandate in the case of gas bubble formation.
The areas related to vapor bubble formation and their possible
interactions during the boiling phase were not looked upon previously. Subsequently, Siedel et al. [18] considered pentane as the
liquid medium to analyze the vapor bubble formation over a cavity, growth, as well as detachment. Also, the effect of bubble
interaction from the adjacent nucleation sites was investigated in a
030801-2 / Vol. 68, MAY 2016
boiling liquid. Han and Griffith [19] introduced the concept of a

gas-filled cavity for the vapor bubble formation. A superheated
interface layer of liquid was developed on the contact surface near
the cavity, and it was found that surface characteristics, as well as
surrounding liquid temperature significantly, affect the temperature needed for bubble formation.
The bubble growth process begins after the nucleation stage
and continues to grow further to the point of detachment from the
heated surface. Various properties of the liquid like inertia, surface tension, molecular diffusion, and viscosity are crucial for
determining the growth rate. The controlling properties during the
early growth period of a bubble are still indistinguishable. It
seems that molecular diffusion is the key property in governing
the final growth of a vapor bubble. To derive its growth rate using
analytical techniques [20], different process governing equations
need to be coupled. These equations include equations of motion,
continuity, heat transfer, and molecular diffusion.
Estimation of heat transfer performance using theoretical and
experimental techniques has been a quiet challenging task. For
understanding the different subprocesses involved in boiling,
numerous works have been carried out over the last few years.
But developed numerical models failed to define the subprocesses
as a whole. To this end, Jiang et al. [21] considered different subprocesses and provided a dynamical boiling model. This model
includes different phenomena of film evaporation, thermal boundary layer, associated heat transfer, bubble growth, as well as
detachment. Prosperetti and Plesset [22] have provided fundamental physical aspects of boiling heat transfer along with acoustic
and flow cavitation. Haider and Webb [23] established the model
for predicting the nucleate boiling coefficient on plain surfaces by
considering bubble nucleation sites and its departure diameter
along with frequencies.
Two-phase flows are commonly encountered in industrial and
laboratory processes. During these processes, bubble size and the
detachment frequency are useful for study. The study conducted
by Dempster and Arebi [24] was focused on the bubble formation,
growth process up to the detachment stage. Various researchers
have worked on different criteria and various pressure and heat
transfer conditions. However, the crucial aspects of nucleation
have been mostly ignored. Kandlikar [25] has reviewed the relationship in the context of two-phase flow boiling stability and concluded that local superheated surface and bulk liquid subcooling
are of prime importance. Several studies have specified that the
wall heat flux governs the local superheated surface during flow
boiling process. Nonetheless, it has not been confirmed that the
mechanism of wall heat transfer is because of thin film evaporation or nucleate boiling in a microchannel. As a result, Mukherjee
et al. [26] have implemented a numerical approach to analyzing
the heat transfer mechanism during bubble growth in a microchannel. Recently, Yin and Jia [27,28] experimented on the
0.5 mm 1 mm rectangular microchannel to find out the effect of
heat flux and mass flux on bubble growth mechanism. It was concluded that bubble growth is mostly affected by heat flux than the
mass flux during flow boiling. Markal et al. [29] experimented
and concluded that the pressure drop varies in the rectangular
microchannels at different mass flux and heat flux during flow
boiling process. Effect of aspect ratio (AR) of microchannel was
studied keeping the same hydraulic diameter [30]. The heat transfer coefficient increases as AR increases, reaches its threshold
value, and then decreases. Pan et al. [31] developed a model based
on the volume of fluid to simulate the bubble growth in two-phase
flow boiling process in a microchannel. Jafari and OkutucuOzyurt [32] developed a model to investigate the heat transfer
aspect in an elongated bubble by using rectangular channel. The
numerical model was based on the CahnHilliard phase field
method. Bigham and Moghaddam [33,34] experimented to trace
out the mechanisms of heat transfer during the bubble growth and
flow through microchannel in FC72. The microscale analysis confirmed the four mechanisms of heat transfer as (1) microlayer
evaporation, (2) interline evaporation, (3) transient conduction,
Transactions of the ASME
and (4) microconvection. The time period of all these mechanisms

varies with respect to the heat transfer rate.
In recent times, technological advancement has taken place in
the areas of high-speed imaging cameras and computers. These
techniques have been used for numerical examination of bubble
characteristics that can be visualized in a much broader context
with less time consumption. It can be anticipated that such kind of
analysis has a greater possibility of detecting boiling patterns.
Maurus et al. [35] have investigated bubble growth characteristics
and void fraction parameters using digital imaging and analyzing
techniques. Baltis and Vander Geld [36] used a high-speed camera
to investigate the single bubble growth in forced convection condition. Zudin [37] elaborated the problems of symmetric bubble
growth in uniformly superheated liquid. Lord Rayleighs study
[38] on bubble collapse and cavitation damage has been pioneering works. Earlier assumptions considered that vapor nuclei are
present in the cracks/fissures and are responsible for cavitation
damage. However, the damages may also occur on a solid surface
of particles contained in water. It appears that the probability of
causing cavitation damage is more through the bubbles growing
from the wall surface, but this supposition needs to be further validated. Haosheng et al. [39] therefore studied the effect of hydrophobic and hydrophilic surfaces on cavitation damage. Hewitt and
Parker [40] provided the experimental information concerning the
bubble growth and collapse in subcooled liquid nitrogen with
decreasing pressure. These data were then compared to the theoretical statistics obtained for noncryogens. Vapor bubble in liquid
nitrogen behaved quietly similar to those obtained for noncryogens. Fu et al. [41] conducted experiments using LN2 for
evaluating the coefficient of heat transfer and the development of
flow pattern inside the vertical minitube. The method of gas driving has become the most generalized technique for recovering oil
from underground sources as well as some boiling practices. Consequently, these applications get affected by the evaluation of gas
saturation in porous media where mass transfer drives the growth
of the gas phase. A subjective investigation of bubble evolution
has been presented by Li and Yortsos [42] in porous media using
solute diffusion process.
In 1961, Hsu [43] did a detailed analytical and experimental
investigation of the bubble emission cycle in nucleate boiling. It
was concluded that a cycle of bubble nucleation, growth, and
detachment occurs in following four stages: (a) Initial growth as
perfect hemisphere at the nucleation site of any shape, (b) Microlayer of liquid generated at the bubble interface, (c) bubble getting
shape due to surface tension force and the buoyancy force (d)
bubble departure size due to the equilibrium between the forces
(Fig. 1).
After the growth period, bubble detaches from the heated surface by destroying the thermal boundary layer and allowing colder
liquid from the bulk to cover up the space left by a departed bubble. A new cycle begins as the thermal layer starts to recover. The
period for recovering the thermal layer is called as the waiting
period. It was reported that the bubble waiting period is larger

than the growth period and is dependent upon cavity size rc as
well as the local thermal boundary layer thickness d [44].
Best et al. [45] investigated bubble dynamics through laser
interferometry and concluded that the temperature variation across
the layer of liquid attached to the heat transfer surface cannot be
accounted by conduction alone. In addition to conduction, there is
a convective component of heat transfer operating in the local
thermal boundary layer that cannot be neglected in any analysis.
Features related to subphenomena of bubble dynamics that
include size distribution of nucleation cavity, vapor bubble formation, evolution and departure, and the associated heat transfer
characteristics are essential for obtaining an appropriate tool to
analyze the growth behavior in conditions of nucleate boiling.
Lesage et al. [46] have adopted a bubble geometry transitioning in
size and shape and provided a framework for the growth of a
vapor bubble over a heated plane that more precisely defines the
trend concerning bubble growth evolution and detachment. Pool
boiling experiments conducted for a high Jakob number under
constant heat flux cannot be compared with each other. These
experimental data also fail to give the value of growth rate at the
heated surface. Therefore, to further recognize the nucleate boiling phenomena, it is necessary to evaluate the change in the bubble growth characteristics among the larger and smaller Jakob
number. Nucleate boiling experiments were performed using the
previous experimental data at subatmospheric pressures to identify the variations between the growth characteristic of a vapor
bubble at pressures corresponding to atmospheric and subatmospheric regions [47].
Analytical solutions for initial stages of bubble evolution, critical radius, and the governing criteria were not described explicitly. Lee and Merte [48] derived its detailed analytical solutions
and conditions by considering a bubble of spherical shape with
homogeneous superheated liquid. Due to unavailability of the
suitable correlation involving the radius of vapor bubble, R and
growth time, t (i.e., bubble growth rate), various theoretical and
experimental studies were carried out. As a result, the relationship
was estimated as R ta [49,50]. The value of the exponent a
varies from 0.3 to 0.75 due to the effect of various governing
forces which includes viscous, inertial, and differential pressure.
Haustein et al. also confirmed the value of a as 0.33 for the condition of mediumhigh superheat bubble growth [51].
The analytical expression defining the bubble growth rate is
quite difficult because of the complexity that arises due to the
interactions (hydrodynamic and thermal) between the liquid and
the vapor phase on the heated plane surface. To reduce this complexity, Robinson and Judd [52] developed a theory for estimating
the numerical value for both hemispherical and spherical vapor
bubble growth in an infinite liquid on the heated plane surface,
respectively.
The phenomenon of inertia controlled bubble growth and collapse was first established by Lord Rayleigh [38]. The equations
Fig. 1 Stages of bubble evolution and detachment
MAY 2016, Vol. 68 / 030801-3
of motion were derived by considering a bubble of spherical

shape. Plesset and Zwick [53] neglected the effect of liquid inertia
and focused on the heat transfer-controlled bubble growth. Also, a
zero order asymptotic solution was formulated for spherical bubble radius. To verify these results, different analytical models and
experiments were used by several researchers. Dergarabedian [54]
also conducted experiments using water with different degrees of
superheat for evaluating the bubble radius. The obtained results
agreed well with the solutions up to 6 C of superheat. To analytically determine the vapor bubble growth, the acquired solutions
for bubble radius can be coupled with equations given by Lord
Rayleigh [38]. Forster and Zuber [55] analyzed the heat diffusion
controlled bubble growth for the bubble radius in two time
domains. The first domain (early stage) involves the effect hydrodynamic forces while in the second one (later stage), its effect is
negligible. Finally, the complete solution was provided for the
entire domain of bubble growth. Birkhoff et al. [56] examined the
vapor bubble growth by considering the significance of the boundary layer with the asymptotic phase. The results were computed
using a different substance such as water, hydrogen, oxygen, and
n-pentane. The studies carried out by Scriven [57] neglected the
effect of boundary layer for moderate superheats to determine the
solutions to the energy equations. Kosky [58] measured the evolution of a vapor bubble in a high superheated water up to 36 C in
the pressure range of 0.51.2 atm. Florschuetz et al. [59] provided
the experimental results at low superheat of 4.9 C by taking ethanol, isopropanol, and water under zero order gravity condition.
All these studies verified and confirmed with the results given by
Plesset and Zwick [53]. Mikic et al. [60] coupled the both phenomena (heat transfer and inertia) of bubble growth with the help
of ClausiusClapeyron equation. Lien [61] confirmed that the
bubble growth is governed both by liquid inertia and heat diffusion characteristics at different pressures ranges.
Lord Rayleigh further improvised the model of
RayleighPlesset equation to determine the size of a spherical
vapor bubble. This model can be followed extensively for a vapor
bubble in an unbounded medium of liquid. Bongu0 e-Boma and
Brocato [62] recently described this model through a continuum
model along with the microstructure. Also, the size variation of
bubbles caused by pressure fluctuations in the medium has been
included. Lien [61] considered inertia controlled growth conditions by carrying out experiments with water up to the pressure of
0.01 atm. It was found that under low-pressure conditions, liquid
inertia controlled growth dominates. As pressure increases, heat
diffusion-controlled growth dominates the inertial growth provided by the Lord Rayleigh [38] solution.
Bubble Growth Mechanism
Fig. 2 Spherical vapor bubble present in the unbounded liquid
A solution to Eq. (2) is given by the following:

Rt

12
2
hlv qG
T1 Tsat P1
t
3
qL
This equation can be further reduced and can be approximated

as [64]
R

1
2Dp 2
t
3qL
(4)
The vapor inside the bubble is presumed to be in a saturated state

corresponding to the superheated liquid temperature. As long as
this assumption holds, the vapor pressure of the bubble will
exceed the surrounding bulk liquid pressure and cause the vapor
bubble boundary to expand outward.
3.1.2 Heat Transfer-Controlled Bubble Growth Rate. In this
process, the vapor bubble grows because of the vaporization of
the liquidvapor boundary as the result of heat supplied. This heat
is transferred from the superheated surface across the boundary
layer due to conduction. In this case, the vapor temperature inside
the bubble is considered to be at the saturated state corresponding
to the ambient pressure.
Using energy equation in a spherical coordinate system [38]

@T u@T aL @
@T
2
r2
(5)
@t
@r
@r
r @r
where the thermal diffusivity of liquid, aL KL =qL Cpl and bubble
interface velocity, u dR=dtR=r2 .
Initial and final boundary conditions are
3.1 Bubble Growth Rate
T r; u T1 ; TR; t Tsat pV ; T 1; t T1
3.1.1 Inertia-Controlled Bubble Growth Rate. In an inertiacontrolled bubble growth process, a vapor bubble is assumed to be
spherical under the uniformly superheated liquid. The radius of
the bubble is expanding from Ro (initial) to R in an infinite,
incompressible, nonviscous liquid with constant excess pressure
as shown in Fig. 2.
The energy conservation with these assumptions yields the
following equation [63]:
1

1
4p 3
qL
R R3o Dp
4pr 2 r_ 2 dr
(1)
2
3
R
(3)
(6)
From the energy conservation at the boundary

KL
@T
dR
R; t qG hlv
@r
dt
Approximate solution for Large Jakob No (Ja)

r
12aL t
Rt Ja
p
(7)
(8)
where
where Dp pV p1. This equation, combined with the continuity
_ r),
_ results in the inertia-controlled bubble
requirement (r/R)2 (R/
growth equation known as the generalized Rayleighs equation
2

d2 R 3 dR
1
2r
pV p1
R 2
dt
2 dt
qL
R
030801-4 / Vol. 68, MAY 2016
(2)
Ja
q1 Cpl T1 Tsat
qG hlv
(9)
In nucleate pool boiling conditions, heat transfer enhancement

issues are still ambiguous. Interaction of convective heat transfer
corresponding to enhanced surfaces has been limited due to their
complexity leading to false interpretations. Heat transfer coefficients have been determined using heat flux, saturation pressure,
and surface roughness [65].
Zijl et al. [66] investigated the combined effect of inertia and
heat transfer-controlled growth on a spherical bubble in a superheated condition. General solutions have been derived for growth
rate, implosion, and frequency of oscillating vapor bubble.
Kim [67] reviewed and presented the latest experimental and
analytical results heat transfer characteristics of a vapor bubble
for determining the contribution of each mechanism involving
microlayer evaporation, enhanced convection, liquidvapor interface heat transfer, and transient conduction in overall heat
transfer.
In the absence of experimental relationships, it is crucial to recognize two-phase flow precisely using analytical models due to
the uncertainty of physical properties at the interface. For determining the growth characteristics of a vapor bubble, Yoon et al.
[68] formulated an analytical method without using the finite
element techniques (i.e., mesh-based computation method). Using
this method, it is possible to calculate an arbitrary Lagrangian
Eulerian by taking a group of computing points.
3.2 Bubble Departure Diameter. A vapor bubble in contact
with the heating surface experiences different forces. The inertia
and surface tension force keep the bubble attached to a heated surface, whereas the buoyancy force tends to separate it from the
wall in contact. As the bubble size increases, the detachment force
dominates and leads to separation from the heated surface.
Using a force balance approach on a vapor bubble, its departure
size can be obtained accurately. The departure size of a vapor
bubble with cavity radius rc < 10 lm is controlled using the equilibrium condition between the inertia and buoyant forces. The rate
of growth of a vapor bubble reduces with increase in the cavity
size, making the inertial force insignificant and unimportant. Fritz
[69] proposed the relationship for determining the vapor bubble
diameter by equating the surface tension and buoyancy force that
is given by the following equation:

12
r
do 0:208h
gqL qG
(10)
where h is the measure of bubble contact angle.

An enhanced model related to bubble departure diameter was
developed by Colombo and Fairweather [70] during the condition
of flow boiling. In this model, the equilibrium between the forces
acting on a vapor bubble has been considered for a single nucleation site. The solution to the equation governing the bubble
growth was successfully confirmed by the experimental data.
Van Helden et al. [71] investigated the importance of forces
and gravity during the bubble detachment from the artificial
nucleation sites on a vertical surface at surrounding pressure and
1 g conditions. The experiment revealed the variation in the lift
direction between vapor and LN2 bubbles. The obtained results
also showed that there is a decrease in detachment radius as the
velocity of the bulk liquid increases.
3.3 Bubble Release Frequency. The departure frequency,
f of the vapor bubble depends on the growth time, tg and waiting time, tw before the separation from the heated surface.
Efforts to determine the frequency by predicting the growth and
waiting period were seldom recognized due to following reasons:
(a) This method did not contemplate the evaporation occurring
from the base as well as the bubble surface; (b) effect of cavity
size, liquid flow variability, and heat transfer on the growth and
waiting period; and (c) frequent changes in the size of the growing
vapor bubble [72].
The departure frequency is influenced by the changes in the
departure diameter and is dependent on the cavity size. However,
the magnitude of frequency is constant for any single cavity under
consideration. The correlation between the frequency and diameter, do at the departure point is given as fdo n Const. The value
of n as recommended by Ivey [73] is 1=2 for the heat transfer and
2 for the inertia-controlled growth. Malenkov [74] developed
another relationship for the departure frequency which is given by
fd0
p 1
Vb
1
1 Vb qG hlv =q00
(11)
where Vb refers to the departure velocity that can be estimated

from the below relation
s
do gqL qG
2r
(12)
Vb
d0 qL qG
2qL qG
Quite a lot of works have been attempted for investigating the current relationships in conditions of forced convective subcooled
boiling. Situ et al. [75] studied the departure frequency using
experimental techniques in a vertical subcooled flow boiling
process. As per the developed correlation, it was found that the
existing results matched suitably with the data corresponding to
low superheat conditions.
The phenomenon of convective boiling and departure from
nucleate boiling is quiet compound and various small-scale progressions concerning the bubble activation, growth, detachment,
etc. have not been properly visualized. A new method was proposed by Hazi and Markus [76] to simulate the conditions of nucleate boiling using the pseudopotential extended version of the
lattice Boltzmann equation. It was observed that the departure
frequency varies in an exponential manner with respect to static
contact angle.
In heat transfer modeling for high heat flux boiling, the departure frequency in case of coalesced bubble is also a significant factor under consideration. Though these results have been obtained
for ethane, water, and methanol, investigation of cryogenic liquids
is comparatively rare. Jin et al. [77] quantified the departure frequency in LN2 over the plane surface for analyzing its influence
on parameters such as heat flux, material, and diameter. McFadden and Grassmann [78] also studied the nucleate boiling of liquid
nitrogen and presented a new correlation concerning the frequency
and diameter from the dimensional analysis, viz.
1
fd0 3 Const:
Forces on a Detaching Bubble
The various responsible forces for the bubble detachment from

the heating surface are shown in Fig. 3.
The resultant force acting on a spherical bubble is a vector sum
of the forces acting in vertically upward and downward directions.
These forces act on the bubble surface and the liquidvaporsolid
interface [79].
Forces acting in vertically upward direction are buoyancy,
shear lift, and contact pressure force.
The buoyancy force, Fb acting on a spherical vapor bubble
can be calculated using the Archimedes principle and can be estimated by
4
Fb pR3 qL qG g
3
(13)
The equation for the shear lift force, FsL on a vapor bubble is
given by
1
(14)
FsL CL qL DU2 pR2
2
where DU refers to the velocity difference between the bubble
center point and the liquid phase and CL refers to the shear lift
coefficient which is given by
MAY 2016, Vol. 68 / 030801-5
h
i
1
1
m
1
CL 3:877G2s Re 2 0:344G2s m m ; m 4
(15)
R
where Gs j dU
dy j U, Re qL :DU:do =lL .
Here, lL corresponds to the dynamic viscosity of the liquid.
As the force acting on the bubble depends on the local flow
structure and the bubble sizes, the bubbly flow state is quite complex. Therefore, a more detailed modeling is required to study the
two-phase flows. Through experimental and theoretical studies on
a single bubble, numerous correlations have been developed that
describe the bubble forces. Lucas et al. [80] provided the sets of
bubble forces in vertical pipe flow models for poly-disperse flows
from the experimental database. It was found that the different
models for the bubble forces considering Favre averaged turbulent
dispersion force, deformation force, and Tomiyama lift, as well as
wall force provides the best agreement with the experimental
data.
Studies were conducted to analyze the lift behavior between a
solid particle and a single bubble. However, the behavior of a
solid particle is quite different from that of vapor bubble; the reason for this difference in lift generation mechanism was not
explained. Kurose et al. [81] examined the fluid shear effects for a
high particle Reynolds number during the lift of a spherical bubble using a 3D numerical simulation. The study also intended to
explain the variations in the mechanism of lift generation between
a bubble and a solid particle.
The contact pressure force, Fp accounts for the pressure acting on a solid surface rather than the bubble surface surrounded
by the liquid. This force can be evaluated as
Fp
pdw 2 2r
4 Rr
(16)
where Rr is the curvature radius. For any vapor bubble, this curvature can be accounted by considering the point x 0 on the contact surface. The value of the curvature radius [82] can be taken as
five times the radius of the bubble, i.e., Rr 5R.
Forces acting in vertically downward direction include the drag
force, Fd and the surface tension force, Fsy.
The drag force, Fd can be defined as the resistance offered by
the surrounding liquid in the opposite direction to the motion of
the spherical vapor bubble. It can be approximated as [82]
1
Fd CD qL DU2 pR2
2
(17)
where CD is the drag coefficient, which can be approximated as

24
3
CD
1 Re
(18)
Re
8
Fig. 3
Forces on a single spherical bubble
030801-6 / Vol. 68, MAY 2016
The drag force is quite small in the theoretical modeling by

assuming inviscid liquids [79]. Sugioka and Tsukada [83] numerically examined a spherical bubble near the wall surface using a
3D direct numerical simulation (DNS)-dependent marker and cell
(MAC) technique for measuring the lift and drag forces. The
results exhibited the rise in the drag force due to the presence of
wall surface. Dijkhuizen et al. [84] also investigated the performance of a bubble expanding into pure still water using the DNS
techniques. The drag coefficient for a bubble increases with the
decrease in the distance between the wall surface and the vapor
bubble.
The surface tension force, Fsy acts over the contact line of the
triple interface. Surface tension force in y-direction can be calculated as [82]
Fsy dw r
p
cos b cos a
a b
(19)
In this equation, a and b refer to the advancing and receding contact angles, respectively, and dw refers to the bubble contact diameter. As suitable models for determining these parameters are
comparatively less in the literature, it casts major doubt on the
accuracy of the present model [85]. Klausner et al. [82] recommended a g/4 and b g/5 from their measurements in R113 for
0.09 mm dw. However, Yun et al. [86] considered a constant ratio
of contact diameter to bubble diameter, dw do/15. Sugrue and
Buongiorno [87] provided the measurements of contact angles
mainly for water, i.e., 90.63 deg as the advancing angle and
8.03 deg as the receding contact angle. Moreover, a small contact
diameter to bubble diameter ratio was reported to give reasonably
good agreement with data [85].
Therefore, the resultant vertical force acting on a single spherical bubble can be written as
X
(20)
F Fb FsL Fp Fd Fsy
|{z}
|{z}
Upward forces
Downward forces
This resultant force, F is responsible for the upward momentum

gained by the bubble at the time of departure.
Induced Vibration
During the boiling process, the random movements of liquid

and generated vapor bubbles lead to instability in the system.
When these generated vapor bubbles interact with the surface of
the system, induced vibration phenomenon occurs. Induced Vibrations are undesirable in the systems as they influence system
safety and control problems affecting the standard process and
limiting the operational parameters.
There are two major causes of mechanical vibrations, first is
SBIV and the other one is well-known FIV. Researchers have
focused mainly on the effects of FIVs rather than the SBIV, which
also contributes significantly to the vibration phenomena.
5.1 Subcooled Boiling-Induced Vibration. Experimental
investigation on SBIV was carried out by the authors [8890] considering different cylindrical configuration, such as mini tubes,
cylinders, heating rods, etc. It was reported that both the evolution
and implosion of a vapor bubble are very important in distinguishing the key characteristics of subcooled boiling system. Hence,
the bubble formation and collapse can affect the excitation force
resulting in induced vibration. Nematollahi et al. [90] also concluded that the SBIV vibrations were so strong that they can be
measured when there were FIVs also. The experimental results
show that the rapid growth and collapse of the bubbles generates
force and SBIV depends on these forces. Moreover, it was also
observed that bubble growth and collapse depends on the subcooling temperatures [89]. At higher subcooling temperatures, the
bubble growth and collapse takes place very rapidly near the
heated surface due to less lifetime of the bubble that may result in
the higher pressure pulses near the heating surfaces. The force acting at the nucleation site present on the heated wall during the
evolution phase is given by
2
16p2
3 dR
_
F mV
3p0 R 4rR
dt
3A0 RT
(21)
where p0 is the pressure outside the bubble, A0 corresponds to

the cavity surface area hence cavity opening radius can be taken
as initial bubble radius, R is vapor gas constant, and T is its
temperature.
The average force acting on the heated surface is calculated by
integrating Eq. (21)
5

4
#
2 "
Rmax R40
Rmax R50
16p2
dR
F
r
ave 0:6p0
Rmax R0
Rmax R0
3A0 RT dt
(22)
where R0 is the initial bubble radius and Rmax refers to the maximum bubble radius.
The average force exerted is in the order of 104 N for water at
1 bar pressure and temperature of 20 C with the surface tension
of 0.074 N/m [88]. In this experiment, the relationship between
calculated and actual force has not been attempted.
For the improved heat transfer rate, the influence of externally
induced vibration of the heated plane surface is frequently considered rather than SBIV [91,92]. The experiments conducted by
Takahashi and Endoh [92] considered the heat transfer by forced
convection only when the energy dissipation ratio is less than 20.
In general, energy dissipation has a vital role in associating the
heat transfer rate from the bodies subjected to both a steady fluid
flow and vibration. Collier and Thome [93] have expressed the
statement related on the SBIV in the literature where it is indicated that At high loading heat fluxes, the onset of subcooled
boiling is encountered at a high degree of subcooling, and the
vapor bubbles may grow and collapse. However, these processes
are sometimes accompanied by the noise and vibration of the
heating surface.
In many cases, the subcooled liquid boiling is accompanied by
the high-frequency pressure oscillations (HFO). The frequency of
these oscillations is almost in the range of the acoustic frequency.
Hence, due to the coincidence of HFO and acoustic frequencies,
the thermoacoustic phenomenon occurs. Smirnov et al. [94] correlated the subcooled boiling with the thermoacoustic phenomenon
for the liquid flowing in the tube. The pressure oscillation amplitude can be found out as
P x
qCVmax wZp
FKX; KL
Ks
(23)
where q is the density of the fluid, C is the pressure wave propagation velocity, Vmax is the maximum vapor bubble volume, w is
the liquid flow rate, Z is the number of vaporization centers, p is
the heated section perimeter, K is the wave number, s is the crosssectional channel area, and F KX; KL is the combination of
periodic functions.
Thermoacoustic phenomena have also been visualized in the
case of film boiling. As superfluid liquid helium (He II) is being
extensively utilized in space cryogenic applications such as detector and magnetic cooling systems, the optimum cooling performance output is of prime importance. However, in cases of noisy
film boiling, the cooling capability of He II depreciates due to the
presence of mechanical and thermal disturbances [95]. To avoid
the conditions of induced vibrations due to noisy film boiling, the
bath temperature needs to be decreased. As a result, the hydrostatic pressure required for noisy film boiling also diminishes
[96]. In addition, the coefficient of heat transfer obtained in the
case of noisy film boiling becomes much less as compared to
silent film boiling thereby decreasing the cooling performance

significantly. Despite various studies conducted on the cooling
effects of film boiling [97,98], several aspects concerning heat
flux, bath temperature, etc. still need to be reviewed in detail.
Zhang et al. [95] evaluated the effect of heat flux, bath temperature, and heater size for determining the mechanism associated
with noisy film boiling. In addition, a thorough study was also carried out for computing the temperature and pressure fluctuations
related to the mechanism. Planar heater was utilized for boiling
the He II and pressure sensors were deployed to measure the pressure oscillations. It was observed that as the heating duration of
He II is increased beyond 1 s at a constant heat flux of 10 W/cm2,
the saturation boiling changes to noisy film boiling. This stage is
accompanied by the frequent formation of large vapor bubbles,
which subsequently collapse on the surface of heater leading to
large mechanical vibrations and acoustic noise. Zhang et al. [95]
provided the evidence that the bubbles expand and collapse
repeatedly causing various temperature peaks (refer Fig. 6 of
Zhang et al. [95]) which make the calibration superconductor temperature sensor quite challenging.
Though the subcooled boiling flow is extensively utilized in
systems such as nuclear reactors and steam generators, it is necessary to understand the SBIV. Eisinger et al. [99] formulated the
criteria for development of acoustic vibration in steam generators
as well as heat exchanger tube banks. Thus, thermoacoustics has
become one of the vital phenomena in the area of subcooled boiling and provides the benchmark for identifying the induced vibration. However, results concerning SBIV are still in abeyance that
needs to be analyzed in detail in the near future.
5.2 Flow-Induced Vibration. Blevins in 1977 transcribed his
first book on the area of FIV. This term became popular after it
was used in the textbook title. The studies of Blevins centered on
the eigen modes and excitation frequency associated with FIV for
structural and hydrodynamic systems, respectively, [100]. The
work done on FIV also provided the direction to look upon the
issue related to vibration and noise problems. FIV obstructs the
smooth plant operation and in severe cases can lead to significant
maintenance and costly losses in productivity. Different kind of
vibration issues has been encountered in nuclear power stations
that include reactor, associated piping, steam generators, heat
exchangers, and other such additional equipment involving secondary piping and in-core instrument tubes [101].
In the case of two-phase flow, FIV mainly depends on the void
fraction, flow rate, direction of flow, and velocity [102105]. The
principal factor that affects the vibration phenomena is a void
fraction. Experimental and analytical studies confirmed that any
fluctuation in void fraction can lead to significant variation in the
mode shapes and frequency. Based on the flow direction, FIV can
be categorized as internal, external, cross, and axial. The parameters needed to evaluate the two-phase FIV are homogeneous void
fraction (e), pitch velocity (UP), and free stream velocity (U1)
and can be expressed as [106]

Qa
Q a Qw
P
(24)
a
; U1
; U P U1
PD
Qa Qw
A1
where Qa is the volumetric flow rate of air and Qw is the volumetric flow rate of water, A1 refers to the free flow area, P corresponds to the center distance between the tubes (pitch), and D is
the tube diameter.
Zhang et al. [107] confirmed that the variation in the void fraction plays a significant role in defining the vibration spectrum.
The results revealed that the effect of void faction was dominant
in the low-frequency range, i.e., 411 Hz, with pitch velocity of
5 m/s and void fraction of 80%. To analyze the dynamic vibration
characteristics due to force excitation in a rotated cylinder bundle
of the two-phase flow, semi-analytical mathematical models were
formulated [108]. It was found that the momentum flux
MAY 2016, Vol. 68 / 030801-7
fluctuations are linked to the drag forces in the flow regime

between the cylinders.
Zhang et al. [108] developed the semi-analytical models for
correlating and recognizing the characteristics of excitation forces
in response to the dynamic vibration characteristics in a rotated
cylinder bundle of the two-phase flow. It was found that in the
main flow region in between the two cylinders, the quasi-steady
drag forces are linked with the momentum flux couctuations.
Miwa et al. [104] in his critical reviews on the FIV mentioned
about the trends in the two-phase internal flows and found out that
the momentum flux contribution was very significant in the lowfrequency zone that is less than 50 Hz. Also, it has been reported
that the natural frequency corresponding to the FIV experiment is
required to be greater than 50 Hz to avoid the resonance. Liu
[103] revealed with the increase in gas velocity from the bubbly
to slug flow, the peak frequency of void fraction, momentum flux,
and force fluctuations become maximum corresponding to the liquid velocity. The primary assumption considered for this study
was based on the smooth flow of liquidvapor mixture inside the
pipe.
Two-phase flows are mostly unsteady and unstable in nature
and an analysis of its characteristics is very challenging due to
various kinds of local fluctuations. The local fluctuation can occur
due to the variation in relative velocity, density, pressure, flow
conditions, momentum, and quality of the mixture of gas and liquid [109112]. This fluctuation can generate vibrating forces at
different local points that lead to the damage, wear, or fatigue of
the structural and piping elements. The magnitude of vibration
can increase suddenly due to resonance, i.e., if the frequency of
vibrating force becomes equal to the corresponding natural frequency of the piping system [113].
The excitation mechanism of two-phase FIV over a straight
horizontal pipe has been investigated by Hara [102]. The experimental study disclosed a significant relation between the pipings
system fundamental natural frequency and dominant frequency of
water slug arrival in the two-phase flow with ratios of 1=2, 1/1, and
3/2 where intense vibration occurs. The primary focus of the early
research was to determine the force intensity and the associated
frequency level in different two-phase flow systems. Ishii [110]
analyzed the motion of one phase with respect to the other phases
in a dispersed two-phase flow system by considering the drag,
gravitational forces, the effect of pressure gradient due to shear
stresses and using a similar hypothesis based on the Reynolds
number and drag coefficient. Recently, Charreton et al. [114]
experimented to find out the damping effects of the two-phase
flow, which is very crucial parameter in the study of the FIV. The
simple analytical mode was also derived to get information about
the physical dissipative mechanism. It was concluded that twophase flow damping can be treated as viscous damping and it
depends on the void fraction.
An et al. [115] investigated vibrations induced due to the flow
boiling of internal vaporliquidsolid phase through a graphite
tube of the evaporator. It was concluded that addition of solid particle in the two-phase flow boiling process increases vibration
greatly. The vibrations in the graphite tube can be decomposed
into three frequency regimes based on the phenomenon. The frequency regime from 0 to 500 Hz, 500 to 3000 Hz, and 3000 to
9000 Hz can be categorized as macroscale, mesoscale, and microscale subsignal, respectively. These three frequency regimes exist
due to liquid flow, vapor bubble behavior, and collisions among
the solid particle and between solid particle and the tube wall.
Study of FIV in heat exchangers has also become a major area
of focus for several researchers. Heat exchangers are a simple engineering device with no moving components. Investigations have
been carried out concerning various mechanisms (surrounding excitation, resonance, vortex shedding, turbulence buffeting, fluid
instability, multiphase buffeting, and hydraulic transients) causing
vibration and noise along with mechanical integrity in heat
exchanger bundle tubes [116]. However, fluid instability is a very
critical source of FIV in heat exchangers. To prevent tube failures
030801-8 / Vol. 68, MAY 2016
in heat exchangers, two-phase FIV excitation forces must be

examined in detail. Various researchers obtained the different sets
of experimental results concerning two-phase flow vibration considering different flow patterns or regimes [106,107,117121].
Nevertheless, various effects such as viscosity, density ratio, and
surface tension have been neglected. Pettigrew and Knowles
[105] conducted the experiment to evaluate the dampening effect
in a heat exchanger pipe in two-phase flow condition with a void
fraction of about 25%. It was noticed that the vibration effect on
the unexpected turbulence in the two-phase mixture is highly
dependent on the surface tension.
Vortex Shedding is also a significant mechanism for FIV, which
arises due to various forces that act on a tube (circular cylinders)
during shell-side cross flows of heat exchangers [116]. These
forces cause external pressure fluctuations or vibrations resulting
in vortex-induced vibration (VIV). The condition of synchronization in VIV is reached when the bodys natural frequency is close
to vortex formation frequency, and the response amplitude
increases significantly with the phase transition in-cylinder motion
and pressure fluctuation [122]. As the Reynolds number increases
to a threshold value, there is a loss in flow stability. Eventually,
the vortices coming off during wake involve the well-known phenomenon of Von Karman vortex street [123].
In several industrial applications, for example, engineering
structure, power transmission, bridge piers, etc., bluff bodies have
been recognized due to its simple geometry and has been presented in several reviews [124,125]. The force exerted on a selfcontained direct body and more specifically on round cylinders
disposed to cross-flow has been investigated deeply since a long
time, beginning with Strouhals study. The strouhal number is
mostly associated with reduced frequency of VIV. It varies in
accordance with the value of the Reynolds number [126]. Lienhard [127] experimentally determined the relationship between
the Strouhal and Reynolds number with an accuracy of 510%
using isolated static cylinders as shown in Fig. 4.
Various models have been developed for predicting the expression of resonance amplitude, Ay in VIV for round cylindrical
structures with respect to damping. However, most of the models
consider Hartlen and Currie [128] as their basis. The equation for
resonance amplitude with respect to damping is given as
Ay
0:0505

1=2
D
S2
3:36 d2r
(25)
where dr 2Mdx =qD2 , dx is logarithmic decrement, q is the density of the fluid, M corresponds to the mass of cylinder per unit
length, D is the cylinder diameter, and S is the Strouhal number.
The investigation for tandem cylindrical tubes has improved in
comprehending the flow dynamics around two fixed cylinders,
very few studies exist on FIV of two cylinders arranged close together. Kim and Alam [129] investigated the characteristics of
FIV in two adjacent circular cylinders and measures to suppress
it. It was reported that by linking maximum vibration amplitudes
to the varying lift force acting on fixed cylinders, the fluid structure interaction (FSI) interaction between the two fixed and elastic
cylinders are not same. The information concerning the phase lag
between the vibrations of the two cylinders is also necessary for
determining the amplitude of vibration. Phase lag 12 between
two vibrating cylinders can be estimated using cross-correlations
displacement signals Ry1y2 obtained simultaneously at a time, t.
Ry1y2 can be further calculated as

Ry1 y2 s h

y2 t y1 t s
i
h
2 1=2
2 i1=2
y2 t
y1 t s
(26)
where y1 and y2 are the displacements of cylinders 1 and 2, respectively, and s is the time delay.
Fig. 4 Envelop of StrouhalReynolds number relationship for circular cylinders [127]
In the case of closely packed tube bundles/arrays, the effect of

vortex shedding becomes negligible and turbulent buffeting
becomes dominant. An increase in the flow velocity of fluid across
the tube array may lead to two resonant conditions, i.e., when the
frequency of turbulent buffeting becomes equal to the natural
frequency of the tube, and the acoustic resonance [126].
Mathematically,

2
fb L1 T
d
K 1
T
V1 d
(27)
where fb refers to the buffeting frequency, L1 is the centerline distance between the tubes, T is transverse spacing between them, d
refers to the tubes outer diameter, V1 is the average flow velocity
between the neighboring tubes, and K is the constant.
Owen [130] proposed the value of K as 0.3 based on experimental data. The value of fb can also be predicted using the buffeting frequency of the vibration across the tubes. In this case, the
ratio of tube diameter to the transverse spacing lies between 0.2
and 0.6. Thus, fb can be expressed as
fb
V1
2L1
(28)
For an extensive conservative design, the natural frequency of the

tube array should be approximately 23 times higher than the
dominant frequency as a margin of safety [127].
Tube arrays may also be subjected to self-induced vibrations
during cross flows leading to fluid elastic instabilities. To determine the critical flow velocity needed to actuate the fluid elastic
instability, Robert [131,132] formulated the criteria for the proposed mechanism. It was found that the instability can happen
provided that
U
> 12
fn D
(29)
where U is the flow velocity of the fluid, D is tubes natural frequency, and D is the outer diameter of the tube array.
Moreover, the flow pattern can seriously affect the fluid elastic
instability of the system. The use of turbulators can also cause
instabilities if its axis becomes normal to the tubes axis [133].
Connors [134] provided a mathematical relation in order to determine the instability constant for heat exchangers and steam generators. Studies on fluid elastic instability have also been performed
for U-tube array during two-phase flow using a Freon-123 twophase test apparatus [135,136]. Takai et al. [135] found the
average value of instability constant to be around 7.1. While the
cantilever tube array configuration was used in the experiment,

the damping ratio of the tubes was not evaluated.
There are several studies on FIV, which defines the effect of
multiphase flow involving different components. Parameters such
as density, pressure, temperature, mass/momentum flux, velocity,
and void fraction are crucial for analyzing the noise and vibration
issues within the component. Therefore, it is very much necessary
to have the information regarding fluid flows and its possible
interaction with the structure/component.
Conclusions and Future Perspectives
A historical overview of bubble nucleation, growth, dynamics,

and induced vibrations is undertaken in this article. The cycle of
bubble nucleation and growth stages depends on four major factors, i.e., surface wall temperature, the degree of superheat, acting
forces, and the bubble waiting period. Under low-pressure conditions and the initial phase of bubble formation, inertia-controlled
growth phenomena dominate. This stage occurs when a small
quantity of heat is required to produce a high volume of vapor.
However, heat diffusion-controlled growth is the leading cause
for bubble formation mechanism. The major governing criteria for
the bubble dynamics in a uniform liquid medium is given by the
extended version of Rayleigh equation. Detailed studies on bubble
detachment can extensively help in the formulation of the different forces acting over a spherical vapor bubble in contact with the
heating surface. In recent years, several developments for comprehending the phenomenon of FIV have taken place, specifically for
the external two-phase FIV. However, studies on SBIV are quite
less, and this phenomenon is required to be examined in greater
detail for future applications.
Nomenclature
a
A
Ay
A1
Ao
C
CD
CL
CR
Cpl
CHF
D
dw
do
DNS
bubble growth exponent

area of bubble segment (m2)
resonance vortex induced vibration amplitude (m)
free stream flow area (m2)
cavity surface area (m2)
pressure wave propagation velocity (m/s)
drag coefficient
shear lift coefficient
nondimensional number (function of Jakob Number)
specific heat of liquid (J/Kg C)
critical heat flux
tube/cylinder diameter (m)
surface/bubble contact diameter (m)
Bubble departure diameter (m)
direct numerical simulation
MAY 2016, Vol. 68 / 030801-9
f
F
F
Fb
Fd
Fp
FsL
Fsx
Fsy
FIV
FSI
g
GS
hlv
HFO
Ja
K
KL
L
m
M
m_
MAC
MEMS
p
P
Pt
pv
p1
po
q00
Qa
Qw
r
R
r_
R_
rc
Rr
Ro
Rmax
Re
s
S
SBIV
t
T
tg
tw
T1
Tsat
u
U
UP
U1
V
Vb
Vmax
w
x
y
y1
y2
Z
bubble release frequency (s1)

instantaneous force (N)
average force
buoyancy force (N)
quasi-steady drag force (N)
contact pressure force (N)
shear lift force (N)
capillary or surface tension force in x-direction (N)
capillary or surface tension force in y-direction (N)
flow induced vibration
fluid structure interaction
acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
shear rate (dimensionless)
latent heat of vaporization (J/kg)
high-frequency pressure oscillations
Jakob number based on liquid superheat
wave number
thermal conductivity of liquid (W/m K)
channel length (m)
mass entrained with vapor bubble (kg)
mass of cylinder per unit length (kg/m)
mass flow rate (Kg/s)
marker and cell
micro-electromechanical systems
heated section perimeter (m)
pressure oscillation amplitude (m)
pitch of the tube (m)
vapor pressure inside the bubble (bar)
pressure far away from the bubble (bar)
pressure outside the bubble (bar)
input heat flux (W/m2)
volume flow rate of air (m3/s)
volume flow rate of water (m3/s)
radial distance of the spherical element (m)
instantaneous bubble radius (m)
velocity of the spherical liquid element (m/s)
bubble growth or condensation rate (m/s)
bubble cavity radius (m)
radius of curvature of the bubble at x 0 (m)
initial bubble radius (m)
maximum bubble radius (m)
Reynolds number of the vapor bubble
cross-sectional channel area (m2)
Strouhal number
subcooled-boiling induced vibration
bubble growth time period (s)
instantaneous fluid temperature (K)
bubble growth time (s)
bubble waiting time (s)
bulk fluid temperature (K)
saturated temperature (K)
bubble interface velocity (m/s)
liquid velocity near wall (m/s)
pitch velocity (m/s)
free stream velocity (m/s)
average velocity (m/s)
bubble departure velocity (m/s)
maximum vapor bubble volume (m3)
liquid flow rate (m3/s)
distance in x-direction along channel (m)
distance of fluid layers from wall (m)
displacement of cylinder 1
displacement of cylinder 2
no. of vaporization centers
Greek Symbols
a advancing angle (deg)
aL thermal diffusivity of liquid (m2/s)
b receding angle (deg)
030801-10 / Vol. 68, MAY 2016
Dp Pv P1 (bar or kg/m s2)

DU velocity difference in the center of mass of a bubble
and the surrounding liquid (m/s)
d local thermal boundary layer thickness (m)
dx logarithmic decrement
e void fraction
h bubble contact angle (deg)
lL dynamic viscosity of liquid (Ns/m2)
q density of the fluid (kg/m3)
qG gas density (kg/m3)
qL liquid density (kg/m3)
r surface tension (N/m)
s time delay (s)
U12 phase lag between vibrating cylinders
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Vapor Bubble Formation, Forces,

and Induced Vibration: A Review

In the past few decades, comprehensive investigations have

Applied Mechanics Reviews

Bubble Nucleation and Growth

The vapor bubble formation process in a liquid is called bubble

MAY 2016, Vol. 68 / 030801-1

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magnitude of the threshold for homogeneous nucleation is quite

boiling liquid. Han and Griffith [19] introduced the concept of a

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and (4) microconvection. The time period of all these mechanisms

period. It was reported that the bubble waiting period is larger

Fig. 1 Stages of bubble evolution and detachment

Applied Mechanics Reviews

MAY 2016, Vol. 68 / 030801-3

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of motion were derived by considering a bubble of spherical

Bubble Growth Mechanism

Fig. 2 Spherical vapor bubble present in the unbounded liquid

A solution to Eq. (2) is given by the following:

This equation can be further reduced and can be approximated

The vapor inside the bubble is presumed to be in a saturated state

3.1 Bubble Growth Rate

From the energy conservation at the boundary

Approximate solution for Large Jakob No (Ja)

In nucleate pool boiling conditions, heat transfer enhancement

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where h is the measure of bubble contact angle.

where Vb refers to the departure velocity that can be estimated

Forces on a Detaching Bubble

The various responsible forces for the bubble detachment from

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where CD is the drag coefficient, which can be approximated as

Forces on a single spherical bubble

030801-6 / Vol. 68, MAY 2016

The drag force is quite small in the theoretical modeling by

This resultant force, F is responsible for the upward momentum

During the boiling process, the random movements of liquid

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where p0 is the pressure outside the bubble, A0 corresponds to

silent film boiling thereby decreasing the cooling performance

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fluctuations are linked to the drag forces in the flow regime

in heat exchangers, two-phase FIV excitation forces must be

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Fig. 4 Envelop of StrouhalReynolds number relationship for circular cylinders [127]

In the case of closely packed tube bundles/arrays, the effect of

For an extensive conservative design, the natural frequency of the

cantilever tube array configuration was used in the experiment,

Conclusions and Future Perspectives

A historical overview of bubble nucleation, growth, dynamics,

bubble growth exponent

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bubble release frequency (s1)

Dp Pv P1 (bar or kg/m s2)

Transactions of the ASME

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[32] Jafari, R., and Okutucu-Ozyurt,

Applied Mechanics Reviews

MAY 2016, Vol. 68 / 030801-11

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030801-12 / Vol. 68, MAY 2016